JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE (1992) 7 (2) 109-1 24 0267-81 79/92/0201 09-1 631 3.

00
0 1992 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Influence of glacier hydrology on the

dynamics of a large Quaternary ice sheet
NEIL ARNOLD and MARTIN SHARP Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Downing Place, Cambridge CB2
3EN, England

Arnold, N. and Sharp, M. 1992. influence of glacier hydrology on the dynamics of a large Quaternary ice sheet. journal of Quaternary Science, Vol. 7, pp.
109-124. ISSN 0267-8179
Received 27 September 1991 Accepted 20 March 1992

ABSTRACT: The influence of glacier hydrology on the time-dependent morphology and flow
behaviour of the late Weichselian Scandinavian ice sheet is explored using a simple one-
dimensional ice sheet model. The model is driven by orbitally induced radiation variations, ice-
albedo feedback and eustatic sea-level change. The influence of hydrology i s most marked during
deglaciation and on the southern side of the ice sheet, where a marginal zone of rapid sliding,
thin ice and low surface slopes develops. Such a zone is absent when hydrology is omitted from
the model, and its formation results in earlier and more rapid deglaciation than occurs in the no- J ~ of Quaternary
~ ~ Science
~ I
hydrology model. The final advance to the glacial maximum position results from an increase in
the rate of basal sliding as climate warms after 23000 yr BP. Channelised subglacial drainage
develops only episodically, and is associated with relatively low meltwater discharges and high
hydraulic gradients. The predominance of iceberg calving as an ablation mechanism on the
northern side of the ice sheet restricts the occurrence of surface melting. Lack of meltwater
penetration to the glacier bed in this area means that ice flow is predominantly by internal
deformation and the ice sheet adopts a classical parabolic surface profile.

KEYWORDS: Glacier hydrology, Quaternary, Scandinavia, ice sheet dynamics.

