SOLAR TRACKER

A PROJECT REPORT

GAUTAM BUDDHA TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

By

PARUL MALHOTRA (0935231040)

RASHI BAJPAI (0935231053)
RICHA SHARMA (0935231054)
RISHU SHUKLA (0935210045)
SONAL TRIPATHI (0932531076)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

KRISHNA GIRLS ENGINEERING COLLEGE BHAWANIPUR,

MANDHANA,

KANPUR, INDIA.

JUNE 2013
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “SOLAR TRACKER”, submitted by
PARUL MALHOTRA (0935231040), RASHI BAJPAI (0935231053), RICHA
SHARMA (0935231054), RISHU SHUKLA (0935210045) , SONAL TRIPATHI
(0935231076) to the Uttar Pradesh Technical University Lucknow, in partial
fulfillment for the award of Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics &
Communication Engineering is a bonafide record of the project work carried out by them
under my supervision during the year 2012-2013.

Rajan Verma Sumit Gupta

Head Department of EC (Project Guide)

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is our pleasure to acknowledge “ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
DEPARTMENT”, for giving us the opportunity and allowing us to do our final
project. We extend our sincere gratitude to our HOD, Mr. RAJAN VERMA,
who provided us all the lab facilities and steered in the right direction for
completing this assignment.

We sincerely convey our gratitude to our project guide Mr. SUMIT GUPTA
(Lecturer, ECE Deptt), whose continuous support and encouragement helped us to
complete our project.

We are also thankful to all the faculty and supporting staff who provided us
with adequate data information and help in spite of their hectic schedule.

Finally and most significantly we are indebted and deeply grateful to our parents
for their love, sacrifice, inspiration and valuable help that enable us to complete
this assignment.

Date:

Place: Kanpur

Parul Malhotra (0935231040)

Rashi Bajpai (0935231053)

Richa Sharma (0935231054)

Rishu Shukla (0935210045)

Sonal Tripathi (0935231076)

B.TECH. 4th Year (EC)

KGEC Kanpur
 ABSTRACT
With the alarming rate of depletion of the major energy resources worldwide, it
has become an urgent necessity to seek for renewable energy resources that will
power the future. According to the worldwide market economy, the increasing
demand for energy had forced to put a huge price tag on natural combustible
sources of energies. In fact, it has been predicted that in the near future the
demand of energy will grow in such a rate that it will be completely impossible to
find out or meet the demand with the resources that we had been using for so
long, such as – oil, gas, coal, etc. This issue throws a positive challenge to the
scientific community as more and more funds are being allocated for the research
and development of new alternatives.

The world is using up all the resources to meet the daily demands of energy and it
is quite expectable that in the near future we will run out of any naturally
occurring ore/mineral/petroleum. As a result, renewable energy solution has
achieved a great demand today to save the natural resources and also to tackle the
crisis of energy. Solar energy is rapidly gaining its popularity as an important
source of renewable energy.

But the efficiency of solar panel is a big factor. While the sun keeps following a
parabolic path throughout the day, the panels which are used in our country are
generally fixed to a pole or the roof of the house and hence, throughout the day,
the efficiency decreases significantly.

In this project, we have constructed a 2 axis solar tracker which can track the sun
throughout the day to obtain the maximum efficiency.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page

Chapter 1. Introduction……………….……...………………………….........1

1.1 Energy………………………………..…..…………………………..1
1.2 Motivation……………………………………………………………7
1.3 Solar Energy………………………………………………………….8
1.4 Solar Energy Supply on Earth…………..…………………………..10
1.5 Advantages of Solar Energy……….…….………………………….12
1.6 Solar Tracker….……………….…………………………………….14

Chapter 2. Literature Review………………………………………………..16

2.1 Hardware Specification of the System……………………………..17

2.1.1 Resistors………………………………………………….....17
2.1.2 Capacitors…………………………………………………..20
2.1.3 Diodes………………………………………………………24
2.1.4 Potentiometer……………………………………………….27
2.1.5 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)…………………………...29
2.1.6 Light Emitting Diode (LED)………………………………..31
2.1.7 Crystal Oscillators…………………………………………..34
2.1.8 Sensors……………………………………………………...36
2.1.9 Power Supply……………………………………………….39
2.1.10 Printed Circuit Board (PCB)………..………………………42
2.1.11 Regulators…………………………………………………..45
2.1.12 Microcontroller……………………………………………..47
2.1.13 Global Positioning System (GPS)…………………………..48
2.1.14 Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)……...…50
2.1.15 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)…………………….51

Chapter 3. Project Description……………………………………………….53

3.1 Block Diagram………………………………………………………53

3.2 Flow Chart…………….…………………………………………….54
3.3 Schematic Diagram……………………………………………………55
3.4 Specific Components Used in Circuit…………………………………56
3.4.1 Resistors………………..……………………………………...56
3.4.2 Capacitors……………….…………………………………….58
3.4.3 Temperature Sensors……......…………………………………60
3.4.4 DC Geared Motor…………..………………………………....61
3.4.5 Light Emitting Diode…….…….……………………………...63
3.4.6 Zener Diode………………..………………….……….……. ..65
3.4.7 Voltage Regulator…………..………………….………………67
3.4.8 Push Button….………………..………………..……………....68
3.4.9 USB Port…………………..……….………….……………….69
3.4.10 Solar Panel………………………..…………….………………70
3.4.11 Light Dependent Resistor……………..……….……………….71
3.4.12 IC used…………………………………..……………………..73
3.4.12.1 L293D……………………….………………....74
3.4.12.2 ATMEGA 8……………………….…………...76
3.5 Snapshot………………………………………………………………79
3.6 Working of Solar Tracker…………………………………………......80
3.6.1 Connection with USB Port…………………………………...80
3.6.2 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)……………………….……80
3.6.3 Microcontroller………………………………………………81
3.6.4 L293D………………………………………………………..82
3.6.5 DC Geared Motor……………………………………………82
3.6.6 Solar Panel…………………………………………………...83
3.6.7 Rechargeable Battery………………………………………...83
3.6.8 Graph Showing Variation of Outputs of TDR and Solar Tracker
…………………………………………………………………..84
3.7 Basic Concept…………………………………………………………85
3.7.1 Solar Tracker…………………………………………….……85
3.7.2 Types of Solar Tracker…………………………………..........86
3.7.2.1 Horizontal Axle Solar Tracker…………………….…86
 3.7.2.2 Vertical Axle Solar Tracker………………………….86
3.7.2.3 Altitude Azimuth Solar Tracker……………………..87
3.7.2.4 Two Axis Mount Solar Tracker……………………...88
3.7.2.5 Multi Mirror Reflective Unit………………………...88
3.7.2.6 Active Tracker……………………………………….89
3.7.2.7 Passive Tracker………………………………………89
3.7.2.8 Chronological Tracker……………………………….89
3.7.3 Photoelectric Effect………………………… ……………..90
3.7.4 Emission Mechanism……………………………..………...90
3.7.5 How Solar Cell generate Electricity…………………….….91

3.8 Source Code…………………………………………………………….93

Chapter 4………………………………………………………………………..95

4.1 Advantages…………………….…………………………………………95
4.2 Disadvantages…………………….……………………………………....96
4.3 Applications…………………….….……………………………………...97
4.4 Future Scope…………………….……….………………………………..98
4.5 Conclusion……………………….……….……………………………….99
4.6 References……………………………………………………………….100
 List Of Figures

