Analytical Approach in

Autofrettaged Spherical Pressure

R. Adibi-Asl1
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Vessels Considering the
University of Tehran,
Tehran, Iran
e-mail: radibi@engr.mun.ca
Bauschinger Effect
P. Livieri2 This paper presents an analytical study of spherical autofrettage-treated pressure vessels,
considering the Bauschinger effect. A general analytical solution for stress and strain
Department of Engineering,
distributions is proposed for both loading and unloading phases. Different material mod-
University of Ferrara,
els incorporating the Bauschinger effect depending on the loading phase are considered
Ferrara, Italy
in the present study. Some practical analytical expressions in explicit form are proposed
e-mail: plivieri@ing.unife.it
for a bilinear material model and the modified Ramberg–Osgood model.
关DOI: 10.1115/1.2748839兴

Keywords: autofrettage, residual stress, spherical pressure vessels, Bauschinger effect,

bilinear material, Ramberg–Osgood law

1 Introduction analytical frame of residual stresses with the Bauschinger effect

Residual stresses are setup on unloading internally pressurized
components subsequent to the application of high pressures such
that the stress distribution beyond yield is observed in the com-
ponent 关1兴. A favorable distribution of residual stresses increases
the strength of the pressure components. The autofrettage process
adopted by the pressure vessel industry enhances the static limit
pressure of the components. In addition, a significant increase in
the cyclically loaded autofrettage components is also observed
due to the inhibition of crack initiation and propagation 关2兴. The
application of autofrettage treated vessels can be extended to the
power generation industry 共fossil and nuclear兲, the petrochemical
industry, the food industry 共bacterial eradication container兲, and
automotive applications 共injection pump兲, among many others. In
particular, spherical pressure vessels, due to their inherent stress
and strain distributions require thinner walls compared to cylin-
drical vessels; therefore, they are extensively used in gas-cooled
nuclear reactors, gas or liquid containers rather than heads of
close-ended cylindrical vessels.
Rees in 关3兴 introduced the general expressions for the stress-
strain field for close-ended cylindrical pressure vessels, which
were suitable for applying numerical methods. Lazzarin and
Livieri 关4,5兴 extended study by Rees to various material models
such as bilinear material and modified Ramberg–Osgood law.
In the autofrettage process elastic unloading occurs only if the
pressures do not impose the reyielding of the material at the bore.
In the case of reyielding, from a theoretical point of view, except
in some particular cases, the residual stresses cannot be obtained
by superimposition of two independent analyses 共the first for load-
ing and the second for unloading兲, as critically discussed in 关5兴.
The kinematic and the isotropic hardening rules are only two ref-
erence schemes that give an idea of the value of the reverse yield-
ing. The manufacturing tubs made with high strength medium
alloy steel shows a strong Bauschinger effect 关2兴; therefore, the
reduction of the reverse yielding may be considered 关4–12兴. An
1 cal expressions for stress and strain for both loading and
Present address: Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial Univer-
sity of Newfoundland, Canada
2
Corresponding author.
Contributed by the Pressure Vessel and Piping Division of ASME for publishing
in the JOURNAL OF PRESSURE VESSEL TECHNOLOGY. Manuscript received December 19,
2005; final manuscript received November 21, 2006. Review conducted by Mor-
dechai Perl.
was given in 关5兴 for selected ␴-␧ law during loading and unload-
ing process such as bilinear material and the modified Ramber–
Osgood law similar to that proposed by Wang 关7兴. However, as
recently shown in 关12兴, for steel 30CrNiMo8 a bilinear behavior
gives a good interpolation of the experimental ␴-␧ law data, so
that previous analytical equations proposed in 关5兴 may be again
used. For the general Bauschinger effect a numerical procedure is
necessary as proposed in 关4兴 or as indicated by Jahed and Dubey
关10兴 where the linear elastic solution of axisymmetric boundary
value problem is used as a basis to generate its inelastic solution
with a variable Bauschinger effect factor. As indicated above,
many studies have been conducted to evaluate stress and strain in
autofrettaged open and close ended cylindrical pressure vessels.
These investigations addressed various issues: such as, the influ-
ence of the yield criterion 共Tresca, von Mises兲, material models
共elastic-perfectly plastic, bilinear materials, and Ramberg–
Osgood兲, and hardening rule. However, only few such studies
exist for spherical vessels 共see for example Ref. 关13兴兲. In the aero-
space industry, typically, the shape of the tank is spherical in order
to effectively maintain the internal hydrostatic gas pressure 关14兴.
The increasing application of spherical vessels for high pressure
applications motivates the use of autofrettage techniques for an
efficient and economic design. In this paper analytical expressions
have been derived for stress and strain during loading and for
autofrettage process of spherical vessels with different material
models. These formulas can be used to evaluate the residual
stresses, useful for designers that would optimize the weight of
components.
The aims of this paper can be summarized as follows:
共a兲 To further develop the Lazzarin and Livieri 关4,5兴 works,
which were for cylindrical autofrettage treated pressure
vessels, to spherical autofrettage treated pressure vessels.
共b兲 To obtain, within the plastic zone, some general analyti-
unloading phases. In particular such as bilinear material
and modified Ramberg–Osgood law, the stress and strain
will be given by closed-form expressions.
共c兲 To analyze the influence of the Bauschinger effect on the
residual stresses.