Introduction lubricated bed and deforming substrate models of fast glacier

It is now widely recognised that fast ice flow, as manifested
by ice streams and outlet glaciers, plays an important role in
the dynamics of the present-day Antarctic and Greenland ice
sheets (e.g. Clarke, 1987; Hughes, 1987), and several authors
have suggested that this role might have been equally
important in the case of Quaternary mid-latitude ice sheets
(Hughes et a/., 1985; Dyke and Morris, 1988). Evidence in
support of this includes reconstructed low-gradient ice surface
profiles (Mathews, 1974; Beget, 1986; Clark, 1980, 1985)’
localised zones of long distance erratic transport (Boothia
type erratic trains) (Dyke and Morris, 1988), lobation of ice
sheet margins during deglaciation (Boulton and Jones, 1979;
Punkari, 1982, 1984) and evidence for rapid, asynchronous
fluctuations of ice margins during overall retreat (Clayton et
a/., 1985). The causes of fast flow are, however, less well
understood. It has been explained in terms of rapid sliding
over a rigid, water-lubricated bed (Budd et a/., 1979;
Iken, 1981; Kamb, 1987; Fowler, 1987a,b), motion over a
deforming sediment substrate (Boulton and Jones, 1979;
Boulton and Hindmarsh, 1987), and of enhanced deformation
of glacier ice (Echelmeyer and Harrison, 1990). Since it i s
clear that both rigid and potentially deformable glacier beds
exist, it may be that all three mechanisms can operate, albeit
in different parts of an ice sheet and at different times in its
history. It is important to realise, however, that both the
flow require high subglacial water pressures, and are therefore
critically dependent on the character and behaviour of the
subglacial drainage system.
To date, large scale, time-dependent models of Quaternary
ice sheets (e.g. Budd and Smith, 1981, 1982; Oerlemans,
1981; Payne et a/., 1989) generally have not incorporated
representations of those processes that may permit fast flow
to occur. Such models appear to be able to reproduce
geologically determined ice-margin positions (and possibly
also ice volumes) with a reasonable degree of accuracy, but
they are less effective at depicting the distribution of velocity
within ice sheets. For instance, Mclnnes and Budd (1984)
obtained good agreement between modelled and observed
velocities at the grounding line of Ice Stream B, Antarctica,
but found that modelled velocities decreased inland much
more rapidly than observed velocities. The Antarctic Peninsula
Ice Sheet model of Payne et a/. (1989) also shows discrepancies
between modelled and observed ice velocities for the present
day, and some discrepancies over the distribution of floating
and grounded ice. One possible explanation for these
disagreements i s the rapid decrease of velocity away from the
grounding line in the model, which allows thick ice to remain
in areas which in reality are now occupied by floating, rather
than grounded ice. These problems arise primarily because
water pressures calculated in these models relate to hydrostatic
pressures imparted by standing water at the ice sheet margins,
rather than to subglacial drainage of basally and supraglacially
110 JOURNALOF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
derived meltwater. Oerlemans (1 982) included a relationship
between meltwater production at the base of the ice sheet
and basal sliding, in which sliding was evaluated such that
an ice sheet which experienced basal sliding would, for a
given steady state, be half the thickness of one in which no
sliding occurred. The aim of Oerlemans' study, however, was
to investigate, and to try to reproduce, asymmetric glacial
cycles and the controls on the periods of such cycles. As
such, it did not include an evaluation of the basal hydrological
system, and the effect this may have on sliding velocity. The
failure of models that aim to simulate ice sheet dynamics to
reproduce the essential features of fast flow in reconstructions
of contemporary ice cover suggests that they will also fail to
model the evolution of fast flow through time. If this is so, it
i s unlikely that they will be able to predict accurately
the time-dependent evolution of the morphology and flow
dynamics of palaeo-ice sheets. Thus, if the aim of a given
study is to assist in the interpretation of the geological record
left by those ice sheets, such models will be of limited value.
In the light of the above discussion, it seems desirable that
if time-dependent ice sheet models are to be used in such
studies they should incorporate some explicit treatment of
subglacial hydrology and its influence on ice flow dynamics.
As a first step in this direction, we have developed a one-
dimensional model of an ice sheet resting on a rigid bed
which includes a water-pressure dependent sliding law and
evaluates the subglacial water pressure as a function of
meltwater discharge and the configuration of the subglacial
drainage system (major channels or a distributed, linked-
cavity system). In this paper we seek to compare the response
to imposed environmental forcing of such a model with a
simpler model, which does not explicitly include subglacial
hydrology. This latter model is similar to the models of Budd
and Smith (1981, 1982) and Payne et a/. (1989), in that it
treats the subglacial water pressure as dependent upon
hydrostatic pressure arising from marginal water bodies. A
schematic view of the full model is given in Fig. 1. The
models are applied to a transect through the Scandinavian
ice sheet from the Lofoten Islands to Estonia, and to the last
40 000 yr.
We stress that the goal of the paper i s to evaluate the
importance of the hydrology of an ice sheet in regulating its
response to environmental change. We hope that the study
will provide insights into ice sheet behaviour which will assist
in the interpretation of geological evidence. At this stage,
Figure 1 Outline of the structure of the full ice sheet model (Mqdel 2).
however, we have not attempted to adjust the parameterisation
of the model or the nature of the environmental forcing to
which it is subjected to make model output consistent with
available geological evidence. Equally, we have not tried to
investigate the sensitivity of model response to variations in
environmental forcing.
The ice sheet model
The models used in this study are based on a one-dimensional
version of the continuity equation for ice thickness
dZldt = A - rn - dldx (Us+ u d ) z (1 1
where Z is ice thickness, t is time, A is net mass balance, m
is rate of marine losses, U, is ice sliding velocity, U d is ice
deformation velocity and x is distance. This equation was
solved using a forward-time, centred space finite difference
scheme with a 20 km grid size, and a 2.5-year time step.
Because of inherent instabilities in the finite difference scheme
used to solve the continuity equation (which are manifest as
high-frequency waves within the solution), it was necessary
to smooth the model output periodically. This was done using
a five-point weighted average of the form
Z:= 1/16(10Zi+4(Zi+1 +Zi-l)-Zi+2-Zi-z) (2)
where Zi is the value of ice thickness or bed elevation in a
given cell. This procedure was carried out once every 10
iterations. Runs were also carried out with smaller time steps,
and less frequent smoothing, to ensure that the smoothing
was not unduly affecting model results.
Ice flow
Ice flow is assumed to occur by a combination of internal
deformation and basal sliding. Vertically integrated defor-
mation velocity is calculated from basal shear stress, ?br
assuming simple shear, using the equation
Ud = A T ~ Z (3)
where A and n are flow parameters, and i s calculated by
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY ON LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET
?b = p,gZ sin a (4)
where a is the ice surface slope and p, is ice density.
Sliding velocity is determined using the relation determined
by Mclnnes and Budd (1984)
U s = kI?d(N + k,N2) (5)
where kl and k, are flow parameters and N is the effecti.de
pressure (ice overburden minus subglacial water pressure).
To prevent excessive changes in sliding velocity over short
distances, which might arise from approach to the ice sheet
grounding line or from variations in N linked to changes in
the subglacial drainage configuration, ice velocity is con-
strained by imposing a maximum horizontal longitudinal
strain rate of 0.004 yr-' (cf. Mclnnes and Budd (1 984)). This
can be thought of as simulating the role of longitudinal stresses
and the buttressing effect of downstream ice (Mclnnes and
Budd, 1984).
If ice is found to be floating (i.e. Z < pw/pi x W, where
W is the depth of water), ice flow in the resulting ice shelf
is approximated by using a prescribed constant horizontal
strain rate of 0.004 yr-'. This is the observed strain rate at
the grounding line of Pine Island Glacier in West Antarctica,
a floating ice tongue that is not buttressed by ice rises
(Mclnnes and Budd, 1984). This is a situation that seems
likely to be comparable to the Atlantic margins of the
Weichselian Scandinavian ice sheet. It is thus assumed that,
within an ice shelf, ice velocity changes as a result of
spreading and thinning of the ice under its own weight, given
an initial velocity at the grounding line.
Mass balance
Mass balance of the ice sheet i s determined by the interaction
of four separate factors: accumulation due to precipitation on
the ice surface, surface melt, basal melt from ice shelves,
and calving of icebergs where the ice terminates in standing
water.
Accumulation rates, which must be considered largely
unknown for the area and time period concerned, were taken
to be equal to modern precipitation rates. The latter were
taken to be 90% effective (i.e. given the relative densities of
ice and water, 1 m of precipitation in a given time period
would be converted to 1 m of ice by the end of that period).
This approach, which minimises the complication of including
precipitation as an interactive variable and saves computing
time, was also used by Budd and Smith (1981). Whilst this
is undoubtedly a simplification of reality, it is justified here
on the grounds that we are not, at this stage, trying to
use the model to precisely simulate reality. The initial
accumulation values were modified subsequently by the
incorporation into the model of an 'elevation desert effect',