Figure Name Page

1.1 Mechanical Energy…………….…………….……………………..1

1.2 Electrical Energy……………..……………………………………..2
1.3 Chemical Energy……………..……………………………………..2
1.4 Nuclear Energy………………..…………………………………….3
1.5 Hydro Energy……………….….…………………………………....3
1.6 Solar Energy………………….….…………………………………..4
1.7 Biomass Energy……………….….………………………………….5
1.8 Ocean & Tidal Energy………….…....………………………………5
1.9 Geothermal Energy…………….….…………………………………6
1.10 Wind Energy…………………….......……………………………….6
1.11 Breakdown of Solar Energy……….…………………………………9
1.12 Utilization of Solar Energy…….…………..……………………….11
1.13 Gaseous Emission…………………...………………………………12
1.14 Solar Barn…………………………..……………………………….13
1.15 Solar Tracker……………………….……………………………….15
2.1 Characteristics of Resistor………………………………………….17
2.2 Fixed Resistor………………….……………………………………18
2.3 Variable Resistor……………….…………………………………....18
2.4 Characteristics of Capacitor…….…………………………….……..20
2.5 Ceramic Capacitor……………….…………………………………..21
2.6 Film Capacitor………………….……………………………………21
2.7 Electrolytic Capacitor………….………………………………….....22
2.8 Super Capacitor…………………..…………………………………..22
2.9 Variable Capacitor…………….….………………………………......23
2.10 Characteristics of Diode……….…..………………………….............24
2.11 LED……………………………...…………………………………....24
2.12 Avalanche Diode………………...…………………………………....25
 2.13 Laser Diode…………………………….………………….…………...25
2.14 Schottky Diode……………………….…………………..…………….26
2.15 Potentiometer………………………….…………………..…………....27
2.16 Characteristics of Potentiometer………..………………..……………...28
2.17 LDR……………………………………..……………..………………..29
2.18 Characteristics of LDR…………………..….…………..………….……30
2.19 Characteristics of LED…………………....……………………………..31
2.20 Miniature LED………………………..…...……………………………..32
2.21 High Power LED………………………….……………………………..33
2.22 Crystal Oscillator………………………...………………………………34
2.23 Characteristics of Crystal Oscillator……………………………………..35
2.24 Sensors………………………………..………………………………….36
2.25 Optical Sensor…………………………..………………………………..37
2.26 Microwave Sensor…………………….…………………………………37
2.27 Temperature Sensor………………….…………………………….…….38
2.28 Power supply……………………….….…………………………………39
2.29 Battery………………………….………..……………………………….40
2.30 Printed Circuit Board………………...…………………………………..42
2.31 Single sided PCB……………………...…………………………………43
2.32 Double sided PCB……………………..…………………………………43
2.33 Multilayered…………………………...…………………………………44
2.34 Battery Regulator……………………..………………………………….45
2.35 Pressure Regulator……………...………………………………………..45
2.36 Dividing Regulator……………….………………………………………46
2.37 Voltage Regulator………………..………………………………………46
2.38 Microcontroller…………………....…………..…………………………47
2.39 Global Positioning System………….……………………………………48
2.40 GSM……………………………………...………………………………50
2.41 Radio Frequency Identification…………….…………………………….51
2.42 Radio Frequency Identification…………….…………………………….52
3.1 Block Diagram……………………………….…………………………..53
3.2 Flowchart Showing Working of Solar Tracker…………………………..54
3.3 Schematic Of Solar Tracker…………………………….………………..55
3.4 Some low power Resistors……………………………...………………..56
3.5 High power Resistors and Rheostats………………….…………………56
3.6 Symbol of Resistors…………………………….………………………..57
3.7 Color coding of Resistor…………………………………………………57
3.8 Capacitors……………………………………….……………………….58
3.9 Electrolytic Capacitor……………………………..……………………..59
3.10 External Structure of DC Geared Motor…………..……………………..61
3.11 Lateral view of DC Geared Motor………………...……………………..62
3.12 LED Characteristics……………………………...………………………63
3.13 LED as an indicator……………………………...………………………64
3.14 Symbol of Zener Diode………………………….……………………….65
3.15 V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode………………………………………65
3.16 Voltage Regulator 7805………………………….………………………67
3.17 Push Button……………………………………...……………………….68
3.18 USB Port………………………………………...……………………….69
3.19 Solar Panel……………………………………………………………….70
3.20 LDR…………………………………………….………………………..71
3.21 L293D…………………………………………...……………………….73
3.22 Pin Description………………………………….………………………..74
3.23 Pin Description of ATMEGA8…………………..………………………77
3.24 Solar Tracker……………………………………………………………..79
3.25 USB Cable………………………………………….……………………80
3.26 LDR, its internal structure & Stamplot of LDR……..…………………..81
3.27 Master circuit…………………………………………………………….82
3.28 Audrino Circuit………………………………………..…………………82
3.29 L293D Circuit………………………………………...………………….82
3.30 DC Geared Motor………………………………………………………..83
3.31 Solar Panel…………………………………………...…………………..83
3.32 Rechargeable Battery…………………………………………………….84
3.33 Stamplot of TDR & Solar Tracker…………………….…………………84
3.34 Solar Tracker………………………………………….………………….85
3.35 Horizontal Axle Solar Tracker………………………...…………………86
3.36 Vertical Axle Solar Tracker…………………………….………………..87
3.37 Altitude azimuth Solar Tracker…………………………..………………87
3.38 Two axis mount Solar Tracker…………………………….……………..88
3.39 Multi mirror reflective unit………………………………………………88
3.40 Active Tracker……………………………………………...……………89
3.41 Photoelectric Effect………………………………...……...…………….91
3.42 Generation of electricity by Solar Tracker………..………...……………92
 CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 ENERGY

Energy is a crucial input in the process, social and industrial development. Energy
plays a vital role in our daily life. The degree of development and civilization of a
country is measured by the utilization of energy by human beings for their needs.

Day by day the energy consumption is increasing very rapidly. The world’s fossil-
fuel supply i.e, coal, petroleum and natural gas will be depleted in few hundred
years. The rate of energy consumption is increasing, supply is depleting resulting
in inflation and energy shortage. This is called the energy crisis.

Energy is available in different forms like

1. Mechanical energy: Mechanical energy is available in two forms: Kinetic

energy and potential energy. The kinetic energy of a moving body is measured by
the amount of work which has been done in bringing the body from rest position
to its present position and vice-versa. The energy in a body due to its position is
called the potential energy.

Fig 1.1 Mechanical Energy

2. Electrical Energy: In generator mechanical energy is very flexible and
multipurpose form of energy is electrical energy. It is clean, non-polluting, and
easily transportable form of energy.

Fig 1.2 Electrical Energy

3. Chemical Energy: In fuel cells, batteries, etc. chemical energy is

converted into electrical energy. Also during combustion of fuels the atoms-
carbon, hydrogen etc combine with oxygen with liberation of heat.

Fig 1.3 Chemical Energy

4. Nuclear Energy: Uranium, plutonium and thorium isotopes are nuclear
fuels. In their nuclei, the energy is released in the form of heat by nuclear fission
chain reaction.

Fig 1.4 Nuclear Energy

5. Hydro Energy: When water drops through a height, then its energy
rotates the turbines which are coupled with alternator, which delivers the
electrical energy.

Fig 1.5 Hydro Energy

The non conventional energy resources are:

1. Solar Energy: The earth receives the energy from Sun in the form of
electromagnetic radiations. Solar energy is cheap and free from pollution.

Fig 1.6 Solar Energy

2. Bio-Gas and Bio-mass: Bio gas plant is a device for conversion of

fermentable organic matter, in particular cattle dung, into combustible gas and
fully matured organic manure. Biomass is organic matter derived from plants,
algae, animals, etc.
 Fig 1.7 Biomass Energy

3. Ocean Energy and Tidal Energy: The ocean contains the vast energy
potential in its waves, in its tides and in the temperature difference between cold
deep waters and warm surface water.

Fig 1.8 Ocean and Tidal Energy

4. Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy is another energy source that
can be harnessed for power generation and thermal applications in the near future.

Fig 1.9 Geothermal Energy

5. Wind Energy: Winds are caused by the pressure gradient. The kinetic
energy of wind can be changed into mechanical or electrical energy.

Fig 1.10 Wind Energy

 1.2 MOTIVATION

With the rapid depletion of the natural resources of the world, we would soon
meet a great demand for alternative source of energy. In the very near future,
experts are predicting that we will be bound to move to renewable sources of
energy, solar being one of them.

As long as our earth exists, the sun is there to give us unlimited solar energy. It is
completely up to us how we are going to utilize this abandoned energy. Every
hour, sun gives the same amount of energy to the world that the whole world uses
in an entire year.

Not only the world but our country is in a severe crisis of electricity. There are
many rural areas which are still deprived from the wonder of electricity. Due to
the geographical location of our country, we get sun almost 300 days a year.
Compared to many other countries like Canada and Norway, we are in a much
better location for utilizing solar energy. It can be used in areas where there is no
grid connection also.

Considering all the above things and the environmental friendliness, economically
sound and the ease of implementation, we thought of working on it as we believe
that in the near future, our country along with the whole world will be benefited
from this source of renewable energy.
 1.3 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy has the greatest potential of all the sources of renewable energy and
if only a small amount of this form of energy could be used, it will be one of the
most important supplies of energy specially when other sources in the country
have depleted.

Energy comes to the earth from the sun. This energy keeps the temperature of the
earth above that in colder space, causes current in the atmosphere and in ocean,
causes the water cycle and generates photosynthesis in plants.

The solar power where sun hits atmosphere is 1017 watts, whereas the solar power
on earth’s surface is 1016 watts. The total world-wide power demand of all needs
of civilization is 1013 watts. Therefore, the sun gives us 1000 times more power
than we need.

The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (isolation) at
the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the
rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at
the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges
with a small part in the near-ultraviolet

Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises
their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises,
causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high
altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which
rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water
condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as
wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land
masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °C. By photosynthesis
green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which produces food,
wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.

The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is
approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy
in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures
approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The technical potential available
from biomass is from 100–300 EJ/year. The amount of solar energy reaching the
surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will
ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil,
natural gas, and mined uranium combined.

Solar energy can be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly
depending on distance from the equator.

Fig 1.11 Breakdown of incoming Solar Energy

 1.4 SOLAR ENERGY SUPPLY ON EARTH

 At the outer boundaries of the earth’s atmosphere, about 2.0 cal of energy
strikes, every minute, one square centimeter of the earth’s cross section. This is
the so called “solar constant”; its value means that about 1.25*1024 cal of solar
energy are received anually by the earth as a whole. Only about 40 percent of this
energy, or 5*1020 Kcal, reaches the surface of earth. The rest is either absorbed by
the atmosphere or scattered into space
 Despite these losses, if an economic method could be found to catch, store
and utilize the sunlight falling on our roof, it could easily cover all our domestic
energy needs, while sunlight falling on large open areas could easily run all the
wheels of human industry. Many attempts have been made to concentrate the
energy of sunlight, for example by means of giant concave mirrors, in order to
utilise it for industrial purposes; but only minor economic success have been
achieved so far.
 It is also thoretically possible to convert light energy directly into
chemical energy, but as yet no effective and cheap way of doing this has beeen
found. The problem is not only to find a cheap photochemical system that would
store a substantial proportion of light absorbed in it; in addition, storage would
have to be in a convenient form, permitting easy removal of stored energy as
needed. The answer could be a light-produced explosive mixture, a light-produced
fuel, or a light-charged storage battery. None of these devices has been yet
developed successfully.
 To satisfy its energy needs-foods, fuel, and industrial power-mankind now
depends almost entirely on plants. These organisms have solved the problem of
converting light energy into chemical energy with a rather low average yield, but
on a vast scale. Reserves of this energy, stored in past geological areas, are
available to man as fossil fuels (coal, oil, peat). Amounts currently accumulated
by growing plants provide all human food (either directly, as vegetables, or
indirectly, as meat or milk or animals fed on plants) ; a small fraction of fuel is
provided in the same way, as wood or dung.
 The utilisation of energy stored by plants occurs by reversing
photosynthesis-rapidly, in furnaces and explosion motors, or slowly , in respiring
cells of plants and animals.
 The plants store less than 1 percent of total solar energy reaching the
surface of earth. Man could easily live from this energy income of the earth, if we
are able to improve significantly on plants way to store it. One possible approach
is breeding more efficient plants; another is growing existing plants in a way that
would increase their natural rate of energy storage; the third is developing non
living systems for solar energy storage, as effective-and cheaper-than the present-
day solar batteries.

