Anderson, Loren Runar et al "ENCASED FLEXIBLE PIPES"

Structural Mechanics of Buried Pipes

Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2000
Figure 11-1 Inserted encased pipe (liner) showing how pressure develops between the liner and the
encasement.

Figure 11-2 Basic deformation of the encased, flexible liner showing how the ring is blown against the
encasement such that a gap opens and a blister forms in the liner.

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CHAPTER 11 ENCASED FLEXIBLE PIPES
Encased pipes include the following:
a) Flexible pipe with concrete cast about it,
b) Pipe inserted into another pipe or a tunnel,
c) Liner for deteriorated pipe,
d) Liner in an encasement in which grout fills the
annular space between pipe and encasement.
All have a common performance limit — ring
inversion due to external pressure. A special case
is a pipe that floats in fluid (water or grout) in the
encasement. For equations of analysis, see
Appendix A. Two basic analyses are: liner and
double wall.
LINER ANALYSIS
The inside pipe is the liner. It is so flexible
compared to the encasement that it can be analyzed
as a flexible ring in a rigid encasement.
Performance limit is inversion of the liner. Collapse
may be time dependent based on "creeping" ring
deformation under persistent pressure. Collapse is
sudden inversion. Resistance to inversion is ring
stability — a function of yield strength, σf, ring
stiffness, EI/r3, and ring deflection, d. It is assumed
that pressure persists against the ring.
Internal Pressure Failure of Encased Rings
Internal persistent pressure at fracture is a special
case of instability. Once the ring starts to yield, the
diameter increases and the rupturing force in the
wall increases. If the liner is designed to take the
internal pressure, there is no failure. If the rigid
encasement is designed to take the internal pressure,
there is no failure. The liner is an innertube. If both
liner and encasement expand, each shares in
resisting the internal pressure. For analysis, the
relative resistances of each to expansion by internal
pressure must be known. It is conservative to
design both encasement and liner so that each can
take the full internal pressure.
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External Pressure at Inversion of Encased Rings
The performance limit is inversion of the liner due to
external pressure. Because encasements usually
leak, if the water table is above the encasement,
water pressure builds up between encasement and
liner. See Figure 11-1. Even if the liner is bonded to
the encasement, water pressure peels the liner away
from the encasement and deforms the liner as
shown in Figure 11-2. A gap forms where the liner
is unencased — over an arc no greater than 180o.
The unencased section is a blister — between
circular and approximately elliptical. Pressure P at
inversion is greater than it would be if the liner were
completely unencased. But part of the liner is
unencased.
For a completely unencased liner, the classical
analysis, from Chapter 10, is,
Pc rr3/EI = 3 . . . . . (11.1)
UNENCASED CIRCULAR RING COLLAPSE
Pc r applies to a circular ring.
For a deformed ring, elliptical analysis, from Chapter
10, is:
P2 - [σf /m+(1+6mdo)Pc r]P + σ f P cr /m = 0
. . . . . (10.3)
Notation is listed in the paragraph, "Arc Angle 2α."
Figure 11-3 shows plots of Equation 10.3 for a plain
steel pipe and a plain PVC plastic pipe. Because the
PVC dimension ratio is DR = OD/t, it follows that
2m = DR-1 for ring flexibility of the PVC pipe.
From Figure 11-3 it is evident that the effect of ring
deflection on P is significant for an unencased ring.
However, for an unencased blister in a liner, the
difference between circle and ellipse is not
significant. One exception is a slip liner smaller in
diameter than the encasement. In the following, the
unencased section of liner is circular.
Steel Pipe
σf = 42 ksi
E = 30(103) ksi

PVC Pipe

σf = 4 ksi
E = 400 ksi

Figure 11-3 Examples of external pressure at collapse of unencased pipes with elliptical cross sections.