which simulates the reduction of precipitation observed at
high altitudes on modern ice sheets. Thus precipitation was
reduced by a factor of two for every kilometre of ice surface
elevation above 2 km (cf. Budd and Smith, 1981).
Ablation (surface melt) was calculated using the regression
equation derived by Budd and Smith (1981), which predicts
the current distribution of ablation rates as a function of
elevation and latitude
logloA = l l rn (E, - €1 (6)
Here A i s the ablation rate in m yr-I, Eo is the elevation of
the 1 m yr-' ablation contour at a given latitude at a given
time (as determined from present-day distributions of ablation,
111
elevation and latitude), E is the ice-surface elevation, and m
= 1200 m. Changing insolation receipts over time were
assumed to modify the value of E, (see below).
Marine melting from the bottom of ice shelves is influenced
by many factors, such as sea-surface temperatures, salinity
and turbulence. Since very few of these could be determined
for the case of the late Weichselian Scandinavian Ice Sheet,
a constant rate of melt of 0.5 m yr-I was assumed, following
Payne et a/. (1989). This simplification also was thought to
be justified given the aims of the paper.
Iceberg calving from tidewater glaciers was shown by
Brown et a/. (1982) to be proportional to depth of water at
the margin of the glacier. Although their relationship is not
strictly applicable to ice shelves, it is used here in the absence
of any studies of calving rates from ice shelves. The relation
takes the form
V, = 28.75 W (7)
where V, is the calving fiux in m yr-' and W the water depth.
Me1twater discharge
Meltwater discharge, which is required for calculations of
effective pressure, was calculated on the assumption that, in
the ablation area of the ice sheet, all of the ablated ice would
reach the bed as surface-derived meltwater. It was further
assumed that in the accumulation area, all of this water would
refreeze as it flowed through the ice sheet, and none would
reach the bed. This implies that the base of the ice sheet is
temperate in the ablation zone only, an assumption supported
by time-dependent thermomechanically coupled modelling
of ice masses (Hindmarsh et a/., 1989).
This assumption was tested in the current study as follows.
Hindmarsh (pers. comm.; 1990) has shown that for velocity
due to deformation or sliding, the heat production over a
column of ice i s
H = pig dEldx Qi (8)
where H is the heating and Q, is ice discharge. It can then
be assumed that this heating occurs only at the bed of the
ice sheet. This can then be compared with the temperature
gradient needed to conduct the heat away
H = K dTldx (9)
where K is the thermal conductivity of ice and dTldx is the
temperature gradient. If the surface temperature of the ice is
known, it i s then possible to calculate the basal temperature
as follows
Tb = T, + ZHIK (10)
where Tb is basal temperature and T, is surface temperature.
Oerlemans (1982) gives a relationship for the surface tempera-
ture of an ice sheet
(1 1)
where 7, is the temperature at the equilibrium line, E, is the
equilibrium line elevation and h is the atmospheric lapse rate,
here taken to be 6.5"C km-I. For the present-day Greenland
ice sheet, studies suggest that T, is in the range - 12 to - 15°C
(Oerlemans, 1982). The latter value is used in this study.
These calculations were included in some runs of Model 2 , and
show that during ice sheet growth, areas within 60-100 km of
the margin are at the melting point (although if ice in the
marginal cell (20 km) is very thin, this one cell is sometimes
112 JOGRNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
below the melting point), whereas interior areas are below
the melting point. This temperate area is slightly larger than
the ablation area. During decay, the marginal 200-250 km
of the ice sheet is temperate; again, this area i s slightly larger
than the ablation area. This seems to suggest that only
allowing water to reach the bed of the ice sheet in the
ablation area will, if anything, underestimate the role of basal
hydrology on ice sheet dynamics. These calculations do, of
course, neglect horizontal advection of colder ice from
upstream into the ablation area, but vertical advection in the
ablation area hinders cooling (e.g. Paterson, 1981, p. 2041,
and should ensure that the base of the ice sheet i s at the
melting point.
The assumption that surface-derived meltwaters did reach
the glacier bed within the ablation areas of Quaternary mid-
latitude ice sheets is supported by geological evidence. Allen
(1 971) argued that climbing-ripple sequences in the Uppsala
esker result from discharge variations with a time-scale of a
few hours, consistent with the diurnal variation observed in
meltwater stream discharges. Banerjee and McDonald (1 975)
aruged that cyclic sequences of sand and gravel, with
thicknesses of one to a few metres, which are frequently
found in the core of large eskers, may be due to annual
discharge variations. These observations are consistent with
surface-derived water comprising the greatest component of
discharge, because the discharge of basally derived meltwater
would not be expected to vary significantly on annual or
diurnal scales.
Meltwater discharge (in m3 s-l) was calculated by multiply-
ing the ablation rate by the relative densities of ice and water
(0.9), the grid interval and the flowband width, and then
integrating downstream from the ice divide. Flowband width
was taken to be 30 km, on the basis that the average spacing
between eskers in southern Finland is approximately 30 km
(Geological Survey of Finland, 1984).
Meltwater drainage and subglacial water
pressure
The two ice sheet models used in this study are differentiated
in terms of the way in which effective pressure ( N ) is
calculated. In the simplest model (Model 11, N is taken to be
the height of ice above buoyancy, following Mclnnes and
Budd (1984) and Radok et a/. (1989). In the other model, N
i s calculated using equations taken from Fowler (1987a,b),
and varies according to whether tunnels or linked cavities
carry the basal water. Model 2 (the full model) allows drainage
to occur via either major tunnels or a system of linked cavities
(cf. Walder, 1986; Kamb, 1987).
For a system of tunnels
where NR i s effective pressure for a tunnel-based system, pw
is water density, g i s the acceleration due to gravity, QR is
the volume flux of meltwater, pi is ice density, A is the
multiplier in Glen’s flow law, L i s latent heat, n is the
exponent in Glen‘s flow law, SR is the tunnel cross-sectional
area, and I$ is the hydraulic gradient, defined as
I$ = PI{^ + l(pw + p i ) / p w l P }
Here p is the bed slope. The tunnel cross-sectional area, SR,
is calculated as
where f i s an empirical constant related to turbulent channel
flow. Fowler (198713) uses the bedslope (p) instead of the
hydraulic gradient (4) to calculate the effective pressure,
arguing that for a glacier the pressure change due to the ice-
surface slope is small. For an ice sheet, however, where the
depth and length scales are much greater, the influence of
surface slope does become important.
For a system of linked cavities, the small linking channels
must each carry a lower discharge than the equivalent large
tunnel, so water pressure will be higher, and effective pressure
therefore lower, for a given discharge. Fowler (1987a) shows
(15)
where NK is effective pressure for a cavity-based system, s is
a shadowing function (Lliboutry, 1978), defined as the
probability that a randomly selected area of the bed is in
contact with the ice, QK = QR the volume flux of meltwater,
f l K is the number of passageways across the width of the
glacier and SK is the cross-sectional area of a typical
passageway. Variables f l K and SK are both determined
empirically-Fowler (1987a) argues for values of 10-2 m2 for
SK, and of 10’ cavities per kilometre of glacier width for n K ,
given a bedrock wavelength of 1 m. Typically, effective
pressure for a cavity system is a factor of at least two lower
than for a tunnel system carrying equivalent discharge.
Since Model 2 allows meltwater to drain via either major
tunnels or a system of linked cavities, this model includes an
evaluation of the likely configuration of the subglacial drainage
system. It should be emphasised here that when major tunnels
occur it seems probable that they will coexist with a linked
cavity system rather than completely replace it (Fowler,
1987a,b). Fowler (1987a,b) suggests that a tunnel system will
be stable if the value of a stability criterion, A, calculated
from
A = vU,/IAN” (16 )
(where v = (a//), with a the typical bedrock bump amplitude
and I the typical bump wavelength) i s less than a critical
value, equal to
AC = ( ~ ~ S R / A * ) ‘ ~ - * ’ ~ ’ (1 7)
(where A* is the total cavity cross-section area and i s the
power function for self-similar bedrocks (Fowler, 1987a,b)).
The critical stability factor, A,, has a typical value of 0.25
(Fowler, 1987a). For n = 3, p has values from 2 to 2.5.
Values for a and I are determined empirically; Fowler (1987b)
gave values of 1 m and 5 m, respectively, and these values
also are used in this study (Table 1).
In Model 2, effective pressure is calculated from either
equation (1 2) or (1 5), depending on the value of the stability
criterion (A) relative to A, in the previous time interval. (This
assumes that the drainage system configuration can change
(12)
within one time period. Evidence from Variegated Glacier,
Alaska, suggests that 2.5 years is more than adequate (Kamb
et a/., 1985)). In Model 2, the value of N calculated above
is compared with that calculated from ice thickness above
buoyancy, and the lower value is used (i.e. the higher water
pressure). This simulates, albeit in a very simple manner, the
effect on subglacial water pressure of a head of water at the
ice sheet margin. If the calculated effective pressure is greater
(1 3 ) than the ice overburden pressure (implying a negative water
pressure, which is impossible in reality, but actually indicates
that subglacial water is at atmospheric pressure and tunnels
are not full (Fowler, 1987a)), ice overburden pressure is used
(14) instead of the calculated effective pressure.
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY O N LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET 113
~