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 1
␧re = 关␴r − 2␯␴␪兴
E
共5兲
1
␧␪e = 关共1 − ␯兲␴␪ − ␯␴r兴
E
共f兲 plastic strains
␧rp = − ␧eq
p

共6兲
1
␧␪p = 2 ␧eq
p

Adopting the analytical procedure suggested by Rees 关3兴 in the

case of cylindrical vessels, the combination of Eqs. 共1兲–共6兲 results
for spherical vessels in the following differential equation:
d␴eq
p1+A
dr d␧eq
=− p
d␧eq 共7兲
r 3共␧eq + A␴eq兲
p

where
2共1 − ␯兲
A=
E
Integrating Eq. 共7兲 and applying the boundary condition ␧eq
p

= 0 at r = R yields
d␴eq

冕 冕
r p
␧eq
1+A p
dr̄ d␧eq
=− p
d␧eq 共8兲
R r̄ 0
p
3共␧eq + A␴eq兲
Since ␴eq关␧eq
p
共R兲兴 = ␴y is valid at r = R, the following general
equation can be obtained:

冉冊
R
r
3
=
␧eq
p
+ A␴eq
A␴ y
共9兲
Fig. 1 Spherical pressure vessels: „a… spherical coordinate
system and „b… elastic-plastic region „loading and unloading… Radial stress is evaluated using the following relationship ob-
tained using Eqs. 共1兲 and 共4兲 together

2 General Equation for plastic zone „r Ï R…

␴r = 2 冕
R
r
␴eq
r̄
dr̄ + C1 = 2 冕 R
r
␴eq
r̄
2
dr̄ + ␴y
3
冋冉 冊 册R
b
3
−1 共10兲

The following expressions are valid for a spherical vessel sub- where C1 is the constant of integration determined by imposing
jected to a uniform internal pressure, P, with isotropic elastic and the condition that at plastic radius 共r = R兲, the stress is equal to the
plastic zones as presented in Fig. 1. Under these conditions the stress evaluated in the elastic region.
stresses and the strains depend only on the distance r from the
center of the sphere. So that, any spherical coordinate system with 3 Analytical Integration for Different Material Model
the origin in the center of the sphere is a principal coordinate in the Loading Phase
system 共see Fig. 1共a兲兲.
The principal assumptions are: In this section, various material models, such as the bilinear
model 共with both kinematic and isotropic hardening in unloading
共a兲 equilibrium phase兲 and the Ramberg–Osgood law will be studied. By using the
relationship between equivalent stress and equivalent plastic strain
d␴r ␴␪ − ␴r 共either ␴eq = f共␧eq
p
兲 law or its inverse ␧eq
p
= 关f −1共␴eq兲兴, and by using
−2 =0 共1兲 the equations introduced in the previous section, it is possible to
dr r
obtain closed form expressions for the stress and strain compo-
共b兲 compatibility nents.

d共␧␪e + ␧␪p兲 共␧␪e + ␧␪p兲 − 共␧re + ␧rp兲 3.1 Bilinear Material. For the bilinear material model as pre-
+ =0 共2兲 sented in Fig. 2, the relation between equivalent stress and equiva-
dr r lent plastic strain can be stated as below 关4兴
共c兲 Prandtl–Reuss equation
␴eq = ␴y + E P␧eq
p
共11兲
p
d␧eq = 2d␧␪p 共3兲 where
共d兲 equivalent stress E tE
Ep =
E − Et
␴eq = ␴␪ − ␴r 共4兲 Now this material model is applied to derive expressions for
共e兲 elastic strains stresses and strains in spherical pressure vessels. Substituting ␴eq

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 and 共17兲 with the aforementioned assumption, the equivalent
stress and strain within the plastic zone can be obtained as