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Figure 11-4 is a summary of inversion mechanisms
for encased rings. If the gap is small (blister does
not form) ring compression applies. If a blister
forms over the gap, it acts either as an arch o r a
beam. Analysis of beam failure is classical. An
unconfined arch could potentially invert. If the gap
is small, arch instability is analyzed for a circular arc.
If the gap is large, the arch is elliptical. A simple,
but conservative analysis is circular analysis using
the maximum radius of curvature of the ellipse.
Arc Angle 2α
An unknown is the arc angle, 2α. Figure 11-5
shows the collapse of a flexible, circular, hinged
arch. From Timoshenko (1956),
Pr3/EI = (π/α) 2 - 1 . . . . . (11.2)
Notation:
P = pressure on the blister at inversion,
D = mean circular diameter of the liner,
r = mean radius of the circular liner,
t = wall thickness,
m = r/t = ring flexibility,
E = modulus of elasticity,
σf = yield strength of the liner,
∆ = decrease in minimum diameter,
d = ∆/D = ring deflection,
T = circumferential thrust in liner wall,
M = moment due to ring deformation,
α = half arc angle (Figure 11-5),
β = blister angle (gap angle),
σ = maximum circumferential stress,
h = height of water table above the liner,
H = height of soil cover over the pipe,
I = moment of inertia of wall cross section.
Equation 11.2 can be applied to an encased flexible
ring by selecting a portion of the ring that is
equivalent to the circular hinged arch of Figure 11-5.
Figure 11-6 shows the typical inversion of a flexible
liner. The blister can be seen developing in the
blister arc, β. At the ends of the arc, the moment is
maximum, and plastic hinges can be seen
developing. These become the gunwales of an
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inverted "boat hull" that rises up into the pipe. A
third plastic hinge forms at the keel. Points of zero
moment are circles. Points of maximum moment
are triangles.
Points B (circles) are points of tangency to the
encasement — and so moment is zero.
Points C (circles) are points of counterflexure —
and so are hinge points — zero moment.
Points ∆ (triangles) are plastic hinges — points of
maximum moment that isolate the collapse
mechanism in arc, β.
Points B, C, and ∆ are about equally spaced.
Therefore, β = 2α, which is equivalent to the arc
angle of Figure 11-5, and can be analyzed by
Equation 11.2, from which critical P is,
P = E[(π/α) 2-1]/12m3 . . . . . (11.3)
Angle α is unknown. From tests, the arc angle for
plastic liners is roughly, α = 30o to 45o. Equation
11.3 neglects decrease in circumference due to ring
compression. In order to find α, worst case
assumptions are as follows:
Assumptions:
1. There is no bond, interlocking, or frictional
resistance between liner and the encasement.
2. There is no pressure inside the liner.
3. The liner is subjected to external pressure P.
Leaks in the encasement allow pressure on the liner
due to groundwater table. External pressure
includes any vacuum that may occur inside the liner.
4. The liner is flexible. Initially, it fits snugly
against the encasement. But it may shrink, leaving
an annular space between liner and encasement.
The liner is snug (but not press-fit) in the
encasement.
5. The liner may be plastic which can creep under
persistent pressure over a period of time.
6. The cross section of the blister is circular.
Third-dimensional (longitudinal) resistance to the
formation of a blister is neglected.
Figure 11-4 Inversion mechanisms for a blister in a liner.

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Figure 11-5 Collapse of a hinged circular arch subjected to uniform radial pressure, P.

Figure 11-6 Typical inversion of a flexible liner at critical pressure P. β = blister angle.