Table 1 Parameter values for the models

Parameter Symbol Value Units

Ice flow
Deformation:
multiplier A 5.3 x 10-15 s - l kPaP3
power n 3.0
Sliding:
1st multiplier kl 6.3 X lo-' m2 s-l kPa-'
2nd multiplier k2 400 m
Drainage configuration:
latent heat L 3.3 x 105 I kg-'
channel flow f 700 m-8/3 k
g
number of cavities nK 30 000
cavity cross-section SK 10-2 m2
shadowing function 5 0.5
bedrock amplitude a 1 m
bedrock wavelength I 5 m
ratio all V 0.2
power function CL 2.0
Ice conductivity K 2.1 J s-l ,-I K-I
Ice density PI 900 kg m-3
Water density Pw 1025 kg m3
Gravity g 9.81 ms - ~
lsostas y
Mantle density Prn 3300 kg m-'
Mantle diffusivity Da 1.11 m2 s-l

Glacial isostasy were used to alter the ablation relationships within the model
(see below).
Ice sheet behaviour i s known to be strongly influenced by Bed elevation was defined at 20 km intervals along a
changes in bed elevation caused by isostatic effects (Budd transect from approximately 69"30'N, 12"30'E to 55"N, 26"E
and Smith, 1981). This i s incorporated into the model using (Fig. 21, giving a total of 75 grid cells. Elevations were taken
a diffusion equation based on ice load and the deflection of from topographic maps of Scandinavia (Office of Geodesy
the bed away from an initially relaxed condition (Oerlemans and Cartography, German Democratic Republic, 1967; Main
and Van der Veen, 1984). The rate of response is controlled Administration of Geodesy and Cartography under the Council
by a diffusivity constant, and the relationship is of Ministers of the USSR, 1972). Initial ice thickness was
assumed to be zero. The extent of the Scandinavian ice sheet
dBfdt = D,d2/dX2 (6, - B + L, + L,) (18) at about 40OOOyr ago is still very much a matter of debate.
where B i s bedrock elevation, B, is the initially relaxed There is evidence that there was an interstadial at about this
bedrock elevation, D, is the diffusivity constant, Li i s the ice time (the Alesund interstadial, Larsen and Sejrup (1 990)), but
load and 1, is the water load, calculated as the extent of ice retreat during this period is uncertain.
Because of this, it was decided to assume no ice cover
4 = ZPifPm for grounded ice (following Boulton et a/., 1985). Bedrock elevation was
L, = Z*pi/pm for ice with its bed below sea- assumed to be in isostatic equilibrium at the start of model
level runs, although this is a difficult assumption to test.
1, = 0 where ice is floating Accumulation rates were taken to be equal to the average
1, = pw/pm (B, - B) where current bedrock or initial annual precipitation given by the UNESCO climatic atlas of
bedrock are below sea-level Europe, as read at 20 km intervals along the transect.
L, = 0 where both are above sea-level The effect on ablation rates of changing radiation receipts
where pm is mantle density, and Z* = z - pw/plW. linked to variations in the Earth's orbital geometry was
incorporated into the model using the method of Budd and
Smith (1 981 1. These authors argued that changes in radiation
receipts over time at a given latitude, as calculated by
Vernekar (1972), would result in changes in the elevation of
Model inputs the 1 m yr-' ablation level (€,-equation (6)).These changes
would be equivalent in magnitude to present-day changes in
the elevation of Eo that occur between latitudes which show
The input data for the model comprised the initial bed
spatial differences in radiation receipts comparable to the
morphology, initial ice thickness, accumulation-rate data,
difference between present-day receipts and those at the time
ablation relationships and sea-level. External forcing com-
period in question. Thus, the elevation of E, is argued to vary
prised changes in solar radiation receipts owing to orbital
by 30 m/(ly/day). The changes in Eo induced by varying
changes, ice sheet area (affecting global albedo) and changing
radiation receipts at latitude 69"N over the last 40000 yr are
eustatic sea-level. Solar radiation receipts and albedo feedback
shown in Fig. 3a.
114 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
a I
b A
-2000
0 250
Figure 2 (a) Location of the transect through the Scandinavian ice sheet for which calculations were performed. (b) Current bedrock
topography along the line of the transect shown in 2a.
These changes in En can be converted to equivalent changes
in air temperature by assuming a moist adiabatic lapse rate
of 6.5"C km-' (Budd and Smith, 1981). The results suggest
that only a part of the temperature changes inferred for the
Last Glacial Maximum by climate model studies can be
attributed directly to radiative forcing (Budd and Smith, 1981).
Budd and Smith attributed the residual temperature change
to ice-albedo feedback effects, which were argued to vary
linearly in magnitude with ice sheet extent. In reality,
these feedback effects also may involve such variables as
atmospheric composition and turbidity, a fact acknowledged
by Budd and Smith (1981). The values calculated by Budd
and Smith (1981) are used in this study. The resulting
variations of En through time for the northern end of the
transect used in this study are shown in Fig. 3a.
These changes in En were used as the input to the models
in the current study. The present-day value of Eo at the
northern end of the transect was taken to be 900 m, and a
latitudinal gradient of 10 m increase per degree south of this
point was used (Budd and Smith, 1981). This gradient was
assumed not to vary through time. It i s planned to include
the complication of allowing the temporal pattern of change
B
500 750 1000 1250 1500
Distance (krn)
in the elevation of En to vary with latitude i n future studies.
At this stage, the models were not run over the whole of the
last glacial cycle because of limitations on computing time.
Since the climatic curves of Budd and Smith (1981) suggest
that the elevation of the 1 m a-I ablation rate cmtour at
37000 yr BP was similar to that of today, and because
geological evidence suggests an interstadial at about this time
(Larsen and Sejrup, 19901, the models were run from 40000
yr BP to the present day.
Changing eustatic sea-level was the second forcing variable
used. Since the volume of the Scandinavian ice sheet at its
maximum extent is thought to have been only about one-
quarter of that of the Laurentide ice sheet (Boulton et a/.,
19851, it was assumed that eustatic sea-level was external to
the model. The eustatic sea-level curve used was taken from
Shackleton (1987) (Fig. 3b).
Model results
The results of the model runs are presented in two parts. In
the first, the results of the two models are compared. In the
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY ON LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET
40000 30000
b I
I "
40000 30000
Figure 3 Environmental forcing functions used to drive the models: (a) time series of elevation of the 1 m yr-' ablation contour (Eo)--(i)
with, and (ii)without ice-albedo feedback; (b) eustatic sea-level curve (after Shackleton, 1987).
second part the sensitivity of the full model to parameter
variations is examined. The two initial runs used the parameter
values summarised in Table 1, and the forcing functions
shown in Fig. 3.
Influence of glacier hydrology on ice sheet
