Mathematical Foundations of the

Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity

Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2008-2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

Abstract: Starting from the action function, we have derived a theoretical background that leads to
the quantization of gravity and the deduction of a correlation between the gravitational and the inertial
masses, which depends on the kinetic momentum of the particle. We show that the strong equivalence
principle is reaffirmed and, consequently, Einstein's equations are preserved. In fact, such equations
are deduced here directly from this new approach to Gravitation. Moreover, we have obtained a
generalized equation for the inertial forces, which incorporates the Mach's principle into Gravitation.
Also, we have deduced the equation of Entropy; the Hamiltonian for a particle in an electromagnetic
field and the reciprocal fine structure constant directly from this new approach. It was also possible to
deduce the expression of the Casimir force and to explain the Inflation Period and the Missing Matter,
without assuming existence of vacuum fluctuations. This new approach to Gravitation will allow us to
understand some crucial matters in Cosmology.

Key words: Quantum Gravity, Quantum Cosmology, Unified Field.

PACs: 04.60.-m; 98.80.Qc; 04.50. +h

Contents

1. Introduction 3

2. Theory 3

Generalization of Relativistic Time 4

Quantization of Space, Mass and Gravity 6

Quantization of Velocity 7

Quantization of Time 7

Correlation Between Gravitational and Inertial Masses 8

Generalization of Lorentz's Force 12

Gravity Control by means of the Angular Velocity 13

Gravitoelectromagnetic fields and gravitational shielding effect 14

Gravitational Effects produced by ELF radiation upon electric current 26

Magnetic Fields affect gravitational mass and the momentum 27

Gravitational Motor 28

Gravitational mass and Earthquakes 28

The Strong Equivalence Principle 30

 2

Incorporation of the Mach's Principle into Gravitation Theory 30

Deduction of the Equations of General Relativity 30

Gravitons: Gravitational Forces are also Gauge forces 31

Deduction of Entropy Equation starting from the Gravity Theory 31

Unification of the Electromagnetic and Gravitational Fields 32

Elementary Quantum of Matter and Continuous Universal Fluid 34

The Casimir Force is a gravitational effect related to the Uncertainty Principle 35