冉冊 ␴eq = ␴y
R
r
3/n
共18兲

冋 冉冊册
␧eq
p
=
␴ y R3
E r3
−
R
r
3/n
共19兲

Fig. 2 Bilinear material model

␴r = 冉冊 冋 冉冊 冉冊 册
2
3
␴y 共n − 1兲 +
R
b
3
−n
R
r
3/n
共20兲

from Eq. 共11兲 into Eq. 共9兲, the equivalent plastic strain can be
␴␪ = 冉 冊 冋 冉 冊 冉 冊冉 冊 册
2
3
␴y 共n − 1兲 +
R
b
3
+
3
2
−n
R
r
3/n
共21兲

expressed as

␧eq
p
=
A␴ y
1 + AE p
冋冉 冊 册
R
r
3
−1 共12兲 4 Unloading Phase
4.1 General Equations. The application of autofrettage pres-
Using Eqs. 共11兲 and 共12兲 the equivalent stress is obtained as

冋 冉 冊册
sure during the loading phase results in a plastic region of radius
␴y R 3 R, Fig. 1. Residual stresses are introduced in the internal pressure
␴eq = 1 + AE p 共13兲 boundary of spherical pressure vessels, in the unloading phase.
1 + AE p r
Due to the high value of the autofrettage pressure and also the
By substituting Eq. 共13兲 into Eq. 共10兲, the expression for radial Bauschinger effect, a new plastic radius 共R⬘兲 would appear, such
stress for bilinear material is obtained as that a ⬍ R⬘ ⬍ R. For the unloading phase, the stresses ␴i⬘ 共i

冉冊 冉 冊
冉 冊冦冋冉 冊 册 冧
R R3 = r , ␪ , ␸兲 due to a negative variation of the internal pressure −P,
3 ln + AE p 3 − 1 may be obtained by rearranging Eqs. 共1兲–共6兲 as suggested by
2␴ y R 3
r r
␴r = −1 − 共14兲 Bland for cylindrical vessels 关16兴. Hence the residual stress ␴i⬙ is
3 b 1 + AE p
given by
Using ␴eq and ␴r with Eq. 共4兲, an expression for hoop stress is
easily derived ␴i⬙ = ␴i⬘ + ␴i where i = r, ␪, ␸ 共22兲

冉冊 冉 冊 In analogy with cylindrical vessels 共see Livieri and Lazzarin

冊冦冋冉 冊 册 冧
3
R 1 R

冉
3 ln − AE p 3 − 1 关4,5兴兲 the unloading differential equation turns out to be
2␴ y R 3
1 r 2 r
␴␪ = + − d␴⬘eq
3 b 2 1 + AE p 1+A
dr d␧⬘eqp
共15兲 =− d␧⬘eqp 共23兲
r 3共␧⬘eq + A␴⬘eq兲
p
The plastic radius R may be calculated by imposing in Eq. 共14兲:
␴r = −P for r = a. On the other hand, by introducing the boundary For work-hardening materials, considering the Bauschinger co-
condition ␴r = −P at r = a in Eqs. 共9兲 and 共15兲, it is possible to efficient ␣共␧eq
p
兲, the unloading yield stress assumes the form 关5兴
obtain the plastic radius 共R兲 in relation to the autofretage pressure ␴⬘y = 2␣␴eq 共24兲
共P兲 as
As in the case of cylindrical vessels 关5兴, by taking into account

冦 冤冉
Eq. 共24兲, a good approximation of the solution of Eq. 共23兲 can be
− a 3b 3 Ab3E p − Aa3E p − a3
冊 obtained as

冉 冊
R= ⫻ Lambertw
− Ab E p + Aa3E p + a3
3
b3 R⬘ 3
␧⬘eqp + A␴⬘eq
= 共25兲

冢 冣冥冧
3 3 1/3 r 2␣A␴eq
AE p P − ␴y + P
2 2 Equation 共25兲 may be solved as well as the unloading ␴-␧ law is
⫻ exp 共16兲 known and the hardening rule is assumed. The hardening rule
␴y
depends on the material behavior and only after a test 共loading
Lambertw共X兲, also called the omega function, evaluates Lam- and unloading curve兲 is it possible to choose the correct model.
bert’s W function at X. This funcation solves the equation WeW On the other hand, kinematic and isotropic hardening give two
= X for W as a function of X 关15兴 and it has many applications in reasonable boundary limits. Hence, in this paper, an analytical
mathematics and engineering problems. equation for residual stress will be developed for both kinematic
and isotropic hardening rules. Furthermore, we have considered a
3.2 Modified Ramberg–Osgood Law. A modified form of
bilinear ␴-␧ law and a power hardening material 共namely modi-
the Ramberg–Osgood equation is used instead of the original
fied Ramberg–Osgood兲 where the load history during unloading
Ramberg–Osgood law to overcome the difficulty in obtaining the
phase is related to the previous loading phase.
yield stress explicitly. The ␴-␧ curve using the modified
Ramberg–Osgood law is described by 4.2 Bilinear Material. For bilinear material, in the unloading