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When subjected to external pressure, the liner
shrinks. Bond breaks down between liner and
encasement. External pressure, P, distributes itself
around the entire surface of the liner. At one
location a gap opens between liner and encasement,
and a "blister" forms in the liner. The blister
develops wherever the radius is maximum, or at the
bottom of the liner where external hydrostatic
pressure is greatest. Failure is inversion of the
blister. From inside the pipe the inversion looks like
a boat hull with the keel longitudinal.
Ring compression thrust, Pr, is constant all around
the ring. Assuming P is constant, ring compression
thrust is Pry , where ry is the greatest radius of
curvature.
Analysis is prediction of minimum pressure P at
inversion. See Figure 11-4. The rationale is to
calculate the decrease in perimeter of the liner, and
to find r y as a function of the arc angle. It is then
possible to find P, both when ring compression stress
is at yield, and when the blister inverts. The lesser
of these two P's is critical.
Notation:
r = constrained mean radius of the liner ring,
ry = maximum radius of the blister,
OD = outside diameter of the unpressurized liner,
t = thickness of the liner wall,
A = area of the liner per unit length of pipe,
A = t for a plain liner,
δ = decrease in circumference of the liner ring,
DR = dimension ratio of the liner = OD/t,
α = half arc angle based on casing radius r,
β = half arc angle based on blister radius, r y ,
E = modulus of elasticity of the liner,
σ = ring compression stress in the liner,
σf = yield stress, (at 50 years of persistent
pressure?).
Inversion is by one of three mechanisms shown in
Figure 11-4:
a) Wall crushing if ring compression exceeds yield,
b) Arch inversion,
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c) Beam failure if the blister is flat.
The ends of the beam are the plastic hinges at the
edges of the blister. The moment capacity of plastic
hinges is, Mp = 3Me /2, where Me is the elastic
moment at yield stress; i.e., Me = σf I/c.
Wall Crushing Analysis
The liner buckles when ring compression stress
equals yield; i.e., σ = σ f, where σ = Pr/A. For plain
liners,
P = σf /(ry /t) . . . . . (11.4)
where ry is the maximum radius (which occurs at
the blister) where the maximum stress, is Pry /t. See
Figure 11-7 (top). But Pr/t is constant all around the
ring. Therefore, the decrease in perimeter of the
liner due to ring compression strain is,
δ = 2πrPr y /Et . . . . . (11.5)
The geometrical decrease in perimeter of the liner is:
δ = 2rα - 2ryβ . . . . . (11.6)
The blister width is AB = 2rsin α = 2r ysin β , from
which ry = rsinα/sinβ. Equating the decreases in
perimeter from Equations 11.5 and 11.6,
β/sin β = α/sinα - πσ f /Esin α . . . . . (11.7)
which can be solved by iteration for β in terms of α.
Of interest is angle α at flat blister (straight beam at
β = 0), for which β/sin β = 1.
From Figure 11-7, blister width AB = 2rsin α =
2rysin β. Substituting the resulting ry = rsin α /sin β
into Equation 11.4, critical pressure is,
P = σfsin β/(r/t)sin α . . . . . (11.8)
Figure 11-7 (bottom) shows pressure P = f(α ). The
inversion sequence starts with ring compression
yielding (wall crushing), P = σf /(r/t), at α = β. A
blister forms at yield stress, σf. With its greater
radius, ry, the blister rises and the blister angle
decreases. But yielding is not inversion. Yielding
progresses down the wall crushing curve from right
to left — shown by arrows. Based only on wall
crushing, the blister inverts at the least value of α.
In the example of Figure 11-7, α = 33o. But before
the blister inverts by ring compression, it might invert
by arch inversion or by beam failure. In Figure 11-7,
the arch inverts at α = 34o.
Arch Inversion Analysis
From Equation 11.3, for a hinged circular arch,
critical P is a function of arch angle α. From Figure
11-6, α is a third of the gap angle, B-B, which
cannot exceed 180o. The plastic pipe example of
Figure 11-7 shows arch inversion as a heavy solid
line. P increases as α decreases. But α decreases
only by ring compression strain (down the wall
crushing curve). So α is critical where wall
crushing intersects the arch inversion curve.
Inversion occurs at α = 34o, and P = 57 psi. For
very conservative analysis, set α = 60o (one-third of
the 180o upper limit of gap angle).
Beam Failure Analysis
For low strength materials, inversion may be beam
failure. At inversion, the blister cross section is a
fixed-ended beam. With the length known from
radius r and angle α, pressure P can be found from
the equation of stress,
σ = Me c/I
where M = PL2/12 for a fixed-end beam . . . (11.9)
But plastic hinges form at Mp = 3Me /2, Substituting,
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9σ f = 2Pr2sin 2α /(I/c) . . . . . (11.10)
For plain liners (no ribs), I/c = t2/6, and (r/t) = m.
Substituting into Equation 11.10,
3σf = 4P(r/t)2sin 2α, from which, at inversion
P = 3σf /4m2sin 2α . . . . . (11.11)
Example
A hypothetical plastic liner has the following
properties:
DR = 51,
m = r/t = 25,
E = 400 ksi = virtual modulus of elasticity over
50 years of persistent pressure,
σf = 4 ksi = yield strength at 50 years of
pressure.
Find: Persistent pressure P that would cause
inversion at 50 years of service.
From Equation 11.7, due to ring compression strain,
β/sin β = α /sin α - πσ f /Esin α. For trial values of α,
corresponding values of β are found by iteration. Of
course, ring compression stress approaches infinity
when the blister is flat; i.e., when β/sin β = 1.
Equation 11.7 becomes, α /sin α - πσf /Esin α = 1.
Solving, at inversion, α = 33o. But inversion occurs
by arch inversion or beam failure before α shrinks to
33o. From Equation 11.8,
P = σf sin β/msin α . . . . . (11.8)
Figure 11-7 is a plot of Equation 11.8, showing long-
term critical P as a function of α. Quick wall
c rushing would occur at P = 160 psi as show n .
Over the long term, the plastic ring creeps, α is
reduced, and, therefore, inversion pressure, P, is
reduced. The amount of creep is found from long-
term tests. For most plastics, failure is arch
inversion. From Figure 11-7 inversion occurs at α =
34o. Critical pressure is, P = 57 psi.
Figure 11-7 Example of graphs of critical pressure, P, as a function of the half blister angle, α, for three
collapse mechanisms in a typical plastic pipe. Yielding (wall crushing) may be time dependent because of
plastic creep.