dynamics
The response of ice volume to environmental forcing in the
two model runs is shown in Fig. 4. The inclusion of hydrology
results in an earlier and smaller glacial maximum, and earlier
and more rapid deglaciation than occurs in Model 1.
The morphologies of the two model ice sheets for 3000 yr
before maximum volume, maximum volume, and 3000 yr
after maximum volume are shown in Fig. 5a-c. Both models
show very similar, parabolic, profiles at the northern margin
of the ice sheet for all three periods. The southern margin,
however, behaves differently. During growth (Fig. 5a), Model
2 shows a more restricted extent, and has developed a small,
flatter marginal area, with a distinct inflection in the surface
profile. By the time the ice maximum is reached (Fig. 5b),
this feature has enlarged somewhat, and the areal extent of
115
20000 10000 0
Time (yrs BP)
" I " " I " " I
20000 10000 0
Time (yrs BP)
the ice sheet is closer to that of Model 1. The flatter marginal
area becomes greatly exaggerated during deglaciation (Fig.
5c), when the southern side of the ice sheet shows a virtually
straight surface profile. Model 1 retains a parabolic surface
profile throughout. By 3000 yr after maximum, the margin of
Model 2 has retreated over 200 km further than Model 1.
These morphological patterns can be explained by the
processes of ice flow in the two models. Figures 6-8 show
the total, deformation and sliding velocities for the two models
for the same periods as Fig. 5. The northern margins again
show similar behaviour in both models for all three time
periods. Internal deformation makes up one-third to over one-
half of the total velocity, and generally increases towards a
maximum at the margin of the ice sheet.
The two models show quite different behaviour on the
southern margin, however. Internal deformation is again an
important component of ice flow for Model 1 , contributing
at least one-half of the total velocity, and increasing to a
maximum at the ice margin. The magnitude of total velocity
is highest at the ice sheet maximum. Model 2 shows much
higher total velocities for all three time periods, with the
magnitude increasing through time. Internal deformation
makes up a much smaller proportion of total ice flow near
the margins, and this proportion decreases from growth to
116 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
'O01
40000 30000
Time (yrs BP)
Figure 4 Time series of ice volume for the two model runs.
decay. The actual maximum value for internal deformation,
however, increases through time and also occurs an increasing
distance from the ice sheet margin. This maximum occurs at
the inflection in the surface profile noted above, owing to
the steeper slopes and consequent increase in basal shear
stress. These changes are due to the much greater importance
of sliding in the model that includes basal hydrology,
particularly at maximum ice sheet extent and during deglaci-
ation.
The morphological and dynamical contrasts between the
northern and southern margins of the ice sheet produced by
Model 2 can be explained in terms of the contrasting modes
of ablation that occur at the two margins (Fig. 9). In the
north, the ice sheet advances across the relatively narrow
continental shelf and into deep water at an early stage in its
history. As a result, calving of icebergs becomes the dominant
mode of ice loss, and it strongly restricts the subsequent
growth of the ice sheet. The ice sheet in this area does not,
therefore, develop a significant zone of surface melting, and
meltwater does not penetrate to large areas of the glacier
bed. Therefore, hydrology never exerts a major influence on
the flow dynamics or geometry of the ice sheet in this area.
Even during deglaciation, surface slopes are steep, so the
increase in Eo that occurs has little effect on the size of the
ablation area. As a result, the increase in amounts of water
reaching the base of the ice sheet is quite slow. The steep
slopes also lead to higher effective pressures, and large
increases in sliding velocity do not occur. Retreat of the ice
sheet margin takes it into shallower water where the calving
rate i s reduced, counterbalancing any increase in surface
melting.
In the south, however, the ice sheet does not have to
advance into deep water, so calving never becomes a
significant form of ice loss. The ice sheet is therefore able to
expand much further than in the north and develop a relatively
large surface ablation zone. Water reaches the glacier bed
below this zone and provides the lubrication necessary for
rapid sliding. As melting is the dominant form of ablation at
the southern margin, the impact of climatic warming is much
greater. This is particularly so because the flat marginal zone
..........
... .
20000 10000 0
allows a rise in Eo to significantly enlarge the ablation area.
This produces a strong positive feedback effect, whereby
increased amounts of meltwater reach the glacier bed,
increasing both the extent of the area affected by rapid sliding
and the rates of sliding within it. This initiates a drawdown
effect, in which increasing amounts of ice are transferred into
the ablation zone (by the increase in deformation velocity at
the equilibrium line) and removed by surface melting, and
consequent thinning of the ice sheet interior further expands
the ablation area and the region of fast flow.
Thus, penetration of increasing amounts of meltwater to
the glacier bed in response to climatic warming initiates
marginal regions of fast flow, which expand headwards over
time, producing volumetric deglaciation of the ice-sheet
interior. This process does not, however, occur in those parts
of the ice sheet where mass loss is dominated by calving,
nor in Model 7 , which takes no account of the influence of
glacier hydrology on ice flow. The inclusion of hydrology
into an ice sheet model thus produces a type of dynamic
behaviour that i s absent in models that omit it, and which
has a profound influence on the evolution of ice sheet
morphology over time.
Modelling the thermal evolution of the ice sheet including
hydrology, using equations (8141 l ) , supports the idea of rapid
headward expansion of fast flowing, wet-based ice. Heat
production i s high at the equilibrium line, owing to the high
deformation velocities, and the relatively thick ice prevents
the easy escape of this heat. This suggests that there will be
little lag between surface warming and basal warming, and
that the area of temperate ice will increase in line with
increases in the ablation area. Further down-glacier, even
though the ice sheet is thinner, the basal ice remains at the
melting point owing to the high sliding velocities.
Figure 10 shows the evolution of the subglacial drainage
system in Model 2. Tunnel-based drainage systems are most
common 8000 to 4000 yr before the ice sheet maximum.
This seems to be due to the moderate water discharges during
this period, when climate is cold, but the large extent of the
ice sheet allows a fairly extensive ablation area. This results
in moderate sliding velocities. As discharge increases with
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY ON LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET 117