冦 冧
␴eq phase, the equivalent stress is expressed as
␧eq = when ␴eq ⬍ ␴y
E ␴⬘eq = 2␣␴eq + E pu␧⬘eqp 共26兲

冉 冊
共17兲
␴ y ␴eq
n
␴eq From the general unloading solution in Eq. 共25兲, Eqs. 共12兲 and
␧eq
p
= − when ␴eq 艌 ␴y 共13兲 can be rewritten for unloading phase as
E ␴y

冋冉 冊 册
E
An assumption A ⬇ 1 / E has been taken 关4兴 共which corresponds 2A␣␴eq R⬘ 3
␧⬘eqp = −1 共27兲
to the material incompressibility condition, ␯ = 0.5兲. Using Eqs. 共9兲 1 + AE pu r

Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology AUGUST 2007, Vol. 129 / 413

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 Fig. 4 Bilinear material under unloading: ␣ constant „isotropic
Fig. 3 Bilinear material under unloading: kinematic hardening hardening with ␣ = 1…

␴⬘eq =
2␣␴eq
1 + AE pu
冋
1 + AE pu
R⬘
r
冉 冊册 3
共28兲
The residual stresses can be evaluated using the following
equations:

冉 冊 冉 冊
冤
Also for obtaining unloading stress, Eq. 共10兲 can be modified as R⬘ R ⬘3
6 ln + 2AE pu 3 − 1

␴r⬘ = − 2 冕
r
␴⬘eq
dr̄ + C1⬘ = − 2 冕
r
2␣␴eq
共1 + AE pu兲r̄
冋 1 + AE pu 冉 冊册
R⬘ 3
dr̄
2
␴r⬙ = ␴y
3
r
1 + AE pu
r

冉 冊 冉冊
R⬘ r̄ R⬘ r̄

冊冥
R3
冉 冊
R
4兩␣兩R⬘兩␴eq兩R⬘ R⬘3
冉
AE p 3 − 1 + 3 ln
− −1 共29兲 r r R3 − 2R⬘3
3 b3 − + +1 共35兲
1 + AE p b3
In the present section, to derive explicit forms of ␴r⬘ and ␴⬘␪, the
冉 冊 冉 冊
冤
value of the Bauschinger coefficient 共␣兲 is studied. Bilinear ma- R⬘ R ⬘3
6 ln − AE pu 3 − 1
terial exhibits two main hardening behaviors: kinematic hardening 2 r r
and isotropic hardening during the unloading phase. ␴␪⬙ = ␴y
3 1 + AE pu

冉 冊 冉冊
冊冥
4.2.1 Kinematic Hardening. In the case of kinematic harden- 1 R3 R

冉
ing, if the tensile stress reaches the value of ␴eq during plastic AE p 3 − 1 − 3 ln
deformations, then on unloading the yielding stress comes to a 2 r r R3 − 2R⬘3 1
+ + − 共36兲
constant value of 2␴y 共Fig. 3兲. Therefore, the plastic deformations 1 + AE p b3 2
do not affect the elastic range and only influence the yield stress in
tension and compression. The Bauschinger coefficient introduced 4.2.2 Isotropic Hardening. In the case of the bilinear isotropic
in Eq. 共24兲 can be written as Eq. 共30兲 for this case hardening material model, during the unloading phase, the yield
stress assumes the value 2␴eq␣, as shown in Fig. 4. Therefore, the
␴y
␣= 共30兲 magnitude of the yield stress in tensile and compression are the
␴eq same as that obtained form neglecting the Bauschinger effect. The
Now, to obtain the stress and strain components using equations isotropic hardening is obtained by assuming the value of ␣ to be
previously obtained during the unloading phase, the substitution unity
of ␴y with 2␴y and E p with E pu, should be done. Hence ␣共␧eq
p
兲⬅1 共37兲

␧⬘eqp =
2A␴y
1 + AE pu
冋冉 冊 册R⬘
r
3
−1 共31兲 In general, by assuming ␣ = constant, the expressions of stress
and strain components are obtained as