Fig 1.12 Utilization of Solar Energy

 1.5 ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY

1. No green house gases: The first and foremost advantage of solar energy is that it
does not emit any green house gases. Solar energy is produced by conducting the
sun’s radiation – a process void of any smoke, gas, or other chemical by-product.
This is the main driving force behind all green energy technology, as nations
attempt to meet climate change obligations in curbing emissions.

Fig 1.13 Gaseous Emissions

2. Infinite Free Energy: Another advantage of using solar energy is that beyond
initial installation and maintenance, solar energy is one hundred percent free.
Solar doesn’t require expensive and ongoing raw materials like oil or coal, and
requires significantly lower operational labor than conventional power
production.

3. Decentralization of power: Solar energy offers decentralization in most (sunny)

locations, meaning self-reliant societies. Oil, coal, and gas used to produce
conventional electricity is often transported cross-country or internationally.
4. Solar jobs: A particularly relevant and advantageous feature of solar energy
production is that it creates jobs. The EIAA states that Europe’s solar industry has
created 100,000 jobs so far. Solar jobs come in many forms, from manufacturing,
installing, monitoring and maintaining solar panels, to research and design,
development, cultural integration, and policy jobs.

5. Solar’s avoidance of politics and price volatility: One of the biggest advantages
of solar energy is the ability to avoid the politics and price volatility that is
increasingly characterizing fossil fuel markets. The sun is an unlimited
commodity that can be adequately sourced from many locations, meaning solar
avoids the price manipulations and politics that have more than doubled the price
of many fossil fuels in the past decade.

6. Solar barn: Going off grid is a huge advantage of solar power for people in
isolated locations. Solar energy can be produced on or off the grid. On grid means
a house remains connected to the state electricity grid. Off grid has no connection
to the electricity grid, so the house, business or whatever being powered is relying
solely on the solar or solar-hybrid. The ability to produce electricity off the grid is
a major advantage of solar energy for people who live in isolated and rural areas.
Power prices and the cost of installing power lines are often exorbitantly high in
these places and many have frequent power-cuts.

Fig 1.14 Solar Barn

 1.6 SOLAR TRACKER

Despite the unlimited solar energy, harvesting it is a challenged mainly because of

the inefficiency of the panels. Recent works shows that different types of
methodology have been proposed to improve the efficiency of solar panels.

Most of the panel installations that are done in our country are all fixed arrays. As
the day passes, the sun moves away from the facing position of the panel and thus
the power output of the panel decreases. The easiest way to overcome this
problem is to adapt a moveable solar panel using sun tracking mechanism. We
have adopted this system to improve the efficiency for photovoltaic cell
applications.

A solar tracker is a device for orienting solar photovoltaic panel towards the sun.
The sun’s position in the sky varies both with season and time of day as the sun
moves across the sky. Solar powered equipment works best when pointed at or
near the sun, so the solar tracker can increase the effectiveness of such equipment
over any fixed position, at the cost of additional system complexity.

A solar tracker is a device that orients a payload toward the sun. Payloads can
be photovoltaic panels, reflectors, lenses or other optical devices.

In flat-panel photovoltaic (PV) applications, trackers are used to minimize the

angle of incidence between the incoming sunlight and a photovoltaic panel. This
increases the amount of energy produced from a fixed amount of installed power
generating capacity. In standard photovoltaic applications, it is estimated that
trackers are used in at least 85% of commercial installations greater than 1MW
from 2009 to 2012.

In concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) and concentrated solar thermal (CSP)

applications, trackers are used to enable the optical components in the CPV and
CSP systems. The optics in concentrated solar applications accept the direct
component of sunlight light and therefore must be oriented appropriately to
collect energy. Tracking systems are found in all concentrator applications
because such systems do not produce energy unless pointed at the sun.
 Fig 1.15 Solar Tracker

All the solar arrays that are currently being installed in our countries are fixed on
the rooftop or any favorable open space at approximately 230 inclination with the
surface. We went to BRAC Solar project and get to know that all the BRAC Solar
Home System (SHS) are arranged in such a way that the battery will be charged
within 5 hours in a day and at night, the people can use the battery to run home
appliances accordingly. This seemed a lot inefficient since the sun in our country
is high up in the sky for around 104 hours every day. So with this system, 50% of
the sun energy are not being utilized and also this SHS does not allow the
consumers to use electricity during day time.

In many developed countries, solar trackers are already being used commercially.
Importing and maintaining those in our country would be very expensive,
especially for the people in the rural areas who are the main consumers of solar
energy. So we thought of adopting the sun tracking mechanism to see how much
more energy we can utilize.
 CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW

Energy is a crucial input in the process of economic, social and industrial

development. Energy plays a vital role in our daily life. The degree of
development and civilization of a country is measured by the utilization of energy
by human beings for their needs. Energy is available in different forms like
electrical energy, mechanical energy, chemical energy, heat energy and nuclear
energy etc.
Day by day the energy consumption is increasing very rapidly. The world’s fossil
fuel supply i.e. coal petroleum and natural gas will be depleted in few hundred
years. The rate of energy consumption is increasing; supply is depleting resulting
in inflation and energy shortage. This is called the energy crisis. Alternative or
non-conventional or renewable energy resources are very essential to develop for
future energy requirements.

Energy can be extracted from various resources i.e. bio-energy, human energy,
mechanical energy, kinetic energy and animal energy.

Energy has many properties. According to law of conservation of energy “Energy

can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transformed from one
form to another form.” Energy can be transported from one place to another
place.

The energy demand increases day by day because of increasing population,

increasing industrialization and inflation of means of transport etc.

To overcome with the problems of increasing demands of conventional energy the

use of non-conventional energy in more emphasized in this project. This is done
with the help of various technical equipments in order to save our conventional
resources.
 2.1 HARDWARE SPECIFICATIONS OF THE SYSTEM

2.1.1 RESISTORS:

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements

electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct
proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is
represented by Ohm's law:

I=V/R
Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the
potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the
resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.

Fig 2.1 Characteristics Of Resistor

Types:

Resistors can be classified into two,

 Fixed resistors: Fixed resistors are further classified into:

a) Carbon composition type resistors: This is the most common type of low
wattage resistor. The resistive material is of carbon-clay composition and
the leads are made of tinned copper.
b) Wire wound resistors: These resistors are a length of wire wound an
insulating cylindrical core. Usually wires of material such as constantan
(60% copper and 40% nickel) and manganin which have high resistivities
and low temperature coefficients are employed.

c) Metalized resistors: It is constructed using film deposition techniques of

depositing a thick film of resistive material onto an insulating substrate.

Fig 2.2 Fixed Resistor

 Variable resistors: For circuits requiring a resistance that can be adjusted

while it remains connected in the circuit, variable resistors are required.

Fig 2.3 Variable Resistor

Applications: Many electrical devices are based on electrical resistance and
Ohm's law, even if they do not have little components in them that look like the
usual resistor. The following are some examples.

 Lightbulb: It can be made by cutting a narrow waist into a metallic gum

wrapper and connecting wrapper across the terminals of a 9-volt battery.

 Polygraph: The polygraph, or "lie detector," is really just a set of meters

for recording physical measures of the subject's psychological stress, such
as sweating and quickened heartbeat.

 Fuse: A fuse is a device inserted in a circuit tollbooth-style in the same

manner as an ammeter. It is simply a piece of wire made of metals having
a relatively low melting point.
2.1.2 CAPACITORS:

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated
by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of
metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film.

Fig 2.4 Characteristics of Capacitor

Types: Capacitors can be classified as :

 Ceramic Capacitors: It is a non-polarized fixed capacitor made out of

two or more alternating layers of ceramic and metal in which the ceramic
material acts as the dielectric and the metal acts as the electrodes.
 Fig 2.5 Ceramic Capacitor

 Film Capacitor: Film capacitors or plastic film capacitors are non-

polarized capacitors with an insulating plastic film as the dielectric. The
dielectric films are drawn to a thin layer, provided with metallic electrodes
and wound into a cylindrical winding.

Fig 2.6 Film Capacitor

 Electrolytic capacitors: Electrolytic capacitors are polarized. Three

families are available, categorized according to their dielectric.

a). Aluminum electrolytic capacitors with aluminum oxide as dielectric

b). Tantalum electrolytic capacitors with tantalum pentoxide as dielectric

c). Niobium electrolytic capacitors with niobium pentoxide as dielectric.

 Fig 2.7 Electrolytic Capacitor

 Super capacitors: Super capacitors, a new type of electrochemical

capacitor are also called ultra capacitors. Super capacitors are divided into
three families, according to the relative amounts of capacitance in the
double layers v/s pseudo capacitance:

a).Double-layer capacitors

b).Pseudocapacitors

c).Hybrid capacitors

Fig 2.8 Super Capacitor

 Variable Capacitors: Variable capacitors may have their capacitance
changed by mechanical motion. Two variable capacitors are:

a) Tuning capacitor – variable capacitor for intentionally and repeatedly tuning

an oscillator circuit in a radio or another tuned circuit

b) Trimmer capacitor – small variable capacitor usually for one-time

oscillator circuit internal adjustment.