a 30001

--
J

2000-
E
1000-
.-5
L

0-
6
-1000-

-2000 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ " ~ " ~ '

El
--- w - 1
" " ' " " ' " " ~ ~
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Distance (km)

2000-
T;
' 1000-
.-
0
L

8
9 0-
-
-moo-
-2000 I I I I ~ ~ ~ ' ~ " 1 " " 1 " " 1 " ' '
El
-"

1
w - 1

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (km)

30001

0 250 500 750 loo0 1250 1500

Distance (km)

Figure 5 (a) Surface morphology of the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr before maximum extent. (b) Surface morphology of
the ice sheets produced by the two models at maximum extent. (c) Surface morphology of the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000
yr after maximum extent.

warming climate, the higher water discharges (with consequent
higher effective pressures) are offset by the headward migration
of the ablation area into thicker, more dynamic ice, which
results in an increase in sliding velocity at this time, and the
destabilisation of the tunnels. Within the main episode of
tunnel-based drainage, however, tunnels are repeatedly
destroyed and reformed. This suggests that quite local and
short-lived ice and bed conditions combine to destroy tunnel-
based drainage systems, given generally favourable longer
term conditions. The converse of this also seems true; the
occurrence of tunnels outside of this main episode seems to
indicate that such short-lived, local effects can also outweigh
generally unfavourable conditions, and allow short-lived
phases of tunnel-based drainage to occur.
Sensitivity of the model
Since the aim of this paper is to examine the influence of
subglacial hydrology on ice sheet dynamics and on the
response of the ice sheet to a given pattern of environmental
forcing, sensitivity studies have been limited to those par-
ameters that may alter this. These include the parameters in
the deformation and sliding relationships, bed roughness, and
tunnel and cavity characteristics. No attempt is made to vary
the environmental forcing itself.
Some 30 model runs have been carried out, in which
parameter values were varied by a factor of up to two above
and below the standard values, as given in Table 1 . Some
runs also were carried out in which the time step and
frequency of smoothing were varied. The results of all these
runs are summarised in Table 2 .
Only the sliding parameter k , produces large changes in
the response of the ice sheet, and only then when a critical
value of almost twice the standard value is used. All the other
parameters affect only the details of the ice sheet response,
such as the time of maximum volume (to within 100-200
yr), and the actual maximum volume (to 25000 m total
thickness (cf. 80 000 m maximum total thickness, equivalent
to volume in a one-dimensional model)). These parameters
also influence the frequency of tunnel-based drainage systems,
118 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

a 500

I:!i,,
8 200
-
, , ,~
f
100
.- I '
0 i " " I " " I " " I
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Distance (km)

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (km)

301
200

100

0
0
A
250 500 750
Distance (km)
1000 1250 1500

Figure 6 (a) Distribution of total flow velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr before maximum extent. (b)
Distribution of deformation velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr before maximum extent. (c) Distribution of
basal sliding velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr before maximum extent. Note the different vertical scales.

and the periods during a growth-decay cycle when tunnel-
based systems are most common. For smoother beds (smaller
u ) , tunnel-based systems are generally more stable throughout
the cycle, because equation ( 1 7) predicts lower values of A .
Longer bump wavelengths have a similar effect. The power
function, p,, has a more complex effect, however. As p,
increases, again representing a smoother bed, low Q, (20-80
m3 s-') and resulting low SR, gives higher values of A,,
resulting in more stable tunnel-based systems, but for higher
Q, (over 100 m 3 s-'), A, decreases, resulting in less stable
tunnels. Thus, for larger values of p, tunnels are more
common during the growth phase of the cycle, but less so
during ice sheet decay.
Freer drainage (smaller f, has a similar effect to a higher
p.. Smaller values of SR result in lower values of A,, which
result in tunnel-based drainage being less stable during
deglaciation. This effect i s complicated in this case, however,
by the higher effective pressures that result from freer drainage,
which lead to lower sliding velocities, and hence more stable
tunnels. Increasing f has the reverse effect. increasing the
area occupied by cavities (possibly owing to a rouzher bed)
also reduces tunnel stability.
These results support the contention that the actual occur-
rence of tunnel-based or cavity-based drainage depends on
a complex interplay of local ice and bed parameters, making
prediction of tunnel location in the field very difficult, unless
ice dynamics and bed parameters are very well known. They
also suggest that smoother beds favour tunnel-based drainage
systems, particularly during the growth phase of an ice-age
cycle.
Discussion and conclusions
Influence of glacier hydrology on ice sheet
dynamics
The inclusion of hydrology in the ice sheet model has a
significant impact on ice sheet dynamics and morphology,
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY ON LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET 119