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Only in rare cases, such as low strength or
undersized liners, will inversion be beam failure. As
an exercise only, if a blister in the liner could flatten
into a beam, at α = 33o from Figure 11-7,
from Equation 11.11, P = 16.2 psi at 50 years of
persistent pressure.
The above procedure provides an approximate
inversion analysis for liners. It is a limit analysis.
Critical pressure at inversion is greater than the
c alculated pressure because of longitudinal
resistance, bond, etc. Compared to tests, analysis is
conservative.
The analysis allows for modifications and
innovations. For example, when shrinkage of the
liner is due to conditions other than external
pressure, such differences can be included in the
analysis. One modification is the virtual modulus of
elasticity E (not actual modulus — but, mistakenly,
referred to as long-term modulus) that allows for
creep of the liner over a long period of time. This
creep causes a decrease in perimeter of the liner
under constant pressure.
If the liner is initially out-of-round, a gap will form
where the radius is maximum. Using maximum
radius instead of the circular radius, analysis of the
liner can proceed. Radius of curvature can be
calculated from a measured offset from the
midlength of a cord placed across the curved section
of liner.
The procedure can be programmed for computer.
It can also be presented as tables and graphs which,
for most overworked engineers, may be the best
presentation.
Plastic pipes are often used as liners for
rehabilitating damaged pipelines, usually in a full
contact fit in the damaged encasement.
Example
A folded PVC pipe is inserted, heated and inflated to
become a liner in an 8 ID encasement. Find critical
pressure P.
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P = external pressure at inversion,
E = 420 ksi = modulus of elasticity,
σf = 3 ksi = yield strength,
DR = 35 = standard dimension ratio,
m = 17 = r/t = (DR-1)/2,
ν = 0.38 = Poisson ratio
In the short term, critical pressure is P = σf /m = 176
psi. From eight tests, the critical pressure was 172
psi with a standard deviation of 38 psi.
If unencased, the maximum external collapse
pressure is only
P = E/4 m3(1-ν 2) = 25 psi
Clearly the observed collapse pressure is much
closer to ring compression theory than to the
hydrostatic collapse theory. It is noteworthy that the
test liners failed by bulging inward throughout a
blister angle less than about β = 90o in Figure 11-6.
For a blister angle of 60 o , α = 30o. From Equation
11.3, arch inversion occurs at P = 107 psi. But this
is based on E = 420 ksi. Over the long term, if
virtual E were only two-thirds as great, critical
pressure would be only 71 psi.
COMPARISON OF ANALYTICAL METHODS
The following is a rough comparison of some
methods proposed for analyzing the constrained
flexible pipes subjected to external pressure. Soil
contributes significant constraint to the buried
flexible ring subjected to uniform external pressure.
Two equations used in service for design of rings
that are circular or nearly circular (encased), are as
follows.
a) One form of the AWWA C950 formula in
AWWA-M11 (1989) is,
P2 = 0.593RwEsEI/0.149r3
where
Rw = buoyancy factor = 1-0.33(h/H),
Es = soil stiffness = secant modulus.
b) The other formula, proposed by the Large formula. It is as follows:
Diameter Pipe Division of PPI, is similar to Equation
41 in the Uni-Bell Handbook of PVC Pipe (1986), P2 = 0.38KE tE/m3 SERVICE FORMULA