Fig 2.9 Variable capacitor

Applications:

Capacitor has many uses in electronics and electrical system:

 Energy storage: A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from
its charging circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery.
 Power Conditioning: Reservoir capacitors are used in power supplies where
they smooth the output of a full or half wave rectifier.
 Signal Processing: The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent
information, either in binary form, as in DRAMs, or in analogue form, as in
analog sampled filters and CCDs
2.1.3 DIODES

A diode is a two-terminal device, having two active electrodes, between which it

allows the transfer of current in one direction only. Diodes are known for their
unidirectional current property.

Fig 2.10 Characteristics of Diode

Types:

 Light Emitting Diode (LED): It is one of the most popular type of diodes
and when this diode permits the transfer of electric current between the
electrodes, light is produced.

Fig 2.11 LED

 Avalanche Diode: This type of diode operates in the reverse bias, and
used avalanche effect for its operation. The avalanche breakdown takes
place across the entire PN junction, when the voltage drop is constant and
is independent of current.

Fig 2.12 Avalanche Diode

 Laser Diode: This type of diode is different from the LED type, as it
produces coherent light. These diodes find their application in DVD and
CD drives, laser pointers, etc.

Fig 2.13 Laser Diode

 Schottky Diodes: These diodes feature lower forward voltage drop as
compared to the ordinary silicon PN junction diodes.

Fig 2.14 Schottky Diode

Applications:

 Radio Demodulation: The diode (originally a crystal diode) rectifies the

AM radio frequency signal, leaving only the positive peaks of the carrier
wave.
 Power Conversion: Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are
used to convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current
(DC).
2.1.4 POTENTIOMETER

A potentiometer, informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding

contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used,
one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat.

A potentiometer measuring instrument is essentially a voltage divider used for

measuring electric potential (voltage); the component is an implementation of the
same principle.

Potentiometers comprise a resistive element, a sliding contact (wiper) that moves

along the element, making good electrical contact with one part of it, electrical
terminals at each end of the element, a mechanism that moves the wiper from one
end to the other, and a housing containing the element and wiper.

Fig 2.15 Potentiometer

Many inexpensive potentiometers are constructed with a resistive element formed

into an arc of a circle usually a little less than a full turn, and a wiper rotating
around the arc and contacting it. The resistive element, with a terminal at each
end, is flat or angled. The wiper is connected to a third terminal, usually between
the other two.

Fig 2.16 Characteristics of Potentiometer

Applications:

 Audio Control: Low-power potentiometers, both linear and rotary, are used to
control audio equipment, changing loudness, frequency attenuation and other
characteristics of audio signals.

 Television: Potentiometers were formerly used to control picture brightness,

contrast, and color response. A potentiometer is often used to adjust "vertical
hold", which affected the synchronization between the receiver's internal
sweep circuits.

 Transducer: Potentiometers are also very widely used as a part of

displacement transducers because of the simplicity of construction and
because they can give a large output signal.

 Motion Control: Potentiometers can be used as position feedback devices in

order to create "closed loop" control, such as in a servomechanism.
2.1.5 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR)

A Photoresistor or a light dependent resistor (LDR) is

a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in
other words, it exhibits photoconductivity.

A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the

device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting
free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby
lowering resistance.

Fig 2.17 LDR

Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called do pants, added whose ground state
energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to
jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer wavelengths and lower frequencies)
are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms
replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available
for conduction.
 Fig 2.18 Characteristics Of LDR

Applications:

 Photo resistors come in many types. Inexpensive cadmium sulphide cells

can be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, street
lights, clock radios, alarm devices, outdoor clocks, solar street lamps and
solar road studs, etc.

 They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small
incandescent lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction and are
also used in bed lamps, etc.

 Lead sulphide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light dependent
resistor) are used for the mid infrared spectral region. Ge:Cu
photoconductors are among the best far-infrared detectors available, and
are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.
2.1.6 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as

indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting.
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-
intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible,
ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine with
holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy
of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor. An
LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components
may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over
incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime,
improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.

Fig 2.19 Characteristics Of LED

Types:

The main types of LEDs are miniature, mid range and high power leds.

 Miniature: These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they
come in various sizes from 2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface
mount packages. They usually do not use a separate heat sink. Typical
current ratings ranges from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The small size
sets a natural upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused
by the high current density and need for a heat sink.

Fig 2.20 Miniature LED

 Mid-range: Medium-power LEDs are often through-hole-mounted and

mostly utilized when an output of just a few lumen is needed. They
sometimes have the diode mounted to four leads (two cathode leads, two
anode leads) for better heat conduction and carry an integrated lens. An
example of this is the Superflux package, from Philips Lumileds.

 High-power: High-power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at currents from

hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA
for other LEDs. Some can emit over a thousand lumens. LED power
 densities up to 300W/cm2 have been achieved. Since overheating is
destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat
dissipation.

Fig 2.21 High Power LED

Applications:

LED uses fall into four major categories:

 Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the
human eye, to convey a message or meaning.
 Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response
of these objects.
 Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision.
 Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and
respond to incident light, instead of emitting light.
2.1.7 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical

resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical
signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep
track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for
digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and
receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz
crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as crystal
oscillators.

Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to
tens of megahertz. More than two billion crystals are manufactured annually.
Most are used for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios,
computers, and cellphones.

Fig 2.22 Crystal Oscillator

A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed
in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.

When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in
an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This
property is known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will
generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a
voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an
inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency.

Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in
such a way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The
specific characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at
which the quartz is cut.

Fig 2.23 Characteristics of Crystal Oscillator

Applications:

 Military and Aerospace

 Research and measurement

 Industrial

 Automotive

 Consumer
2.1.8 SENSORS

A sensor (also called detector) is a converter that measures a physical quantity

and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an (today
mostly electronic) instrument.

Fig 2.24 Sensors

Types :

The various types of sensors are

 Optical Sensors:

a) Visible/Near Infrared Remote Sensing: The observation method to acquire

visible light and near infrared rays of sunlight reflected by objects on the ground.
By examining the strength of reflection, we can understand a conditions of land
surface.

b) Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing: The observation method to acquire

thermal infrared rays, which is radiated from land surface heated by sunlight.
 Fig 2.25 Optical Sensors

 Microwave Sensors: Microwave sensors receive microwaves, which is

longer wavelength than visible light and infrared rays, and observation is not
affected by day, night or weather.

a) Active type: The sensor aboard earth observation satellite emits

microwaves and observes microwaves reflected by land surface.

b) Passive type: This type observes microwaves naturally radiated from land
surface. It is suitable to observe sea surface temperature, snow accumulation,
thickness of ice.

Fig 2.26 Microwave Sensor

 Temperature Sensors: These sensors use a solid-state technique to
determine the temperature.

a) Mechanical temperature Sensors: Thermometer, bimetal.

b) Electrical Temperature Sensors: Thermister, thermocouple, resistance

thermometer.

Fig 2.27 Temperature Sensor

Applications:

 In industry: On the factory floor, networked vibration sensors warn that a

bearing is beginning to fail.

 For safety and security: Firefighters scatter wireless sensors throughout a

burning building to map hot spots and flare-ups.

 In classroom: Sensor technology provides teachers with an exciting

alternative to the time consuming task of manually logging and observing science
experiments.

 In education: Sensor technology provides students with a means of

seeing, interpreting, exploring and communicating relationships graphically.
2.1.9 POWER SUPPLY

A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The
term is most commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form
of electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert
another form of energy (mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A
regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a
specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in
either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.

Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any
energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending
on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from:

 Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include

power supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC voltage.

 Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells.

 Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators.

 Solar power.

Fig 2.28 Power Supply

 Types:

 BATTERY: Battery is a device that converts stored chemical energy to electrical

energy. Batteries are commonly used as energy sources in many household and
industrial applications. There are two types of batteries: primary batteries
(disposable batteries), which are designed to be used once and discarded, and
secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged
and used multiple times.

Fig 2.29 Battery

 DC POWER SUPPLY: An AC powered unregulated power supply usually uses

a transformer to convert the voltage from the wall outlet (mains) to a different,
nowadays usually lower, voltage.
 AC power supply: An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall
outlet (mains supply) and lowers it to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take
place as well.
 Linear regulated power supply: The voltage produced by an unregulated power
supply will vary depending on the load and on variations in the AC supply
voltage.
 AC/DC supply: In the past, mains electricity was supplied as DC in some
regions, AC in others. Transformers cannot be used for DC, but a simple, cheap
unregulated power supply could run directly from either AC or DC mains without
using a transformer. The power supply consisted of a rectifier and a filter
capacitor.
 Uninterruptible power supply: An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its
power from two or more sources simultaneously. It is usually powered directly
from the AC mains, while simultaneously charging a storage battery. Should there
be a dropout or failure of the mains, the battery instantly takes over so that the
load never experiences an interruption.
 High-voltage power supply: High voltage refers to an output on the order of
hundreds or thousands of volts. High-voltage supplies use a linear setup to
produce an output voltage in this range.
 Voltage multipliers: A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that converts AC
electrical power from a lower voltage to a higher DC voltage, typically by means
of a network of capacitors and diodes. The input voltage may be doubled (voltage
doubler), tripled (voltage tripler), quadrupled (voltage quadrupler), and so on.
These circuits allow high voltages to be obtained using a much lower voltage AC
source.