␴⬘eq =
2␴ y
1 + AE pu
冋
1 + AE pu
R⬘
r
冉 冊册 3
共32兲 ␧⬘eqp =
2A␣␴y
共1 + AE p兲共1 + AE pu兲
冉 R3
1 + AE p 3
r
冊冉 R ⬘3
r3
−1 冊 共38兲

冉 冊 冉 冊 2␣␴ y
冉 冊冉 R ⬘3
冊
冤冉 冥
R ⬘3 R⬘ R3
␴⬘eq = 共39兲
冊
AE pu − 1 + 3 ln 1 + AE p 3 1 + AE pu
4 R ⬘3 r3 r 共1 + AE p兲共1 + AE pu兲 r r3
␴r⬘ = ␴y 共33兲

冋 冉冊
1− 3 +
3 b 1 + AE pu
␴r⬘ =
2␣␴ y R⬘ A2R3E pE pu R⬘6
冉 冊
冉 冊
6 ln + −1

冤 冥
R⬘ A R ⬘3 1 3共1 + AE p兲共1 + AE pu兲 r R ⬘3 r6

冉 冊册
3 ln − E pu 3 −
4 r 2 r 2 R ⬘3 E pR3 + E puR⬘3 R⬘3
␴␪⬘ = ␴y − 3 共34兲 + 2A −1 + C2 共40兲
3 1 + AE pu b R ⬘3 r3

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 ␴␪⬘ =
2␣␴ y
3共1 + AE p兲共1 + AE pu兲
6 ln
R⬘
r
−3− 冋 冉冊
A2R3E pE pu
R ⬘3

⫻ 2 冉 R ⬘6
r 6 + 1 − 2A 冊
E pR3 + E puR⬘3 R⬘3
R ⬘3 2r3
+1 冉 冊册 + C2

共41兲
where

C2 =
4␣␴ y
3共1 + AE p兲
R3
1 + AE p 3
R⬘
冉 冊冉 1−
R ⬘3
b3
冊
The residual stress distributions are

冉 AE pR3
冊冉
R ⬘3
冊
冉冊
␣␴ y 1 + 1 −
4 R ⬘3 b3
␴r⬙ =
3 共1 + AE p兲

冉 冊
冤
R ⬘6

冉 冊
A2R3E pE pu −1
2␣␴ y R⬘ r6
+ 6 ln +
3共1 + AE p兲共1 + AE pu兲 r R⬘ 3

冉 冊冉 冊冥
Fig. 5 ␴-␧ curve for the Ramberg–Osgood law
E pR3 + E puR⬘3 R ⬘3
+ 2A −1
R ⬘3 r3

冉 冊 冉 冊
冉 冊冦 冉 冊 冧
R3 R3
3 ␴y ln 3 + E pA ␴ y −1 By means of Eqs. 共25兲 and Eqs. 共44兲–共46兲 the ␧⬘eqp and ␴⬘eq can
2 R r r3 be obtained as a function of the radius r. After some calculations,
+ ␴y 3 − 1 − 共42兲
3 b 共1 + AE p兲 the ␧⬘eqp and ␴⬘eq may be written as follows:

冉 冊冉 冊
Case a:

再 冉 冊冉 冊
R ⬘3
冉 冊 冋 冉 冊冉 冊
AE pR3
4␣␴ y 1 + 1− 3 ␴y R⬘ 3
R 3/n
R 3/n
R⬘ 3
R 3/n
R⬘ 3
b 2␣␴ y ␧⬘eq
p
2␣ − 共2␣ − 1兲 − 2␣
␴␪⬙ = + =
E r r r r r

冉 冊 冉 冊册 冎
3共1 + AE p兲 3共1 + AE p兲共1 + AE pu兲

冉 冊
冤
3/n 3 1/n
R ⬘6 R R
− 2␣ 共47兲
冉 冊 冉 冊
A2R3E pE pu −1 +
R⬘ r6 E pR3 + E puR⬘3 r r
⫻ 6 ln

再 冉 冊 冋 冉 冊冉 冊
+ + 2A

冉冊
r R ⬘3 R ⬘3
R⬘
冉 冊 冉 冊
3/n 3 3/n 3/n
R R R

冊冥 冤冉 冥
R3 A R3 ␴⬘eq = ␴y 共2␣ − 1兲 + 2␣ − 2␣

冉 冊
r r r r

冉 冊册 冎
ln − E p −1
R ⬘3 2 R3 1 r3 2 r3
⫻ −1 + ␴y + − R 3 1/n
r3 3 b3 2 1 + AE p + 共48兲