400-
6
U
f 300-
.-x
4 200-
Y

>
100-

0-
Wl
" " I " " I
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Distance (km)

b
""1

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (km)

6
5001
400 n
f 300-
U

.-A
Y

4 200-

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (krn)

Figure 7 (a) Distribution of total flow velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models at maximum extent. (b) Distribution of
deformation velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models at maximum extent. (c) Distribution of basal sliding velocity within
the ice sheets produced by the two models at maximum extent. Note the different vertical scales.

but only at certain times and in certain locations. This is
particularly true during deglaciation of the southern side of
the ice sheet, which develops a lower, flatter profile in its
marginal areas, where fast ice flow occurs. Absence of such
a profile during most of the growth history of the ice sheet
makes it dangerous to assume symmetry of both form and
flow processes during growth and decay (cf. Boulton et a/.,
1985).
The more extensive ablation zone that develops during
deglaciation allows water to reach the bed more widely than
during growth, when continued climatic cooling restricts the
size of the ablation area. As a result, enhanced sliding
becomes the dominant flow process during deglaciation. This
changes the responsiveness of the ice sheet to climatic change
and accelerates deglaciation, thus accentuating the asymmetry
of glacial cycles. It does this by a process analogous to
'marine downdraw', in which flow rates increase both at the
margins of the ice sheet (as a direct result of increased sliding),
and in internal areas (owing to the development of inflections
in the surface slope of the ice sheet at the head of the zone
of rapid flow). This more rapid flow increases the flux of ice
to the margin, and ice i s removed by high rates of ablation
over the flattened marginal zone.
North-sou th asymmetry of ice-sheet behaviour
The model results highlight an important set of interactions
between bedrock topography and mechanisms of mass loss
from the ice sheet, which result in a strong north-south
asymmetry in flow dynamics and ice sheet morphology. At
the northern end of the transect, the ice sheet advances
rapidly across a narrow continental shelf until its advance i s
halted by rapid calving in deep water. Calving maintains
steep ice-surface slopes and prevents the development of
extensive areas of surface melting, so penetration of meltwater
to the glacier bed is severely limited. Internal deformation is
120 IOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

a I

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (krn)

150-

f:
€
loo-
U
h -

3> 50-

l"-w 1 I

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (krn)

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

Distance (km)
Figure 8 (a) Distribution of total flow velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr after maximum extent. (b)
Distribution of deformation velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr after maximum extent. (c) Distribution of
basal sliding velocity within the ice sheets produced by the two models 3000 yr after maximum extent. Note the different vertical scales.

an important component of ice flow and the ice sheet displays
a classic parabolic surface profile. This situation changes only
during the final stages of deglaciation, when the ice margin
becomes grounded on land and the warming climate allows
an ablation area to develop. Water then reaches the bed, and
there is a short episode of rapid sliding.
At the southern end of the transect, the ice sheet does not
encounter deep water during its growth phase, so calving is
never an important ablation process. Surface melt is also
limited by the cooling climate until 23000 yr BP, after which
time it does become increasingly important. The ice sheet
then develops a significant ablation area, water reaches the
bed, and a flat marginal area of rapid sliding develops. This
initiates a train of positive feedback effects in which lowering
of the surface profile of the ice sheet contributes to the
expansion of the ablation area and associated region of rapid
sliding. This then propagates headwards into the ice sheet as
a result of rapid ice deformation driven by high basal shear
stresses, which occur in the region of locally steepened
surface slope at the head of the zone of fast flow. Volumetric
deglaciation thus occurs by the formation and headward
growth of what are, in effect, ice streams.
The results of our modelling are thus consistent with the
suggestion of Alley (1990) that ice-flow-drainage systems in
large ice sheets can exhibit multiple steady states. Where
subglacial drainage is absent or driven by high hydraulic
gradients, water pressures are low, rapid sliding does not
occur, and internal deformation is a significant component
of ice flow. Where meltwater drainage occurs and hydraulic
gradients are lower, however, drainage is more difficult and
water pressures rise. This allows rapid sliding to occur and
greatly reduces the importance of internal deformation within
the ice. Which of these two states actually occurs can depend
upon the dominant ablation mechanism, which in turn
depends upon the topographic and climatic setting in which
the ice sheet develops.
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY ON LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET 121

70 1
600

200-

40000 30000 20000 10000 0

Time (yrs BP)

b 3001

50
040000 30000 20000

Time (yrs BP)

loo00 0

Figure 9 (a) Time series of meltwater discharge at the northern and southern margins of the ice sheet produced by Model 2. (b) Time series
of iceberg calving rates at the northern and southern margins of the ice sheet produced by Model 2.

Fluctuations of the ice sheet margin
Our results suggest that short-lived changes in drainage
configuration can lead to increases in ice flux, which in turn
lead to significant marginal fluctuations. During growth, a
surge-type mechanism seems to exist, in which the gradual
growth of the ablation area results in increased amounts of
wet-based ice, and hence in increased sliding. The margin
therefore advances into warmer areas faster than it would if
basal sliding were not present. This results in a temporary
imbalance between ice flow to the margin and ablation at
the margin, which leads to a temporary halt during ice
advance, as seen at 580 km and 750 km in Fig. 10. The
change to a warming climate stops this mechanism, and
results in a more permanent change in ice-sheet morphology
owing to an increase in the rate of basal sliding. Indeed, the
advance of the southern margin to its maximum position
seems to be the result of an adjustment in ice sheet morphology
of this kind. This was triggered by increased meltwater
production in response to climatic warming. Thus, the
response of the ice margin to climatic fluctuations can result
from changes in flow process, as well as from changes in
mass balance. This may mean that the direction of marginal
fluctuations could be directly opposite to that which would
be expected from simplistic considerations of the effects of
climatic change on mass balance (e.g. an advance when
climate is warming, or a retreat (or stillstand) as the climate
cools). This also i s consistent with Alley (1990), who argues
that small climatic changes can lead to large ice-sheet
responses as the ice sheet adjusts between steady states.
Configuration of the drainage system beneath a
large ice sheet
The model results suggest that the development of channelised
drainage beneath the ice sheet is localised in both time and
space, and dependent on quite local factors, such as bedrock
topography and roughness, ice thickness and surface slope,
and the levels of meltwater discharge, as well as longer term
factors, such as whether the ice sheet is growing or decaying.
On the southern side of the ice sheet, channels are more
common during growth than during deglaciation. This would
seem to be because of both the generally lower water
discharges and smaller areas influenced by basal sliding
during growth, and because during decay, the zone of sliding
122 JOURNALOF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

0 250 500 750 1000 1250

Distance (km)
Figure 10 Configuration of the subglacial drainage system in time and space in Model 2.