Applications :

 Computer Power Supply:A modern computer power supply is a switch-

mode power supply that converts AC power from the mains supply, to
several DC voltages.
 Welding Power Supply: Arc welding uses electricity to melt the surfaces
of the metals in order to join them together through coalescence. The
electricity is provided by a welding power supply, and can either be AC or
DC.
 AC Adapter: A power supply that is built into an AC mains power plug is
known as a "plug pack" or "plug-in adapter", or by slang terms such as
"wall wart".
2.1.10 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB):

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically

connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces
etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. When the
board has only copper tracks and features, and no circuit elements such as
capacitors, resistors or active devices have been manufactured into the actual
substrate of the board, it is more correctly referred to as printed wiring board
(PWB) or etched wiring board.

Fig 2.30 Printed circuit board

Types:

 Single Sided Board: This is the least complex of the Printed Circuit
Boards, since there is only a single layer of substrate. All electrical parts
and components are fixed on one side and copper traces are on the other
side.
 Fig 2.31 single sided PCB

 Double Sided Board: This is the most common type of board, where
parts and components are attached to both sides of the substrate.

Fig 2.32 Double Sided Board

 Multi Layered Board: Multi layered PCB consists of several layers of
substrate separated by insulation.

Fig 2.33 Multi layered

Applications:

Typical applications for Printed Circuits are as follows

 General Electronics Products - includes consumer products, some

computer and computer peripherals, as well as general military hardware.
 Dedicated Service Electronics – Includes Communication Equipment,
sophisticated business machines, instruments and military equipment.
 High Reliability Electronics – Includes Military and Commercial
equipment where continued performance or performance on demand is
critical.
 2.1.11 REGULATORS:
Regulator is a device that maintains a designated characteristic, as in:
 Battery Regulator: A battery balancer or battery regulator is a device in a battery
pack that performs battery balancing.

Fig 2.34 Battery regulator

 Pressure Regulator :A pressure regulator is a valve that automatically cuts off

the flow of a liquid or gas at a certain pressure.

Fig 2.35 Pressure Regulator

  Dividing Regulator : A diving regulator is a pressure regulator used in
scuba or surface supplied diving equipment that reduces pressurized
breathing gas to ambient pressure and delivers it to the diver.

Fig 2.36 Dividing Regulator

 Voltage Regulator: A voltage regulator is designed to automatically

maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-
forward" design or may include negative feedback control loops.

Fig 2.37 Voltage Regulator

2.1.12 MICROCONTROLLER :

A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated µC, uC or MCU) is a small computer

on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and
programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR
flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small
amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in
contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general
purpose applications.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such

as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote
controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded
systems.

Fig 2.38 Microcontroller

2.1.13 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM:

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation

system that provides location and time information in all weather conditions,
anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four
or more GPS satellites. The system provides critical capabilities to military, civil
and commercial users around the world. It is maintained by the United States
government and is freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.

The GPS project was developed in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous
navigation systems, integrating ideas from several predecessors, including a
number of classified engineering design studies from the 1960s.

Fig 2.39 Global Positioning System

Basic Concept: A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the
signals sent by GPS satellites high above the Earth. Each satellite continually
transmits messages that include

 the time the message was transmitted

 satellite position at time of message transmission

The receiver uses the messages it receives to determine the transit time of each
message and computes the distance to each satellite using the speed of light. Each
of these distances and satellites' locations define a sphere. The receiver is on the
surface of each of these spheres when the distances and the satellites' locations are
correct. These distances and satellites' locations are used to compute the location
of the receiver using the navigation equations. This location is then displayed,
perhaps with a moving map display or latitude and longitude; elevation
information may be included. Many GPS units show derived information such as
direction and speed, calculated from position changes.

Application:

 Navigation: GPS allows soldiers to find objectives, even in the dark or in

unfamiliar territory, and to coordinate troop and supply movement

 Target tracking: Various military weapons systems use GPS to track potential
ground and air targets before flagging them as hostile

 Astronomy: Both positional and clock synchronization data is used in

Astrometry and Celestial mechanics calculations. It is also used in amateur
astronomy using small telescopes to professionals observatories.

 Cellular telephony: Clock synchronization enables time transfer, which is

critical for synchronizing its spreading codes with other base stations to
facilitate inter-cell handoff and support hybrid GPS/cellular position detection
for mobile emergency calls and other applications.
2.1.14 GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION (GSM):

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications, originally Groupe Spécial

Mobile), is a standard set developed by the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe protocols for second generation (2G) digital
cellular networks used by mobile phones. It became the de facto global standard
for mobile communications with over 80% market share.

The GSM standard was developed as a replacement for first generation (1G)
analog cellular networks, and originally described a digital, circuit switched
network optimized for full duplex voice telephony. This was expanded over time
to include data communications, first by circuit switched transport, then packet
data transport via GPRS (General Packet Radio Services) and EDGE (Enhanced
Data rates for GSM Evolution or EGPRS).

"GSM" is a trademark owned by the GSM Association.

Fig 2.40 GSM

2.1.15 RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION(RFID):

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is the wireless non-contact use of radio-

frequency electromagnetic fields to transfer data, for the purposes of
automatically identifying and tracking tags attached to objects. Some tags require
no battery and are powered and read at short ranges via magnetic fields
(electromagnetic induction). Others use a local power source and emit radio
waves (electromagnetic radiation at radio frequencies). The tag contains
electronically stored information which may be read from up to several meters
away. Unlike a bar code, the tag does not need to be within line of sight of the
reader and may be embedded in the tracked object.

RFID tags are used in many industries. An RFID tag attached to an automobile
during production can be used to track its progress through the assembly line.
Pharmaceuticals can be tracked through warehouses. Livestock and pets may have
tags injected, allowing positive identification of the animal.

Fig 2.41 Radio Frequency Identification

Radio frequency is a technology similar in theory to bar code identification. An
RFID system consists of an antenna and a transceiver, which read the radio
frequency and transfer the information to a processing device, and a transponder,
or tag, which is an integrated circuit containing the RF circuitry and information
to be transmitted.

Applications:

RFID can be used in a variety of applications, such as:

 Access management

 Tracking of goods

 Tracking of persons and animals

 Toll collection and contactless payment

 Machine readable travel documents

 Tracking sports memorabilia to verify authenticity

 Airport baggage tracking logistics

Fig 2.42 Radio Frequency Identification

 CHAPTER 3:
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig 3.1 Block Diagram

 3.2 FLOW CHART:

Fig 3.2 Flowchart showing working of Solar Tracker

 3.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

Fig 3.3 Schematic Of Solar Tracker

3.4 SPECIFIC COMPONENTS USED IN CIRCUIT:

3.4.1 RESITOR:

Resistors are the most commonly used component in electronics and their purpose
is to create specified values of current and voltage in a circuit. A device used in
electrical circuits to maintain a constant relation between current flow and
voltage. Resistors are used to step up or lower the voltage at different points in a
circuit and to transform a current signal into a voltage signal or vice versa, among
other uses. The electrical behavior of a resistor obeys Ohm's law for a constant
resistance; however, some resistors are sensitive to heat, light, or other variables.
Variable resistors, or rheostats, have a resistance that may be varied across a
certain range, usually by means of a mechanical device that alters the position of
one terminal of the resistor along a strip of resistant material. A number of
different resistors are shown:

Fig 3.4 Some Low Power Resistor Fig 3.5 High-power resistors and rheostats
The symbol for a resistor is shown in the following diagram:

Fig 3.6 Symbol of Resistor

Color Coding: Resistance value is marked on the resistor body. Most resistors
have 4 bands. The first two bands provide the numbers for the resistance and the
third band provides the number of zeros. The fourth band indicates the tolerance.
Tolerance values of 5%, 2%, and 1% are most commonly available.

Fig 3.7 Color Coding of Resistor

3.4.2 CAPACITORS:

Capacitors are components that are used to store an electrical charge and are used
in timer circuits. A capacitor may be used with a resistor to produce a timer.
Sometimes capacitors are used to smooth a current in a circuit as they can prevent
false triggering of other components such as relays. When power is supplied to a
circuit that includes a capacitor - the capacitor charges up.

When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static

electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on
one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the
electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas
of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an
early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a
small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit,
resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an
undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitor electron storing ability (called capacitance) is measured in Farads.

Fig 3.8 Capacitor

A basic capacitor is made up of two conductors separated by an insulator, or
dielectric. The dielectric can be made of paper, plastic, mica, ceramic, glass, a
vacuum or nearly any other nonconductive material. Some capacitors are called
electrolytics, meaning that their dielectric is made up of a thin layer of oxide
formed on a aluminum or tantalum foil conductor.

The capacitance value of any capacitor is a measure of the amount of electric

charge stored per unit of potential difference between the plates. The basic unit of
capacitance is a farad; however, this unit has been too large for general use until
the invention of the double-layer capacitor, so microfarad (μF, or less correctly
uF), nanofarad (nF) and picofarad (pF) are more commonly used.

Electrolytic Capacitor: An electrolytic capacitor is a capacitor that uses an

electrolyte (an ionic conducting liquid) as one of its plates to achieve a larger
capacitance per unit volume than other types, but with performance
disadvantages. All capacitors conduct alternating current (AC) and block direct
current (DC) and can be used, amongst other applications, to couple circuit blocks
allowing AC signals to be transferred while blocking DC power, to store energy,
and to filter signals according to their frequency.

Fig 3.9 Electrolytic Capacitor

3.4.3 TEMPERATURE SENSORS:

Temperature sensors are devices used to measure the temperature of a medium.

There are 2 kinds on temperature sensors:

 Contact Sensors: Contact temperature sensors measure the temperature of

the object to which the sensor is in contact by assuming or knowing that
the two (sensor and the object) are in thermal equilibrium, in other words,
there is no heat flow between them.

 Noncontact Sensors: Most commercial and scientific noncontact

temperature sensors measure the thermal radiant power of the Infrared or
Optical radiation received from a known or calculated area on its surface
or volume within it.