The Shape of the Universe and Maximum speed of Tachyons 36

The expanding Universe is accelerating and not slowing down 38

Gravitational and Inertial Masses of the Photon 39

What causes the fundamental particles to have masses? 40

Electron’s Imaginary Masses 41

Transitions to the Imaginary space-time 43

Explanation for red-shift anomalies 48

Superparticles (hypermassive Higgs bosons) and Big-Bang 49

Deduction of Reciprocal Fine Structure Constant and the Uncertainty Principle 51

Dark Matter, Dark Energy and Inflation Period 51

The Origin of the Universe 57

Solution for the Black Hole Information Paradox 59

A Creator’s need 61

The Origin of Gravity and Genesis of the Gravitational Energy 62

Explanation for the anomalous acceleration of Pioneer 10 64

New type of interaction 66

Appendix A 69

Allais effect explained 69

Appendix B 72

References 73

1. INTRODUCTION
Quantum Gravity was originally
studied, by Dirac and others, as the
problem of quantizing General
Relativity. This approach presents
many difficulties, detailed by Isham
[1]. In the 1970's, physicists tried an
even more conventional approach:
simplifying Einstein's equations by
assuming that they are almost linear,
and then applying the standard
methods of quantum field theory to
the thus oversimplified equations. But
this method, too, failed. In the 1980's
a very different approach, known as
string theory, became popular. Thus
far, there are many enthusiasts of
string theory. But the mathematical
difficulties in string theory are
formidable, and it is far from clear that
they will be resolved any time soon.
At the end of 1997, Isham [2] pointed
out several "Structural Problems
Facing Quantum Gravity Theory". At
the beginning of this new century,
the problem of quantizing the
gravitational field was still open.
In this work, we propose a new
approach to Quantum Gravity.
Starting from the generalization of the
action function we have derived a
theoretical background that leads to
the quantization of gravity. Einstein's
General Relativity equations are
deduced directly from this theory of
Quantum Gravity. Also, this theory
leads to a complete description of the
Electromagnetic Field, providing a
consistent unification of gravity with
electromagnetism.
2. THEORY
We start with the action for a
free-particle that, as we know, is
given by
3
b
S = −α ∫a ds
where α is a quantity which
characterizes the particle.
In Relativistic Mechanics, the
action can be written in the following
form [3]:
t2 t2
S = ∫ Ldt = − ∫ αc 1 − V 2 c 2 dt
t1 t1
where
L = −αc 1 − V 2 c 2
is the Lagrange's function.
In Classical Mechanics, the
Lagrange's function for a free-particle
is, as we know, given by: L = aV 2
where V is the speed of the particle
and a is a quantity hypothetically [4]
given by:
a=m 2
where m is the mass of the particle.
However, there is no distinction about
the kind of mass (if gravitational
mass, m g , or inertial mass mi ) neither
about its sign (±) .
The correlation between a and
α can be established based on the
fact that, on the limit c → ∞ , the
relativistic expression for L must be
reduced to the classic expression
L = aV 2 .The result [5] is: L = αV 2 2c .
Therefore, if α = 2 ac = mc , we obtain
L = aV 2 . Now, we must decide if
m = mg or m = mi . We will see in this
work that the definition of m g includes
mi . Thus, the right option is m g , i.e.,
a = mg 2 .
Consequently, α = m g c and the
generalized expression for the action
of a free-particle will have the
following form:
(1)
b
S = −m g c ∫ ds
a
or
 4

t2
S = − ∫ mg c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt (2) sign if m g < 0 . This means that M g
t1
will be always positive. Consequently,
where the Lagrange's function is r
we will express the momentum p in
L = −mg c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 . (3) the following form
r
t2
The integral S = ∫t m g c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt , r m gV r
1 p = = M gV (4)
preceded by the plus sign, cannot 1−V 2 c2
have a minimum. Thus, the integrand r
The derivative dp dt is the
of Eq.(2) must be always positive.
Therefore, if m g > 0 , then necessarily inertial force Fi which acts on the
particle. If the force is perpendicular
t > 0 ; if m g < 0 , then t < 0 . The
to the speed, we have
possibility of t < 0 is based on the r
r mg
well-known equation t = ± t0 1 − V 2 c 2 Fi =
dV
(5)
1−V c
2 2 dt
of Einstein's Theory.
Thus if the gravitational mass However, if the force and the speed
of a particle is positive, then t is also have the same direction, we find that
positive and, therefore, given by r
r mg
t = +t0 1−V 2 c2 . This leads to the Fi =
dV
(6)
( )
3
2
dt
well-known relativistic prediction that 1−V c
2 2

the particle goes to the future, if From Mechanics [6], we know that
V → c . However, if the gravitational r r
p ⋅ V − L denotes the energy of the
mass of the particle is negative, then
particle. Thus, we can write
t is negative and given by
r r mg c 2
t = − t0 1 −V 2 c2 . In this case, the Eg = p ⋅ V − L = = M g c2 (7)
prediction is that the particle goes to 1−V c 2 2

the past, if V → c . Consequently, Note that Eg is not null for V =0, but
m g < 0 is the necessary condition for
that it has the finite value
the particle to go to the past. Further E g 0 = mg 0 c 2 (8)
on, a correlation between the
gravitational and the inertial masses Equation (7) can be rewritten in
will be derived, which contains the the following form:
possibility of m g < 0 . mg c 2
E g = mg c −
2
− mg c 2 =
The Lorentz's transforms follow 1−V c 2 2

the same rule for m g > 0 and m g < 0 ,

⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎞⎥
1−V mg ⎢ 2 ⎛⎜ mi c 2
2 2
i.e., the sign before c will be
2 ⎟⎥
= mi c + − mi c =
(+ ) when m g > 0 and (− ) if m g < 0 . mi ⎢ ⎜ 1−V 2 c2 ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎝144424443⎠⎥
The momentum, as we know, ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
r r EKi
is the vector p = ∂L ∂V .Thus, from
mg m
Eq.(3) we obtain r
= (Ei 0 + EKi ) = g Ei (9)
mi mi
r mgV r
p = = M gV By analogy to Eq. (8), Ei 0 = mi 0 c 2 into
± 1−V 2 c2
the equation above, is the
The (+ ) sign in the equation above inertial energy at rest. Thus,
will be used when m g > 0 and the (− ) Ei = Ei 0 + EKi is the total inertial
 5