冉 冊冉 冊
r
AE pR AE puR⬘
3 3
2␣␴ y 1 + 1+
r3 r3
− 共43兲
共1 + AE p兲共1 + AE pu兲

4.3 Modified Ramberg–Osgood Law. The loading and un-

loading ␴-␧ curves incorporating the Bauschinger effect for the
modified Ramberg–Osgood law are shown in Fig. 5, where n and
n⬘ are hardening exponents for the loading and unloading phase.
In general, n and n⬘ may assume different values; furthermore,
they are also dependent on the equivalent plastic strain 共␧eq
p
兲.
As presented in Fig. 6, three different curves are considered by
assuming n = n⬘ = constant during the unloading phase as sug-
gested by Livieri and Lazzarin 关5兴

Case a: ␧eq
p
+ ␧⬘eq
p
=
E
冉
␴y ␴⬘eq − 共2␣ − 1兲␴eq
␴y
冊 n
−
␴⬘eq − 共2␣ − 1兲␴eq
E
共44兲

Case b: ␧⬘eq
p
=
E
冉
␴y ␴⬘eq − 2␣␴eq + ␴y
␴y
冊 n
−
␴⬘eq − 2␣␴eq + ␴y
E
共45兲

Case c: ␧⬘eq
p
=
2␣␴eq ␴⬘eq
E 2␣␴eq
冉 冊 n
−
␴⬘eq
E
共46兲 Fig. 6 Three different cases in unloading phase in ␴-␧ curve
of the Ramberg–Osgood law

Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology AUGUST 2007, Vol. 129 / 415

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 Case b: 2
冋 R
冉 冊 冉 冊冉 冊 冉 冊3
3 R 3/n
R⬘ 3

再 冉 冊冉 冊
␴␪⬙ = ␴y 共1 − n兲 + + −n −2 − 共3 − 2n兲
␴y R ⬘3 3/n 3 b 2 r b

冉 冊册
R
␧⬘eq
p
= 1 + 2␣ 3 − 1
E r r R⬘ 3/n

冊冉 冊 册 冎
⫻ 共62兲
R ⬘3
冋冉
− 2␣ 3 − 1
r
R
r
3/n
+1
1/n
共49兲
r

4.3.2 Isotropic Hardening. By assuming ␣ = 1 共or constant兲 in

再 冉冊 冋 冉 冊冉 冊 册 冎
Eqs. 共47兲–共52兲, valid expressions for the isotropic hardening ma-
R 3/n
R ⬘3 R 3/n 1/n
terial can be obtained. As discussed earlier for kinematic harden-
␴⬘eq = ␴y 2␣ − 1 + 2␣ −1 +1
r r3 r ing material, the explicit forms of ␴r⬘ and ␴␪⬘ are only possible for
case c
共50兲
Case c:
2
冋 1 1
冉
␴r⬘ = ␴y n␣R3/nR⬘3/n 6/n − 6/n + 2兩␣兩R⬘
R⬘
R
R⬘
冊 冉 冊冉 3/n
1−
R ⬘3
b3
冊册
冉冊冋 冉 冊册
3 r
2␣␴ y R 3/n
R⬘ R⬘
3 3/n
共63兲
␧⬘eq
p
= 3 − 共51兲

冉 冊冋 冉 冊 冉 冊 册
E r r r
2 R 3/n 兩 ␣ 兩 R⬘ R ⬘3 R⬘ 6/n

冉冊冉 冊
␴␪⬘ = ␴y␣ 2 1− + 共n − 3兲 −n
R 3/n
R⬘ 3/n
3 R⬘ ␣ b3 r
␴⬘eq = 2␣␴y 共52兲
r r 共64兲
Here, as for the bilinear material, expressions 共47兲–共52兲 will be Also the residual stresses for case c are as follows:

冋 冉 冊 冉 冊冉 冊
rewritten including the value of the Bauschinger coefficient ␣.
2 1 1 R 3/n
R ⬘3
4.3.1 Kinematic Hardening. For kinematic hardening material, ␴r⬙ = ␴y n␣R3/nR⬘3/n 6/n − 6/n + 2兩␣兩R⬘ 1−
3 r R⬘ R⬘ b3

冉冊 冉冊册
keeping in mind that ␣ = ␴y / ␴eq, Eqs. 共47兲–共52兲 can be written as
3 3/n
follows: R R
Case a: + 共n − 1兲 + −n 共65兲
b r