P2 = 1.3225EP c r where
where P = pressure at collapse of the circular
Pc r = E(r/ry)3/4(1-ν2)m3, ring,
Pc r = collapse pressure of unconstrained pipe, KEt = horizontal tangential soil modulus,
E = modulus of e l a s t i c i t y a t o p e r a t i n g Et = vertical tangential soil modulus,
temperature of the pipe, m = r/t = ratio of mean radius and wall
t = mean wall thickness, thickness = ring flexibility term.
D = mean diameter = 2r,
r = radius assuming no ovalization (out-of-
roundness or initial ellipticity), Four Additional Equations For Comparison
ry = maximum radius of curvature of the
ovalized pipe, 1. If the ring is encased in rigid or relatively rigid soil,
ν = Poisson ratio, then the equation for critical uniform external soil
Et = soil stiffness (tangent modulus) of the pressure is
embedment.
P = σf /m ENCASED
These two formulas are almost identical. For the
following comparison, it is assumed that: where
m = r/t, σf = yield strength of the pipe wall. This
Rw = 0.67 = worst case with water table at the is ring compression failure.
ground surface,
I = t3/12 for plain pipe, 2. If the ring is unconstrained;
ry = r (circular cross section),
ν = 0.38 = Poisson ratio for PVC. P = E/4(1-ν2)m3 UNCONSTRAINED

Substituting these values, This is buckling failure by classical analysis.

P2 = 0.3748EsE/m3 AWWA 3. If the ring is supported by soil in which the

effective cross section stiffness is back-calculated
P2 = 0.3864EtE/m3 UNIBELL from ring deflection tests,

If the secant soil modulus Es is about the same as
the tangent soil modulus Et, the two equations are
essentially identical. Certainly the concepts are the
same. Weaknesses can be found in both, but most
troublesome is reconciliation of basic concepts and
limits. For example, if either of the soil moduli Es or
Et or the pipe modulus E approaches zero, then
pressure P approaches zero. Not so. However,
there may be a range in which the formulas are
accurate. For purposes of comparison, these two
formulas are combined into one called the service
P = 0.14E/m3 + 0.27KE t EMPIRICAL
4. If ring deflection can be predicted by the Iowa
formula, then an effective cross section stiffness is
available and
P = 0.22E/m3 + 0.16KE t IOWA FORMULA
If ring deflection is known in terms of load or can be
calculated by a formula such as the Iowa formula, in
terms of load, the effective pipe stiffness F/∆ can