Table 3.1 Types of Temperature Sensor

3.4.4 DC GEARED MOTOR:

Geared DC motors can be defined as an extension of DC motor which already had

its insight details demystified. A geared DC Motor has a gear assembly attached
to the motor. The speed of motor is counted in terms of rotations of the shaft per
minute and is termed as RPM .The gear assembly helps in increasing the torque
and reducing the speed. Using the correct combination of gears in a gear motor,
its speed can be reduced to any desirable figure. This concept where gears reduce
the speed of the vehicle but increase its torque is known as gear reduction.

External Structure: At the first sight, the external structure of a DC geared

motor looks as a straight expansion over the simple DC ones.

Fig 3.10 External Structure of DC Geared Motor

The lateral view of the motor shows the outer protrudes of the gear head. A nut is
placed near the shaft which helps in mounting the motor to the other parts of the
assembly.
 Fig 3.11 Lateral view of DC Geared Motor

Working of the DC Geared Motor: The DC motor works over a fair range of
voltage. The higher the input voltage more is the RPM (rotations per minute) of
the motor. For example, if the motor works in the range of 6-12V, it will have the
least RPM at 6V and maximum at 12 V.

In terms of voltage, we can put the equation as:

RPM= K1 * V, where,

K1= induced voltage constant

V=voltage applied

The working of the gears can be explained by the principle of conservation of

angular momentum. The gear having smaller radius will cover more RPM than
the one with larger radius. However, the larger gear will give more torque to the
smaller gear than vice versa. The comparison of angular velocity between input
gear (the one that transfers energy) to output gear gives the gear ratio. When
multiple gears are connected together, conservation of energy is also
followed. The direction in which the other gear rotates is always the opposite of
the gear adjacent to it.
3.4.5 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE(LED):

A light emitting diode (LED) is known to be one of the best optoelectronic

devices out of the lot. The device is capable of emitting a fairly narrow bandwidth
of visible or invisible light when its internal diode junction attains a forward
electric current or voltage. The visible lights that an LED emits are usually
orange, red, yellow, or green. The invisible light includes the infrared light. The
biggest advantage of this device is its high power to light conversion efficiency.
That is, the efficiency is almost 50 times greater than a simple tungsten lamp.

LED Characteristics:

Fig 3.12 LED Characteristics

The forward bias Voltage-Current (V-I) curve and the output characteristics curve
is shown in the figure above. The V-I curve is practically applicable in burglar
alarms. Forward bias of approximately 1 volt is needed to give significant forward
current. The second figure is used to represent a radiant power-forward current
curve. The output power produced is very small and thus the efficiency in
electrical-to-radiant energy conversion is very less.
LED as an Indicator:The circuit shown below is one of the main applications of
LED. The circuit is designed by wiring it in inverse parallel with a normal diode,
to prevent the device from being reverse biased. The value of the series resistance
should be half, relative to that o f a DC circuit

Fig 3.13 LED as an indicator

LEDS displays are made to display numbers from segments. One such design is
the seven-segment display as shown below. Any desired numerals from 0-9 can
be displayed by passing current through the correct segments. To connect such
segment a common anode or common cathode cathode configuration can be used.
Both the connections are shown below. The LED’s are switched ON and OFF by
using transistors.
3.4.6 ZENER DIODE:
The characteristics of a regular junction diode will show that it is designed
primarily for operation in the forward direction. Forward biasing will cause a
large IF with a rather small value of VF. Reverse biasing will generally not cause
current conduction until higher values of reverse voltage are reached.

Fig 3.14 Symbol of Zener diode

Characteristics:

Fig 3.15 V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

 In the forward bias direction, the zener diode behaves like an ordinary silicon
diode.
 In the reverse bias direction, there is practically no reverse current flow until the
breakdown voltage is reached. When this occurs there is a sharp increase in
reverse current.
 Varying amount of reverse current can pass through the diode without damaging
it. The breakdown voltage or zener voltage (VZ) across the diode remains
relatively constant.
 The maximum reverse current is limited, however, by the wattage rating of the
diode.

Operation of Zener Diode:

 Zener diodes are normally used only in the reverse bias direction.

 It means that the anode must be connected to the negative side of the voltage
source and the cathode must be connected to the positive side.

 A main difference between zener diodes and regular silicon diodes is the way they
are used in the circuits.

 It is primarily used to regulate the circuit voltage as it has constant VZ.

 A large change in IR will cause only a small change in VZ. It means that a zener
diode can be used as an alternate current path. The constant V Z developed across
the diode can then be applied to a load.

Thus the load voltage remains at constant by altering the current flow through the
zener diode.
3.4.7 VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

A small device or circuit that regulates the voltage fed to the microprocessor. The
power supply of most PCs generates power at 5 volts but most microprocessors
require a voltage below 3.5 volts. The voltage regulator's job is to reduce the 5
volt signal to the lower voltage required by the microprocessor. Typically, voltage
regulators are surrounded by heat sinks because they generate significant heat.

7805: 7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series

of fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have
fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC
maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the
fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power
supply..

Fig 3.16 Voltage Regulator 7805

Table 3.1 Pin Description Of Voltage Regulator 7805

Pin No Function Name
1 Input voltage (5V-18V) Input
2 Ground (0V) Ground
3 Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V) Output
3.4.8 PUSH BUTTON:

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch

mechanism for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are
typically made out of hard material, usually plastic or metal. The surface is
usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand, so as to be
easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased switches, though even
many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) require a spring to return to
their un-pushed state.

A Pushbutton Switch is a switch designed so that its contacts are opened and
closed by depressing and releasing a pushbutton on the Switch in the direction of
its axis.

A push button switch is a small, sealed mechanism that completes an electric

circuit when you press on it. When it's on, a small metal spring inside makes
contact with two wires, allowing electricity to flow. When it's off, the spring
retracts, contact is interrupted, and current won't flow

Fig 3.17 Push Button

3.4.9 USB PORT:

A USB port is a standard cable connection interface on personal computers and

consumer electronics. USB ports allow stand-alone electronic devices to be
connected via cables to a computer (or to each other).

USB stands for Universal Serial Bus, an industry standard for short-distance
digital data communications. USB allows data to be transferred between devices.
USB ports can also supply electric power across the cable to devices without their
own power source.

Fig 3.18 USB Port

Devices that can be plugged into a USB Port:

Many types of consumer electronics support USB interfaces. These types of

equipment are most commonly used for computer networking:

 USB network adapters

 USB broadband and cellular modems for Internet access
 USB printers to be shared on a home network
3.4.10 SOLAR PANEL:

A solar panel (also solar module, photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a

packaged, connected assembly of photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used
as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity
in commercial and residential applications. Each panel is rated by its DC output
power under standard test conditions, and typically ranges from 100 to 320 watts.
The efficiency of a panel determines the area of a panel given the same rated
output - an 8% efficient 230 watt panel will have twice the area of a 16% efficient
230 watt panel. Because a single solar panel can produce only a limited amount of
power, most installations contain multiple panels. A photovoltaic system typically
includes an array of solar panels, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and or solar
tracker and interconnection wiring.

Efficiencies: Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce

electricity from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the
entire solar range (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused
light). Hence much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar
panels, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with
monochromatic light..

Fig 3.19 Solar Panel

3.4.11 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR(LDR):

LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor
circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as
1000 000 ohms, but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops
dramatically.

Fig 3.20 LDR

A light dependent resistor is a small, round semiconductor. Light dependent

resistors are used to re-charge a light during different changes in the light, or they
are made to turn a light on during certain changes in lights. One of the most
common uses for light dependent resistors is in traffic lights. The light dependent
resistor controls a built in heater inside the traffic light, and causes it to recharge
over night so that the light never dies. Other common places to find light
dependent resistors are in: infrared detectors, clocks and security alarms.
 Identification:

 A light dependent resistor is shaped like a quarter. They are small, and can be
nearly any size. Other names for light dependent resistors are: photoconductors,
photo resistor, or a CdS cell. There are black lines on one side of the light
dependent resistor. The overall color of a light dependent resistor is gold. Usually
other electrical components are attached to the light dependent resistor by metal
tubes soldered to the sides of the light dependent resistor.

Function:

 The main purpose of a light dependent resistor is to change the brightness of a

light in different weather conditions. This can easily be explained with the use of
a watch. Some watches start to glow in the dark so that it is possible to see the
time without having to press any buttons. It is the light dependent resistor that
allows the watch to know when it has gotten dark, and change the emissions level
of the light at that time. Traffic lights use this principle as well but their lights
have to be brighter in the day time.

Considerations:

 Light dependent resistors have become very useful to the world. Without them
lights would have to be on all the time, or they would have to be manually
adjusted. A light dependent resistor saves money and time for any creation that
needs a change in light. Another feature of the light dependent resistor is that it
can be programmed to turn on with changes in movements.

Benefits

 There are many great benefits to light dependent resistors. They allow less power
to be used in many different kinds of lights. They help lights last much longer.
They can be trigged by several different kinds of triggers, which is very useful for
motion lights and security systems. They are also very useful in watches and cars
so that the lights can turn on automatically when it becomes dark. There are a lot
of things that light dependent resistors can do.
3.4.12 IC USED:
3.4.12.1 L293D: L293D IC is a dual H-bridge motor driver IC. One H-
bridge is capable to drive a dc motor in bidirectional. L293D IC is a current
enhancing IC as the output from the sensor is not able to drive motors itself so
L293D is used for this purpose. L293D is a 16 pin IC having two enables pins
which should always be remain high to enable both the H-bridges. L293B is
another IC of L293 series having two main differences with L293D. The L293D
motor driver is available for providing User with ease and user friendly
interfacing for embedded application. L293D motor driver is mounted on a good
quality, single sided non-PTH PCB. The pins of L293D motor driver IC are
connected to connectors for easy access to the driver IC’s pin functions. The
L293D is a Dual Full Bridge driver that can drive up to 1Amp per bridge with
supply voltage up to 24V. It can drive two DC motors, relays, solenoids, etc. The
device is TTL compatible. Two H bridges of L293D can be connected in parallel
to increase its current capacity to 2 Amp.
The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is
designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5
V to 36 V. The L293D is designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up
to600-mA at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V.