␧⬘eqp =
␴y
E
再冉 冊 冉 冊 冋冉 冊 册 冎
R ⬘3
2 3 −1 +
r
R
r
3/n
− 2
R ⬘3
r
R3
3 −1 + 3
r
1/n
2
␴␪⬙ = ␴y ␣
3
R
冋冉 冊 冋 冉 冊 冉 冊 册
R⬘
3/n
2
兩 ␣ 兩 R⬘
␣
1−
R ⬘3
b3
+ 共n − 3兲
R⬘
r
6/n
−n

冉 冊 冉 冊冉 冊 册
共53兲 3 3/n
R 3 R

再 冉 冊 冋冉 冊 册 冎
+ 共n − 1兲 + + −n 共66兲
R 3/n
R⬘ R 3 3 1/n b 2 r
␴⬘eq = ␴y 2− + 2 3 −1 + 3 共54兲
r r r
Case b: 5 Verification

冋 冉 冊册
In order to validate the expressions of residual stress, the finite
␴ y R ⬘3 R ⬘3 1/n
element method 关17兴 has been used. The quadratic axisymmetric
␧⬘eqp = 2 3 −1− 2 3 −1 共55兲
E r r 8-node elements have been used for inelastic finite element analy-
sis. A typical finite element mesh with boundary conditions is

␴⬘eq = ␴y 1 + 2 冋 冉 R ⬘3
r3
−1 冊册 1/n
共56兲
presented in Fig. 7. The variation of stress components for typical
geometry and material property are presented in Figs. 8 and 9.
In Fig. 8, bilinear kinematic hardening 共BKH兲 with the material
Case c: properties of E = 206 GPa, Et = Etu = 10 GPa, ␴y = 850 MPa, and ␯
= 0.3, has been used. For bilinear isotropic hardening 共BIH兲, Fig.

␧⬘eqp =
E
冋 冉 冊册
2 ␴ y R ⬘3
r3
−
R⬘
r
3/n
共57兲
9, the same material property is used, assuming ␣ = ␣⬘ = 1.
As can be seen from Figs. 8 and 9, a good agreement between
numerical simulation and the present study is obtained. From the

冉 冊
above figures, the loading plastic radius, R, approaches the ana-
R⬘ 3/n
lytical value of 0.1558 m. During the unloading phase, the value
␴⬘eq = 2␴y 共58兲
r of the plastic radius, R⬘, obtained from the finite element solution
In order to determine ␴r⬘ and ␴⬘␪, it is required to use the inte- for BKH and BIH models are about R⬘ = 0.0902 and R⬘ = 0.064,
respectively.
grated Eq. 共29兲. However, for cases a and b, the writers could not
The detail analytical stress distribution along the thickness of
derive the explicit form of ␴r⬘ and ␴⬘␪; therefore, for the purpose of
the spherical vessel in three conditions, loading, unloading and
this paper, only case c is studied residual, are illustrated in Figs. 10–13 for each material model. As

␴r⬘ =
−4
3
冋
␴y 共n − 1兲 +
R⬘
b
冉 冊 冉 冊册 3
−n
R⬘
r
3/n
共59兲
can be observed from the figures, all curves are continuous. It
implies that the expressions applicable for elastic and plastic re-
gion are continuous. In all cases the same geometry and loading
condition are used: a = 0.06 m, b = 0.240 m, and P = 3␴y 共␴y
␴␪⬘ =
−4
3
冋
␴y 共n − 1兲 +
R⬘
b
冉 冊 冉 冊冉 冊 册
3
+
3
2
−n
R⬘
r
3/n
共60兲
= 850 MPa兲. The plot of stress fields for the BKH material model
with E = 206 GPa and Et = Etu = 10 GPa is shown in Fig. 10. From
the figure, it can be seen that the analytical plastic radius after
And also for case c the residual stress is given by
loading is R = 0.1558 and after unloading it is R⬘ = 0.0902 m. Fig-
2
冋
␴r⬙ = ␴y 共1 − n兲 +
3
R
b
冉冊 冉 冊 冉冊
3
−2
R⬘
b
3
−n
R
r
3/n
+ 2n 冉 冊册
R⬘
r
3/n ure 11 shows the stress fields for BIH material model with E
= 206 GPa, Et = Etu = 10 GPa, and ␣ = ␣⬘ = 1. Referring to the fig-
ure, the plastic radius after loading is R = 0.1558 and after unload-
共61兲 ing is R⬘ = 0.064 m.