energy, where E Ki is the kinetic ∂Φ Gm g

=
inertial energy. From Eqs. (7) and (9) ∂r r 2 1 − V 2 c 2
we thus obtain
By definition, the gravitational
mi 0 c 2
Ei = = M ic2. (10) potential energy per unit of
1−V c 2 2
gravitational mass of a particle inside
For small velocities (V <<c) , we a gravitational field is equal to the
gravitational potential Φ of the field.
obtain
Thus, we can write that
Ei ≈ mi 0 c 2 + 12 miV 2 (11) U (r )
Φ=
where we recognize the classical m′g
expression for the inertial kinetic
Then, it follows that
energy of the particle.
The expression for the
∂U (r ) ∂Φ m g m ′g
gravitational kinetic energy, E Kg , is Fg = − = − m ′g = −G
∂r ∂r r 2 1 −V 2 c2
easily deduced by comparing Eq.(7)
with Eq.(9). The result is
mg If m g > 0 and m ′g < 0 , or m g < 0 and
EKg = EKi . (12)
mi m ′g > 0 the force will be repulsive; the
In the presented picture, we force will never be null due to the
r
can say that the gravity, g , in a existence of a minimum value for m g
gravitational field produced by a (see Eq. (24)). However, if m g < 0
particle of gravitational mass M g ,
and m ′g < 0 , or m g > 0 and m ′g > 0
depends on the particle's gravitational
the force will be attractive. Just
energy, E g (given by Eq.(7)), because
for m g = mi and m ′g = mi′ we obtain
we can write
the Newton's attraction law.
Eg Mgc2 Mg
g =G 2 2
=G 2 2
(13)
=G On the other hand, as we
rc rc r2 know, the gravitational force is
Due to g = ∂Φ ∂r , the expression of conservative. Thus, gravitational
the relativistic gravitational energy, in agreement with the energy
potential, Φ , is given by conservation law, can be expressed
by the decrease of the inertial energy,
GM g G mg
Φ=− =− i.e.,
r r 1 −V 2 c2 ΔE g = −ΔEi (14)
Then, it follows that This equation expresses the fact that
a decrease of gravitational energy
corresponds to an increase of the
GM g Gmg φ
Φ=− =− = inertial energy.
r r 1 − V 2 c2 1 − V 2 c2 Therefore, a variation ΔEi in
E i yields a variation ΔEg = −ΔEi in E g .
where φ = − Gm g r .
Thus Ei = Ei0 + ΔEi ; Eg = Eg0 + ΔEg = Eg0 −ΔEi
Then we get
and
∂Φ
=
∂φ
=
Gm g Eg + Ei = Eg 0 + Ei 0 (15)
∂r ∂r 1 − V c
2 2
r 2 1 −V 2 c2 Comparison between (7) and (10)
whence we conclude that shows that Eg0 = Ei0 , i.e., m g 0 = mi 0 .
Consequently, we have
 6

The minimum energy of a particle

Eg + Ei = Eg 0 + Ei 0 = 2 Ei 0 (16) is obviously its inertial energy at rest
However Ei =Ei0 +EKi.Thus, (16) becomes m g c 2 = mi c 2 . Therefore we can write
E g = Ei 0 − EKi . (17 ) n2h2
= mg c 2
Note the symmetry in the equations of 8m g L2max
Ei and E g .Substitution of Ei0 = Ei − EKi Then from the equation above it follows
into (17) yields that
E i − E g = 2 E Ki (18) mg = ±
nh
(23)
Squaring the Eqs.(4) and (7) and cLmax 8
comparing the result, we find the whence we see that there is a minimum
following correlation between value for m g given by
gravitational energy and momentum :
E g2 mg (min) = ±
h
(24)
= p + mg c .
2 2 2
(19) cLmax 8
c2 The relativistic gravitational mass
The energy expressed as a function of
the momentum is, as we know, called (
M g = mg 1 − V 2 c )
2 − 2
1