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be calculated. From F/∆ , ring stiffness EI/D3 is
0.0186F/∆. The load F is a parallel plate load, but
F/∆ can be related to other loads such as the loading
assumed in the Iowa formula or the empirical
(measured) soil pressures in ring deflection tests.
From these relationships, the effective ring stiffness
EI/D3 can be calculated for the effective cross
section stiffness.
A comparison of the service formula with the other
four is shown on Figure 11-8. This particular
comparis on is for a circular steel pipe buried in soil
for which KEt = 700 psi. The service formula falls
in the middle of the pack. The encased equation is
a limiting condition represented by the curve in the
upper right-hand corner for yield strength of 42 ksi.
The other limit is unconstrained. The empirical and
Iowa formulas traverse from an asymptotic
unconstrained on the left to an asymptotic encased
on the right. This traverse is reasonable and
indicates the increasing support of the soil as the ring
flexibility term D/t increases. The service formula
is less responsive. Limited testing of vacuum to
collapse of buried pipes seems to confirm the
empirical equation.
Nevertheless, the service equation is preferred by
designers who are wary of soil placement and would
like an increased safety factor whenever the
embedment must be depended upon for support of
the pipe. More precise methods are available for
evaluating P. See Chapter 10.
DOUBLE-WALL PIPES AND TANKS
Double-wall pipes comprise a pipe within a pipe.
The objective is usually to eliminate leakage from
the outside pipe, but may also be to reduce frictional
resistance to fluid flow. Deteriorated pipes are
sometimes rehabilitated by inserting pipes of smaller
diameter called slip liners. In the following
discussion, the slip liner is the "pipe." See Figure 11-9.
The host pipe is the "casing." The same
nomenclature applies to double wall
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tanks, often called dual containment tanks. They are
manufactured with double walls to provide double
protection against leaks, and to provide a sensitive
means to detect leakage from the inside tank before
the soil is contaminated. A "sniffer" monitors the
space between tanks. Dual containment tanks are
used extensively for underground storage of
petroleum products (service stations) and hazardous
products.
Due to fluid pressure between the pipe and the
casing, the pipe is forced to one side of the casing
leaving a gap shown in Figure 11-10. Usually, but
not always, the gap is on the bottom where external
liquid pressure is the greatest, and where the pipe
may have an increased radius of curvature due to its
own weight. The following assumptions are
conservative.
Assumptions
1. The pipe is flexible. As the pipe is forced to one
side of the casing, if external pressure, P, increases,
the contact angle increases until the pipe is in
contact with 180o of casing. At 180o of contact,
inversion of the flexible pipe is incipient. Above
180o, the contact angle increases toward inversion of
the pipe with little or no increase in pressure.
2. In fact, no pipe is perfectly flexible. Beam action
and shearing resistance can help to resist the
external pressure. Performance limit is incipient
inversion of the pipe. Resistance is ring stiffness —
a function of moment of inertia of the wall cross
section and modulus of elasticity of the material.
3. External pressure is distributed all around the
pipe. This implies that any bond between the pipe
and casing is broken down — a conservative
assumption.
4. The casing is circular. The casing may increase
in radius due to pressure, P, between casing and
pipe. This occurs in some dual containment tanks.
Figure 11-8 Comparisons of the SERVICE FORMULA and four other equations for evaluating the critical
uniform external pressure at incipient inversion of a circular, cylindrical, steel pipe. The buried formulas are
based on a horizontal soil modulus of KEt = 700 psi.

Figure 11.9. Pipe used as a liner in a circular casing.

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Figure 11-10. Pipe subjected to external pressure, forced into 180° of contact with the casing, on the verge
of incipient inversion. A gap forms over an approximate ellipse in which maximum and zero moments are
equally spaced as shown. Arch A-A can be analyzed as a circular hinged arch.

5. That portion of the pipe in the gap (not in contact A = wall cross-sectional area per unit length,
with the casing) is assumed to be compressed into a I = moment of inertia of wall cross section,
semi-ellipse. See Figure 11-10. Conservative α = half arc angle of the critical hinged arch,
analysis is based on a 180o gap. a = minor semi-diameter of the ellipse,
rc = major semi-diameter of the ellipse.
6. Points of maximum and zero moment are equally
spaced around the semi-ellipse. As a consequence, Equations
arc A-A is a 60o hinged arch that is assumed to be
circular in order that it can be analyzed by classical The perimeter of the ellipse is π(a+r c)
methods.
From the ellipse, Figure 11-11, ry = rc2/a.
Notation
P = critical external pressure on pipe, From Timoshenko (1956) and Figure 11-10,
r c = inside radius of the circular casing, Pry3/EI = (π/α) 2 - 1.
rp = radius of the originally circular pipe,
ry = maximum radius of the ellipse, For arc A-A, critical α = 30o; Pry3/EI = 35.
E = modulus of elasticity,
σf = yield stress, From geometry, the decrease in perimeter of the
DR = dimension ratio, pipe is,
t = wall thickness, 2πr p - πrc - (π/2)(a+rc)