Table 2 Summary of sensitivity tests

Ice sheet morphology Drainage system"

-

Variable Gross response Detailed response Increase favours Decrease favours

Ice flow
Deformation No Yes
'Sliding, k , Yesb Yes T
Sliding, k, No Yes T
Bed
'Roughness, p. No Yes
Roughness, v No Yes
Wavelength, I No Yes
Channel, f No Yes
Cavity area No Yes
Time step No Yes
Smoothing No Yes

"T = favours tunnel-based drainage; C = favours cavity-based drainage

bAbove a critical value (1.15 x m2 s-' kPa-I).
'Reversed during deglaciation.

is moving headwards into thicker, more dynamic ice, which
leads to generally higher velocities.
The impact of a cooling phase during deglaciation, such
as the Younger Dryas, has not been investigated in this study
owing to the lack of an apparent cause of the Younger Dryas
in the history of global radiation receipts that we use as a
forcing variable. Such a cooling would reduce meltwater
discharge, which would lower water pressure in a cavity-based
drainage system, and might thus lead to the establishment of
tunnel drainage. The apparently episodic development of
channelised drainage helps to explain why esker systems,
deposited in subglacial channels, often appear to comprise
discrete sets of landforms associated with what presumably
are relatively transient ice sheet geometries.
Geomorphic implications
Consideration of the manner in which flow processes within
the ice sheet adjust to changing subglacial hydrological
conditions through time may provide insight into the likely
nature of the erosional record left by the ice sheet. It has
been argued that the rate of subglacial abrasion scales with
the square of the sliding velocity (Hallet, 1979, 19811, while
the rate of erosion by quarrying scales directly with the sliding
velocity (Shoemaker, 1986). Since different parts of the area
covered by the ice sheet had different sliding velocity histories,
they might also be expected to exhibit erosional landforms
that reflect flow at different stages of the ice sheet's history.
In the north, for instance, there would be one prolonged
 INFLUENCE OF GLACIER HYDROLOGY ON LARGE QUATERNARY ICE SHEET
erosional episode, the intensity of which would decrease
during deglaciation, perhaps allowing preservation of features
produced close to the glacial maximum beneath later
ornamentation. In the south, however, except at the maximum
position reached by the ice margin, there would be two
phases of erosion, separated by a period of limited erosion
when the marginal zone of sliding has moved south of the
area of interest as the ice sheet grows to its maximum extent.
The deglacial phase would be far more intensive than the
growth phase, and would therefore tend to dominate the
erosional landscape. This landscape would, however, be
diachronous, reflecting the northward migration of the zone
of fast flow during ice-margin retreat. At the maximum
position of the ice sheet margin, there would be one strong
episode of erosion at the time of the glacial maximum, and
features resulting from this episode probably would be
preserved. Thus it would seem erroneous to assume that
large-scale erosional landscapes can be related to conditions
at the ice sheet maximum (cf. Sugden, 1978).
Limitations of the present analysis
Several points of caution with regard to the current analysis
must be emphasised. The purpose of this study was to evaluate
the likely impact of hydrological changes on the dynamics of
a large Quaternary ice sheet. The results should provide
insights that will guide the interpretation of field evidence,
and help to identify appropriate questions to be asked of such
evidence, but they do not yet reproduce reality as expressed
in the geological record of specific locations. The results
obviously are quite deficient in this regard, because the
maximum ice extent predicted is not as great as that inferred
from geological evidence for the late Weichselian, and the
ice sheet disappears 2000-3000 yr too early.
These deficiencies arise from the relatively simplistic
environmental forcing which we have used to drive the
model, from the nature of the model itself, and from the way
in which it is parameterised. It clearly is unrealistic to apply
a uniform environmental forcing to a continental-scale ice
sheet, and to assume that precipitation does not vary over
time. Equally, it is impossible to reproduce such an event as
the Younger Dryas when there is nothing in the environmental
forcing to explain it. The one-dimensional nature of the model
does not permit the movement of ice across flowbands, a
process that is likely to be extremely important as ice sheet
morphology evolves in response to the initiation of fast flow
during deglaciation. Neither does it allow the movement of
water across flowbands, which would allow fast flow to occur
in more localised areas (ice streams), rather than around the
entire margin of the ice sheet.
The treatment of the temperature regime is also simplistic,
but given the evidence discussed earlier, and the fact that
surface temperatures of ice sheets during the Quaternary must
be considered largely unknown, this seems justified given the
aims of the study. Full thermomechanical coupling, in
particular, seems unnecessary at this stage.
In future work, we intend to develop more sophisticated
climatic forcing curves, which allow for changes in atmosph-
eric composition and spatially and seasonally varying radiation
receipts. We also intend to develop a two-dimensional version
of the full model and conduct more extensive sensitivity tests.
The results presented here, however, clearly emphasise
the importance of incorporating a treatment of subglacial
hydrology in more sophisticated ice sheet models and of
reassessing geomorphological evidence to gain an understand-
123
ing of temporal changes in drainage conditions and flow
processes within large Quaternary ice sheets.
Acknowledgements NSA acknowledges receipt of a NERC stud-
entship. The manuscript was completed while MIS was on sabattical
leave at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. MIS wishes
to thank Professors John England and John Shaw for their hospitality
and for comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript, and
acknowledges the support of a Royal Society/NSERC scientific
exchange award. Richard Hindmarsh helped with ideas and maths
for the treatment of temperature. The two referees also contributed
valuable ideas.
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