416 / Vol. 129, AUGUST 2007 Transactions of the ASME

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 Fig. 7 Typical finite element mesh
Fig. 8 The variation of residual stress components in the thick
wall of a sphere for a = 0.06 m, b = 0.240 m, P = 3 ␴y, E
= 206 GPa, and Et = Etu = 10 GPa with the BKH material model
Fig. 9 The variation of residual stress components in the thick
wall of a sphere for a = 0.06 m, b = 0.240 m, P = 3 ␴y, E
= 206 GPa, and Et = Etu = 10 GPa with the BIH material model
Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology
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Fig. 10 The stress distribution along the wall thickness for
BKH „a = 0.06 m, b = 0.240 m, P = 3␴y, ␴y = 850 MPa, E = 206 GPa,
and Et = Etu = 10 GPa…, „a… loading, „b… unloading, „c… residual
Figure 12 presents the stress fields for the Ramberg–Osgood
kinematic hardening material model with E = 206 GPa and n = 5.
From the figure it can be seen that the analytical plastic radius
after loading is R = 0.1527 and after unloading is R⬘ = 0.0882 m.
Figure 13 shows the stress fields for the Ramberg–Osgood iso-
tropic hardening material model with E = 206 GPa, ␣ = ␣⬘ = 1, and
n = 5. The analytical plastic radius after loading is R = 0.1527 m
and after unloading is R⬘ = 0.0681 m.
As in the case of cylindrical vessels, the Bauschinger effect
produces less compressive residual stress compared to ideal auto-
frettage solutions, therefore, in order to obtain an accurate residual
stress prediction, the Bauschinger effect has to be taken into ac-
count.
AUGUST 2007, Vol. 129 / 417
 Fig. 11 The stress distribution along the wall thickness for
BIH material model „a = 0.06 m, b = 0.240 m, P = 3␴y, ␴y
= 850 MPa, E = 206 GPa, and Et = Etu = 10 GPa…, „a… loading, „b…
unloading, „c… residual
6 Conclusion
The main conclusions of this study on autofrettage problems in
spherical vessels may be summarized as follows:
共1兲 As in the case of cylindrical pressure vessels, the residual
stress in spherical vessels due to the autofrettage process is
very sensitive to both the Bauschinger effect and the tensile
law.
共2兲 For two classes of materials 共bilinear and power hardening
material兲, analytical expressions have been obtained both
for the loading and the unloading phases with kinematic
and isotropic hardening.
共3兲 As in the case of a cylinder, comparing the induced residual
stress in the hollow sphere for kinematic and isotropic ma-
418 / Vol. 129, AUGUST 2007
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Fig. 12 The stress distribution along the wall thickness for the
Ramberg–Osgood kinematic hardening material model „a
= 0.06 m, b = 0.240 m, P = 3␴y, ␴y = 850 MPa, E = 206 GPa, and n
= 5…, „a… loading, „b… unloading, „c… residual
terial models, it can be concluded that in the internal radius
the magnitudes of tangential stresses are almost the same;
however, the plastic radius, after unloading for the kine-
matic hardening is considerably larger than the isotropic
hardening material model.
共4兲 The knowledge of the analytical residual stresses would be
useful for the optimization of autofrettage pressure for a
given geometry and material properties.
In some pressure vessel components involving compound
shapes, e.g., combination of cylindrical and spherical components,
such as spherical closed end vessels, the stresses of these compo-
nents are needed.
Transactions of the ASME
 R⬘ ⫽ plastic radius after unloading
␣ ⫽ Bauschinger coefficient
␧r,␪,␸ ⫽ total strain components
␧r,e ␪,␸ ⫽ elastic strain components
␧r,p ␪,␸ ⫽ plastic strain components
␧eq ⫽ equivalent strain 共loading phase兲
␧⬘eq ⫽ equivalent strain 共unloading phase兲
␧eeq ⫽ equivalent elastic strain
␧eq
p
⫽ equivalent plastic strain 共loading phase兲
␧⬘eqp ⫽ equivalent plastic strain 共unloading phase兲
␯ ⫽ Poisson’s ratio
␴eq ⫽ Von Mises equivalent stress
␴r,␪,␸ ⫽ stress components
␴y ⫽ yield stress
The subscript r , ␪ , ␸ indicate the component in a spherical coor-
dinate system.
Subscript
r ⫽ radial direction
␪ ⫽ tangential direction
␸ ⫽ polar direction
y ⫽ yield
Superscript
e ⫽ elastic
p ⫽ plastic
Abbreviation
BKH ⫽ bilinear kinematic hardening
BIH ⫽ bilinear isotropic hardening
FEM ⫽ finite element method

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