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From ring compression, the decrease in perimeter of
the pipe is,
2π rp (Pry/EA)
Equating decreases in perimeter, and solving,
a = 4rp (1-Pry /EA) - 3rc
But from geometry of an ellipse, a = rc2/ry. Equating
values of a and rewriting,
ry2 - (EA/P)(1-3rc /4rp)ry = - (EA/4P)(rc2/rp)
. . . . . (11.12)
Equation 11.12 is a quadratic equation from which ry
can be evaluated for any assumed value for P.
Analysis
The critical analysis is the evaluation of pressure, P,
at inversion of the pipe. If ry is known, P can be
found. At α = 30o,
Pry3/EI = 35 . . . . . (11.13)
Maximum radius of curvature, ry, is found from
Equation 11.12. Unfortunately, ry is a function of P.
The easiest analysis is by iteration. Assume a value,
P'. The first assumption for P' may be found from
Equation 11.13 assuming that ry is equal to rc. From
Equation 11.12, the correct value for ry can then be
found for the assumed P'. Substituting this ry into
Equation 11.13, it is possible to solve for P at radius
r y . The solved P is undoubtedly different from the
original assumed P'. They must be equal.
Therefore, the next iteration is a repetition of the
process assuming that the next P' is the previously
solved P. Iterations continue until assumed P'
equals solved P.
The procedure is as follows:
1. The "knowns" are values of rc, rp, E, and t.
2. Assume a value for P. Call it P'. Try P' from
Equation 11.13, if ry = rc.
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3. Solve for ry in quadratic Equation 11.12.
4. Substituting ry into Equation 11.13, solve for P.
5. The solved value of P becomes the assumed P'
for the next iteration.
6. The process is repeated until the solved value of
P is equal to the assumed value, P', which is the
critical pressure at incipient inversion of the liner.
If pres sure is persistent over the long term, plastics
creep. The quantity EA/P in Equation 11-12 must
then be based on the "virtual" modulus of elasticity
— not the real modulus. In the literature, virtual
modulus is defined, erroneous ly, as "long-term"
modulus of elasticity.
It is possible to change the radius of the casing, rc,
and to find corresponding value of P as described
above. I f rp remains constant, P vs. rc can be
plotted. If the casing remains circular, but is
expandable, the expansion of the casing can be
plotted on the same coordinate axes of the graph of
P vs. rc. The intersection of the two plots is critical
pressure, P. For some tanks, such as fiberglass-
wrapped dual-containment tanks, the casing is so
flexible that it does not remain circular. It expands
under internal pressure, but is deformed by the pipe
(liner) which is forced into a semi-ellipse. The liner
exerts non-uniform pressure on the casing such that
Pxrc = Pry .
For dual-containment pipes and tanks with ribbed
liners that are made of yield-sensitive materials such
as fiberglas, Timoshenko (1956) suggests the
Southwell solution, from which critical P is,
Pr/h = σf/[1+4(σ f /E)(r/h)2] . . . . . . . . . . . (11.14)
where h is the height of the ribbed section from
inside diameter to outside diameter. Of course, the
ribs could be corrugations, etc.
Example 1
What is the external pressure, P, at incipient
inversion of a PVC pipe encased in a circular casing
with no gap before pressure is applied? For the pipe,
rp = 15 inches outside, radius of casing, rc, and radii of the pipe, rp.
E = 400,000 psi, Following procedure of Example 1, if rp = 15.0 and
σf = 4,000 psi, r c = 17, P = 13.4 psi. Figure 11-13 is a plot of
DR = 41, values.
t = 0.732 inch,
A = 0.732 in 2/inch, The assumptions that: the pipe is elliptical in the gap,
I = 0.032685 in 3 = t3/12, that arc angle α is 30o, and that inversion is only
α = 30o (assumed critical), two-dimensional, all reduce the precision of the
EI = 13,074 lb in, values for P. Therefore, a safety factor is needed.
EA = 292,800 lb/in. Until test data are available, a safety factor of two
is suggested for design.
With no gap, rc = rp = 15 inches. Assume a value
for P'. If ry = rc, then from Equation 11.13, P' =
457,594/ry2 = 135.58 psi. As the first assumption, REFERENCES
try P' = 130 psi.
AWWA (1989), Steel Pipe — AWWA Manual
Assume P' = 130 psi. M11, 3ed, American Water Works Association.
From Equation 11.12, ry = 15.42 inches. From
Equation 11.13, P = 124.71 psi. Timoshenko (1956), Strength of Materials, Part II,
3 ed, D.Van Nostrand, p 189.
Assume P' = 124.71 psi.
From Equation 11.12, r y = 15.41 inches. From Uni-Bell (1986), Handbook of PVC Pipe, Uni-Bell
Equation 11.13, P = 125.08 psi. PVC Pipe Association.