Fig 3.21 L293D

Pin Description:

Fig 3.22 Pin Description

The L293D has a total of 16 pins.

 1,2 EN - Used to enable outputs 1 and 2, hook up to Vcc to enable or to

Gnd to disable
 1A - Controls the output direction, hook up to Vcc to enable or to Gnd to
disable
 1Y - Output to the motor, hook up one wire of the motor to this pin
 GND/Heatsink - Hook up to GND (only 1 GND in total must be
connected to GND)
 2Y - Output to the motor, hook up the other wire of the motor to this pin
 2A - Controls output direction, hook up to Vcc to enable or to Gnd to
disable
 Vcc2 - Connect positive contact of power supply for the motor to this pin
  3,4 EN - Used to enable outputs 3 and 4, hook up to Vcc to enable or to
Gnd to disable
 3A - Controls the output direction, hook up to Vcc to enable or to Gnd to
disable
 3Y - Output to the motor, hook up one wire of the motor to this pin
 GND/Heatsink- Hook up to GND (only 1 GND in total must be connected
to GND)
 4Y - Output to the motor, hook up the other wire of the motor to this pin
 4A - Controls output direction, hook up to Vcc to enable or to Gnd to
disable
 Vcc1 - Connect to a power source between 4.5V and 7V. This is used to
power the Motor driver itself.

Features:
· Easily compatible with any of the system

· Easy interfacing through FRC (Flat Ribbon Cable)

· External Power supply pin for Motors supported

· Onboard PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) selection switch

· 2pin Terminal Block (Phoenix Connectors) for easy Motors Connection

· Onboard H-Bridge base Motor Driver IC (L293D)

Technical Specification:

· Power Supply : Over FRC connector 5V DC

.External Power 9V to 24V DC

· Dimensional Size: 44mm x 37mm x 14mm (l x b x h)

· Temperature Range: 0°C to +70 °C

3.4.12.2 ATMEGA 8: The ATmega8 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit
microcontroller based on the AVR RISC architecture. By executing powerful
instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega8 achieves throughputs
approaching 1 MIPS per MHz, allowing the system designer to optimize power
consumption versus processing speed.

The ATmega8 provides the following features: 8K bytes of In-System

Programmable Flash with Read-While-Write capabilities, 512 bytes of EEPROM,
1K byte of SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working
registers, three flexible Timer/Counters with compare modes, internal and
external interrupts, a serial programmable USART, a byte oriented Two-wire
Serial Interface, a 6-channel ADC (eight channels in TQFP and MLF packages)
where four (six) channels have 10-bit accuracy and two channels have 8-bit
accuracy, a programmable Watchdog Timer with Internal Oscillator, an SPI serial
port, and five software selectable power saving modes. The Idle mode stops the
CPU while allowing the SRAM, Timer/Counters, SPI port, and interrupt system
to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the register contents but
freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next Interrupt or
Hardware Reset. In Power-save mode, the asynchronous timer continues to run,
allowing the user to maintain a timer base while the rest of the device is sleeping.
The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I/O modules except
asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC
conversions. In Standby mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while
the rest of the device is sleeping.
Pin Description:

Fig 3.23Pin Description of Atmega 8

VCC: Digital supply voltage.

GND: Ground.

Port B (PB7..PB0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2: Port B is an 8-bit bi-

directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors ( with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current
if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset
condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Depending on the
clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as input to the inverting Oscillator
amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. Depending on the clock
selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the inverting Oscillator
amplifier. If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source,
PB7..6 is used as TOSC2..1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the
AS2 bit in ASSR is set.
Port C (PC5..PC0): Port C is an 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up
resistors (selected for each bit). The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive
characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins
that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are
activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,
even if the clock is not running.

PC6/RESET: If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin.

Note that the electrical characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of
Port C. If the RSTDISBL Fuse is un programmed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A
low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a
Reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to
generate a Reset.

Port D (PD7..PD0): Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up
resistors (selected for each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive
characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins
that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are
activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,
even if the clock is not running.

RESET: Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse
length will generate a reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not
guaranteed to generate a reset.

AVCC: AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, Port C (3..0),
and ADC (7..6). It should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not
used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter.

AREF: AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

ADC7..6 (TQFP and MLF Package Only): In the TQFP and MLF package,
ADC7..6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D converter. These pins are powered
from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.
 3.5 SNAPSHOT

Fig 3.24 Solar Tracker

3.6 WORKING OF SOLAR TRACKER

3.6.1 Connection with USB Port

RS232 Serial protocol maintains a connection between our circuitry and
computer interface. RS232 is a standard for serial binary single ended data
and control signals connecting between DTE (Data Terminal End) and
DCE (Data Communication Equipment). It is used for serial
communication of microcontroller with computer.

Fig 3.25 USB Cable

3.6.2 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

LDR’s that are placed on either side of panel use light intensity as an
input and rotate the panel to the right side, if an angle of incidence is less
than 900 and to the left, if an angle of incidence is more than 900. If an
angle of incidence is 900, then solar panel will give maximum output
power.
 Fig 3.26 LDR, its internal structure and Stamplot of LDR

3.6.3 Microcontroller
This is used for signal transfer. For transferring signal, microcontroller
used is ATMEGA 8. The output of LDR is analog signal which is
converted to digital signal with the help of ADC (Analog to Digital
Converter). The output of microcontroller is passed to input of L293D.
 Fig 3.27 Master Circuit Fig 3.28 Audrino Circuit

3.6.4 L293D
It works on the principle of H-bridge. It is a motor driving circuit. It
consists of four outputs; out of which we are using two outputs. These two
outputs are used to rotate motor on the signals from microcontroller.

Fig 3.29 L293D Circuit

3.6.5 DC Geared Motor

As the output from L293D motor will either rotate in clockwise or
anticlockwise direction. This will rotate the panel that is fixed to it. We
used motor is DC Geared motor. For more precise output we can use
Stepper Motor.
 Fig 3.30 DC Geared Motor

3.6.6 Solar Panel

Solar Panel that is fixed to motor moves accordingly to the output of
motor. This movement of panel can track the maximum efficiency. Its
output is used for various applications.

Fig 3.31 Solar Panel

3.6.7 Rechargeable Battery

The output of Panel can be used to charge the battery. This battery is used
as a supply for input of L293D.
 Fig 3.32 Rechargeable Battery

3.6.8 Graph Showing Variation of outputs of TDR and Solar Tracker

Fig 3.33 Stamplot of TDR and Solar Tracker

3.7 BASIC CONCEPT

3.7.1 Solar Tracker: A solar tracker is a generic term used to describe devices
that orient various payloads toward the sun. Payloads can be photovoltaic panels,
reflectors, lenses or other optical devices. More energy is produced by tracking
the solar panel to remain aligned to the sun at a right angle to the rays of light.
This project describes in detail the design and construction of a prototype for
solar tracking system with two degrees of freedom, which detects the sunlight
using photo sensors.

The control circuit for the solar tracker is based on an Atmega8 microcontroller
(MCU). This is programmed to detect the sunlight through the photo sensors and
then actuate the motor to position the solar panel where it can receive maximum
sunlight.

In standard photovoltaic (PV) applications trackers are used to minimize the angle
of incidence between the incoming light and a photovoltaic panel.

In concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) and concentrated solar thermal (CSP)

applications trackers are used to enable the optical components in the CPV and
CSP systems.

Fig 3.34 Solar Tracker

3.7.2 Types Of Solar Tracker: There are various types of solar trackers:

3.7.2.1 Horizontal axle solar tracker: In this type of tracking system a long
horizontal tube is supported on bearing mounted upon the tube and the tube will
rotate on the axis to track the apparent motion of the sun through the day. As they
do not tilt towards the equator so therefore they are not that much effective in
during the winter midday (unless located near the equator), but these tracking
system are very much productive in during the spring and summer season when
the solar path is high in the sky.

Fig 3.35 Horizontal axle solar tracker

3.7.2.2 Vertical axle solar tracker: In this type of tracking system the panels are
mounted on a vertical axle at a fixed, adjustable or tracking elevation angle. Such
trackers with fixed or (seasonably) adjustable angles are suitable for high
altitudes. This is because at high latitudes the apparent solar path is not especially
high but which leads to long days in summer, with the sun traveling through a
long arc.
 Fig 3.36 Vertical axle solar tracker

3.7.2.3 Altitude azimuth solar tracker: Here the mounting is done in such a way
so that it supports the entire weight of the solar tracker and allows it to
move in both directions and locate a specific target. The horizontal axis
(called the azimuth) allows the telescope to move up and down, the axis,
vertical, (called the azimuth), allows the telescope to swing in a circle
parallel to the ground.

Fig 3.37 Altitude azimuth solar tracker

3.7.2.4 Two axis mount solar tracker: In two axis mount, one axis is a vertical
pivot shaft or horizontal ring mount that allows the device to be swung to a
compass point. The second axis is a horizontal elevation pivot mounted upon the
azimuth platform.

Fig 3.38 Two axis mount solar tracker

3.7.2.5 Multi-mirror reflective unit: This device uses multiple mirrors in a

horizontal plane to reflect sunlight upward to a high temperature
photovoltaic or other system requiring concentrated solar power.

