DESIGN OF HIGH PRESSURE VESSEL

High pressures are required for many commercial chemical processes. For
example, the synthesis of ammonia is carried out at reactor pressures of up to 1000
bar, and high- density polyethylene processes operate up to 1500 bar. When a
cylindrical shell of a pressure vessel, hydraulic cylinder, or a pipe is subjected to a
very high internal fluid pressure, then the walls of the cylinder must be made
extremely heavy or thick.

In the case of thick wall cylinders, the stress over the section of the walls is
not uniformly distributed as was assumed in the case of thin walled pressure
vessels. They develop both tangential and radial stresses with values which are
dependent upon the radius of the element under consideration. The tangential stress
is maximum at the inner surface and minimum at the outer surface of the shell. The
radial stress is maximum at the inner surface and zero at the outer surface of the
shell.
There are two major categories for the manufacture of high pressure vessels as follows;
1. Monobloc: Single shell material of high thickness.
2. Layered (Compound)
a. Wound
i. Wire or filament would
ii. Interlocking strip wound
iii. Flat steel ribbon wound
iv. Plate wound
v. Coil wound
b. Autofrettage
i. Hydraulically expanded type
ii. Shrink fit
c. Wrapped
i. Spiral
ii. Concentric
 Fig. High Pressure Urea Reactor

In the design of thick (monoblock) cylindrical shells, the following equations are
mostly used:
1. Lame’s equation; 2. Birnie’s equation; 3. Clavarino’s equation; and 4. Barlow’s equation.
 Fig. Stresses developed in thick walled pressure vessesl

Let ro = Outer radius of cylindrical

shell, ri = Inner radius of cylindrical
shell,
t = Thickness of cylindrical shell = ro –
ri, p = Intensity of internal pressure,
μ = Poisson’s ratio,
σt = Tangential stress,
and σr = Radial stress.
All the above mentioned equations are now discussed, in detail, as below:
1. Lame’s equation: Assuming that the longitudinal fibres of the cylindrical
shell are equally strained, Lame has shown that the tangential stress at any

radius x is,

and radial stress at any radius x,

We see that the tangential stress is always a tensile stress whereas the radial
stress is a compressive stress. We know that the tangential stress is
maximum at the inner surface of the shell (i.e. when x = ri) and it is minimum
at the outer surface of the shell (i.e. when x = ro). Substituting the value of x =
ri and x = ro , we find that the maximum tangential stress at the inner surface
of the shell,
The design of a thick cylindrical shell of brittle material (e.g. cast iron and hard
steel) with closed ends and in accordance with the maximum normal stress
theory failure, is based on the tangential stress induced in the cylinder wall,
from which the shell thickness for a given internal pressure p, is calculated as,

The value of σt for brittle materials may be taken as 0.125 times the ultimate
tensile strength (σu).
2. Birnie’s equation: In case of open-end cylinders (such as pump cylinders,
rams, gun barrels etc.) made of ductile material (i.e. low carbon steel, brass,
bronze, and aluminium alloys), the allowable stresses cannot be determined
by means of maximum-stress theory of failure. In such cases, the maximum-
strain theory is used. The Birnie’s equation for calculating the shell thickness
of the cylinder wall (t) is given as,

3. Clavarino’s equation: This equation is also based on the maximum-strain

theory of failure, but it is applied to closed-end cylinders made of ductile
material. The shell thickness is calculated as,

Design of Compound vessels

1. Shrink-fitted cylinders: Compound vessels are made by shrinking one
cylinder over another. The inside diameter of the outer cylinder is made
slightly smaller than the outer diameter of the inner cylinder, and is expanded
by heating to fit over the inner. On cooling the outer cylinder contracts and
places the inner under compression. The stress distribution in a two-cylinder
compound vessel is shown in Fig.; more than two cylinders may be used.
 Fig. Tangential stress distribution in a compound shell
Shrink-fitted compound cylinders are used for small-diameter vessels,
such as compressor cylinder barrels.
The pressure p, developed at the junction is calculated as,