Assume P' = 125.08 psi.

From Equation 11.14, ry = 15.41 inches. From
Equation 11.13, P = 125.05 psi. Only two iterations
are necessary. P = 125 psi at rc = rp.
It is noteworthy that, based on ring compression at
yield stress (σf = 4000 psi), critical pressure is P =
195.2 psi. For ring compression failure, the pipe
must be restrained in a circular cross section. With
no restraint, the pipe will collapse if Pr3/EI = 3.
Solving, P = 11.62 psi.
If, hypothetically, the PVC were yield sensitive
(which it is not), critical pressure from Equation
11.14 would be P = 11 psi. If the pipe wall were
ribbed such that h = 1.5 inch, then P = 80 psi.
Example 2
Find P if rc is greater than rp . The pipe is smaller
than the casing to allow for insertion. Figure 11-12
provides a "feel" for the difference between the
PROBLEMS
11-1 What is the pressure at collapse of a PVC pipe
DR 26 encased in concrete? Include the decrease
in circumference of the pipe. Assume the pipe is
circular before the pressure is applied, and α = 30o.
For PVC, E = 500 ksi, and σf = 5 ksi.
11-2 Derive Equation 11.3.
11-3 ID of an encasement is 8.5 inches. Assuming
strain due to creep is 5% percent over 50 years,
what must be the DR for an 8D inch OD PVD liner
if external pressure on it is 25 psi?
E = 400 ksi virtual 50-year modulus
σf = 4 ksi = 50-year strength
11-4 Plot a graph of external collapse pressure as a
function of collapse angle for a circular HDPE pipe
DR 32.5 encased in concrete.

©2000 CRC Press LLC

Figure 11-11. Quadrant of an ellipse, Figure 11-12. Sketch to scale of a pipe of 15- inch
showing notation for analysis. radius in casings of 15- 16- and 17-inch radii.

Figure 11-13. Examples of critical external pressure on a PVC pipe in a circular casing with larger inside
diameter than the outside diameter of the pipe. The pipe is at incipient inversion when subjected to external
pressure, P.

©2000 CRC Press LLC

 11-5 Figure 11-14 is a standard egg-shaped sewer t = 0.945 inch,
with a plastic liner. The sewer leaks and the E' = 250,000 psi = virtual modulus at 50
water table rises 26 ft above the sewer. What is years of persistent pressure,
the width, e, of the gap at C ? At 26 feet of head, e = mid-ordinate width of gap,
Circumference = 100 inches,
P = 11.27 psi, Arc length BCD = 22.8 inches. Assume circular
ro = 36 inches, deflection of arc BCD. (e = 0.46 inch)

Figure 11-14 Cross section of standard egg-shaped sewer showing (right) the external pressure on a liner.

©2000 CRC Press LLC