Fig 3.39 Multi-mirror reflective unit

3.7.2.6 Active tracker: It uses motors and gear trains to direct the tracker in the
direction of the sun. A controller is used to control the motors and the gear
trains so that it moves accordingly and the panel faces the sun in the right
direction required.

Fig 3.40 Active Tracker

3.7.2.7 Passive tracker: Use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid that is
driven to one side or the other to cause the tracker to move in response to
an imbalance.

3.7.2.8 Chronological tracker: It counteracts the earth’s rotation at an equal rate

as the earth, but in the opposite direction. These trackers are very simple
but yet potentially very accurate solar trackers specifically for use with a
polar mount.

Solar Energy can be converted into electrical energy through solar cells and the
energy generated is called PhotoVoltaic (PV) energy. Solar energy refers
primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends. Solar technologies are
broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way
they capture, convert and distribute solar energy.
About half the incoming solar energy reaches the Earth's surface. The Earth
receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper
atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is
absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the
Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a
small part in the near-ultraviolet.

Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises
their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises,
causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high
altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which
rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water
condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as
wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land
masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °C. By photosynthesis
green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which produces food,
wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.

3.7.3 Photoelectric Effect: In the photoelectric effect, electrons are emitted from
matter (metals and non-metallic solids, liquids or gases) as a consequence of their
absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength and
high frequency, such as ultraviolet radiation. Electrons emitted in this manner
may be referred to as photoelectrons. The photoelectric effect requires photons
with energies from a few electronvolts to over 1 MeV in high atomic number
elements.

3.7.4 Emission mechanism: The photons of a light beam have a characteristic

energy proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, if
an electron within some material absorbs the energy of one photon and acquires
more energy than the work function (the electron binding energy) of the material,
it is ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the
material. Increasing the intensity of the light beam increases the number of
photons in the light beam, and thus increases the number of electrons excited, but
does not increase the energy that each electron possesses.

Electrons can absorb energy from photons when irradiated, but they usually
follow an "all or nothing" principle. All of the energy from one photon must be
absorbed and used to liberate one electron from atomic binding, or else the energy
is re-emitted. If the photon energy is absorbed, some of the energy liberates the
electron from the atom, and the rest contributes to the electron's kinetic energy as
a free particle.

Fig 3.41 Photoelectric effect

3.7.4 How solar cells Generate electricity: The operation of a photovoltaic (PV)
cell requires 3 basic attributes:

 The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.

 The collection of the light-generated carries to generate a current.

 The separation of various types of charge carriers.

 The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

 The generation of a large voltage across the solar cell; and

 The dissipation of power in the load and in parasitic resistances.

Fig 3.42 Generation of electricity by solar tracker

3.8 Source Code

const int analogInPin = A5; // Analog input pin that the

potentiometer is attached to
const int analogInPin1 = A4;
const int analogInPin2 = A3;
const int analogInPin3 = A2;
int sig1=6;
int sig2=5;

int sensorValue = 0; // value read from the pot

int outputValue = 0; // value output to the PWM (analog
out)
int sensorValue1 = 0; // value read from the pot
int outputValue1 = 0;
int sensorValue2 = 0; // value read from the pot
int outputValue2 = 0; // value output to the PWM (analog
out)
int sensorValue3 = 0; // value read from the pot
int outputValue3 = 0;
void setup() {
// initialize serial communications at 9600 bps:
Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(sig1,OUTPUT);
pinMode(sig2,OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(sig1,LOW);
digitalWrite(sig2,LOW);
}

void loop() {
// read the analog in value:
sensorValue = analogRead(analogInPin);
// map it to the range of the analog out:
outputValue = map(sensorValue, 0, 1023, 0, 255);
sensorValue1 = analogRead(analogInPin1);
// map it to the range of the analog out:
outputValue1 = map(sensorValue1, 0, 1023, 0, 255); // change
the analog out value:
sensorValue2 = analogRead(analogInPin2);
// map it to the range of the analog out:
outputValue2 = map(sensorValue2, 0, 1023, 0, 255);
sensorValue3 = analogRead(analogInPin3);
// map it to the range of the analog out:
outputValue3 = map(sensorValue3, 0, 1023, 0, 255);
int difference = outputValue - outputValue1;
int difference1 = outputValue1 - outputValue;
if (difference >10){
digitalWrite(sig1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(sig2,LOW);}
if (difference1 >10){
digitalWrite(sig2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(sig1,LOW);}
// print the results to the serial monitor:

Serial.print(outputValue);
 Serial.print(",");
Serial.print(outputValue1);
Serial.print(",");
Serial.print(outputValue2);
Serial.print(",");
Serial.println(outputValue3);

// wait 2 milliseconds before the next loop

// for the analog-to-digital converter to settle
// after the last reading:
delay(2);
}
 CHAPTER 4
4.1 ADVANTAGES:

 Solar energy is produced by conducting the sun’s radiation – a process

void of any smoke, gas, or other chemical by-product thus is eco-friendly.
 Beyond initial installation these equipment does not require any fuel hence
it is free and available everywhere.
 Such solar energy systems are virtually maintenance free and will last for
decades.

 It actively contributes to decrease of harmful green house gas emissions .

 This system of energy conversion is noiseless and cheap.
 Maintenance cost is low.
 They are highly reliable.
 Have long life.
 Pollution free.
 Suitable for mobile loads such as cars, busses etc.
 No fuel is required.
 These system are suitable for rural, remote and isolated areas.
 Modularity in operation.
 System modularity allows users to start with small system for single
applications and add on to their systems as their needs increase.
4.2 DISADVANTAGES:

 Initial cost is high.

 Require storage batteries for supply power during night.
 Solar power plants require large area.
 Do not generate power during cloudy season.
4.3 APPLICATIONS: By the generation the maximum power from the solar
energy we can use it in many areas like:

 Solar lighting: - As the name suggest solar lighting refers to the generation
of light sources using solar energy and is electrically converted into
another form of energy. It is widely used in street lighting.
 Solar vehicles:- Solar energy is used for battery charging systems which
support solar vehicles and it basically works on the energy received by
sun.
 Electrical generation:- Solar cells are generally used to generate Electrical
energy and then this energy can be conservated or converted in other form
of energy. The conservated or converted energy is used in many
applications in our daily life.
 Cooking:- Solar energy is also used for the purpose of cooking and the
device is known as solar cooker.
 Water treatment:- Solar water geysers are used for the treatment of water
and this form of energy is also used to pump water for drinking and
irrigation.
 Use in daily life:- Solar energy is widely required to operate gadgets of
daily use such as in pocket calculators, watches, toys, electric fences etc.
And also are best suited for rural areas and in rural telephone exchange
operations.
 4.5 FUTURE SCOPE:

Although there are many reasons to believe that the future of solar energy is
bright and coming soon, the answer really lies in the hands of the world's
citizens. In a world largely governed by economics and politics, what ordinary
citizens choose to buy and support will dictate the trends of the future. By
installing solar panels, donating to research organizations involved in alternative
energies, majoring in science or engineering, and voting for measures that give
money to alternative energy development, anyone can influence
the future of solar energy.

There are always remains an infinite scope of improvement to a system design. Its
only the time and financial constraints that impose a limit on the development.
Following are the few enhancements that may add further value to the system.

 The rechargeable batteries used, get recharged through the solar energy trapped
by the solar panel. The energy in rechargeable batteries can further be used for
many applications like mobile charging.
 During rains, rainfall sensors can be used to keep the system working.
 The computer and System Control Unit would have a wireless communication
with the mechanical structure of solar panel.
 To make emergency control better more powerful microcontrollers would be use.
 Filtered Series PWM charge mode & state of charge (SOC)
 3 status charging: Equalization, battery charge function
 Temperature compensation sensor optional
 Charge voltage selector for different type battery.
 Full circuit protection and resume with fuse.
 Automatic current limit output when overload or temperature.
 Overload and short circuit protection and resume when released.
 Reverse current at night.
 Lighting protection.
 Over temperature protection, de-rate current first and then shut off up to 60
degree.
CONCLUSION:

Firstly, we chose to work on solar project because of the enormous scope of

development and implementation in our country. Because of this marvelous form
of harvesting energy, many houses in rural areas can now enjoy the blessing of
electricity.

But solar energy utilization in rural area is not the answer to the question throw by
solar energy. We have to harvest it efficiently and use it to our full benefit. And
through our thesis, we effectively tried to propose the solar panels to have sun
tracking mechanism. Although this technology is nothing new to this world but it
is something new for our country.

Commercially, two axis sun tracking is still rare even in countries where a
significant part of electricity is being generated by solar energy as they claim that
single axis tracking is doing the job. But dual axis tracking can significantly
increase the efficiency – the prime objective of our thesis.

Through our experiments, we have found that dual axis tracking can increase
energy by about 40% of the fixed arrays. With more works and better systems, we
believe that this figure can raise more. And since the world will face energy crisis
because of the limited amount of resources in the future, it is always wise to start
early. Even 1% improvement in efficiency would save tons of fuels and ores in a
year and that is not a small amount.

Solar energy is unlimited, solar panels are easy to maintain and has a very long
lifetime. All these favor the use of it in our country. With a system that can track
the sun – this renewable energy can be harvested even more efficiently and maybe
two houses can be supplied with electricity using the panel that could only
support one house without any tracking mechanism. We hope that there will be
more research on this and our country will move forward to implement sun
tracking system to minimize the electricity crisis that is hitting us at the very
moment.
4.6 REFERENCES:

 Wikipedia
 Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory - Boylestad
 Non Conventional Energy Resources – G.D Rai
 Non Conventional Energy Resources – S. Hasan Saeed & D.K Sharma