Following stresses are developed in the compound shell:

i. Tangential stress at the outer surface of the inner tube

ii. Tangential stress at the inner surface of the outer tube

iii. Radial stress at the junction

2. Multilayer vessels: Multilayer vessels are made by wrapping several layers

of relatively thin plate round a central tube. The plates are heated, tightened
and welded, and this gives the desired stress distribution in the compound
wall. The vessel is closed with forged heads.
3. Wound vessels: Cylindrical vessels can be reinforced by winding on wire or
thin ribbons. Winding on the wire under tension places the cylinder under
compression. For high-pressure vessels special interlocking strips are used.
The interlocking gives strength in the longitudinal direction and a more
uniform stress distribution. The strips may be wound on hot to increase the
prestressing. Wire winding was used extensively for the barrels of large guns.

4. Autofrettage: Autofrettage is a technique used to prestress the inner part of

the wall of a monobloc vessel, to give a similar stress distribution to that
obtained in a shrink-fitted compound cylinder. The finished vessel is
deliberately over pressurised by hydraulic pressure. During this process the
inner part of the wall will be more highly stressed than the outer part and will
undergo plastic strain. On release of the “autofrettage” pressure the inner
part, which is now over-size, will be placed under compression by the elastic
contraction of the outer part, which gives a residual stress distribution similar
to that obtained in a two-layer shrink-fitted compound cylinder. After straining
the vessel is annealed at a relatively low temperature, approximately 300 C.
The straining also work-hardens the inner part of the wall. The vessel can be
used at pressures up to the “autofrettage” pressure without further permanent
distortion.
Example 7.9. A closed-ended cast iron cylinder of 200 mm inside diameter is
to carry an internal pressure of 10 N/mm2 with a permissible stress of 18
MPa. Determine the wall thickness by means of Lame’s and the maximum
shear stress equations. What result would you use? Give reason for your
conclusion.
Solution. Given : di = 200 mm or ri = 100 mm ; p = 10 N/mm2 ; σt = 18 MPa =
18 N/mm2
According to Lame’s equation, wall thickness of a cylinder,

Example 7.10. The cylinder of a portable hydraulic riveter is 220 mm in

diameter.
The pressure
of the fluid is 14 N/mm2 by gauge. Determine suitable thickness of the
cylinder wall assuming that the maximum permissible tensile stress is not to
exceed 105 MPa.
Solution. Given : di = 220 mm or ri = 110 mm ; p = 14 N/mm2 ; σt = 105
MPa = 105 N/mm2
Since the pressure of the fluid is high, therefore thick cylinder equation is
used. Assuming the material of the cylinder as steel, the thickness of the
cylinder wall (t) may be obtained by using Birnie’s equation. We know that
(assuming Poisson’s ratio μ = 0.3

Example 7.15. A cast iron cylinder of inside diameter 160 mm is subjected to

a pressure of 15 N/mm2. The permissible working stress for the cast iron may
be taken as 25 MPa. If the cylinder is closed by a flat head cast integral with
the cylinder walls, find the thickness of the cylinder wall and the flat head.
Solution. Given : di = 160 mm or ri = 80 mm ; p = 15 N/mm2 ; σt = 25
MPa = 25 N/mm2
Thickness of the cylinder wall
We know that the thickness of the cylinder wall,

Thickness of the flat head

Since the head is cast integral with the cylinder walls, therefore from
Table, we find that k1 = 0.44.
∴ Thickness of the flat head,

Example 7.19. A cast steel cylinder of 350 mm inside diameter is to

contain liquid at a pressure of 13.5 N/mm2. It is closed at both ends by
flat cover plates which are made of alloy steel and are attached by bolts.
1. Determine the wall thickness of the cylinder if the maximum hoop
stress in the material is limited to 55 MPa.
2. Calculate the minimum thickness necessary of the cover plates if the
working stress is not to exceed 65 MPa.
Solution. Given : di = 350 mm or ri = 175 mm ; p = 13.5 N/mm2 ; σt = 55
MPa = 55 N/mm2 ; σt1 = 65 MPa = 65 N/mm2
1. Wall thickness of the cylinder
We know that the wall thickness of the cylinder,