, defined in the
Hamiltonian or Hamilton's function:
Eqs.(4), shows that
H g = c p 2 + mg c 2 .
2
(20 )
M g (min) = mg (min) (25)
Let us now consider the problem
of quantization of gravity. Clearly there is The box normalization leads to the
something unsatisfactory about the conclusion that the propagation number
r
whole notion of quantization. It is k = k = 2π λ is restricted to the
important to bear in mind that the
quantization process is a series of rules- values k = 2π n L . This is deduced
of-thumb rather than a well-defined assuming an arbitrarily large but finite
algorithm, and contains many 3
cubical box of volume L [8]. Thus, we
ambiguities. In fact, for electromagnetism
we find that there are (at least) two have
different approaches to quantization and L = nλ
that while they appear to give the same From this equation, we conclude that
theory they may lead us to very different Lmax
quantum theories of gravity. Here we will nmax =
λmin
follow a new theoretical strategy: It is
known that starting from the Schrödinger and
equation we may obtain the well-known Lmin = nmin λ min = λ min
expression for the energy of a particle in Since nmin = 1. Therefore, we can write
periodic motion inside a cubical box of
that
edge length L [ 7 ]. The result now is
n2h2
Lmax = nmax Lmin (26)
En = n = 1,2,3,... (21) From this equation, we thus conclude
8m g L2 that
2 2
Note that the term h 8m g L (energy) L = nLmin (27 )
will be minimum for L = Lmax where Lmax or
Lmax
is the maximum edge length of a cubical L= (28)
box whose maximum diameter n
d max = Lmax 3 (22) Multiplying (27) and (28) by 3 and
is equal to the maximum length scale of reminding that d = L 3 , we obtain
the Universe.
 7

d max From this equation one concludes

d = nd min or d= (29) that we can have V = Vmax or
n
Equations above show that the length V = Vmax 2 , but there is nothing in
(and therefore the space) is quantized.
between. This shows clearly that Vmax
By analogy to (23) we can also
conclude that cannot be equal to c (speed of light in
vacuum). Thus, it follows that
M g (max) =
nmax h
(30) n =1 V = Vmax
cLmin 8
n=2 V = Vmax 2
since the relativistic gravitational mass,
(
M g = mg 1 − V 2 c 2 )− 12
, is just a
n=3
........
V = Vmax 3
..................
Tachyons

multiple of m g . n = nx − 1 V = Vmax (nx − 1)

Equation (26) tells us that −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
Lmin = Lmax nmax . Thus, Eq.(30) can be
n = nx V = Vmax nx = c ←
V = Vmax (nx + 1)
rewritten as follows
2 n = nx + 1 Tardyons
M g (max ) =
n max h
(31) n = nx + 2 V = Vmax (nx + 2)
cLmax 8
...............
...........................
Comparison of (31) with (24) shows that
M g (max ) = nmax
2
m g (min ) (32 ) where nx is a big number.
Then c is the speed upper limit of
which leads to following conclusion that
the Tardyons and also the speed lower
M g = n 2 mg (min ) (33) limit of the Tachyons. Obviously, this limit
This equation shows that the is always the same in all inertial frames.
gravitational mass is quantized. Therefore c can be used as a reference
Substitution of (33) into (13) leads speed, to which we may compare any
to quantization of gravity, i.e., speed V , as occurs for the relativistic
GM g ⎛ G m g (min ) ⎞ factor 1 −V 2 c2 . Thus, in this factor, c
2⎜ ⎟=
g = = n
r2 ⎜ (r n ) 2 ⎟ does not refer to maximum propagation
⎝ max ⎠ speed of the interactions such as some
= n 4 g min (34 ) authors suggest; c is just a speed limit
From the Hubble's law, it follows that which remains the same in any inertial
Vmax = Hlmax = H (d max 2)
~ ~ frame.
The temporal coordinate x 0 of
Vmin = Hl min = H (d min 2)
~ ~
space-time is now x 0 = Vmax t ( x 0 = ct
whence is then obtained Vmax →c ).
when
( )
Vmax d max ~
= Substitution of Vmax = nV = n Hl into this
Vmin d min
Equations (29) tell us that
~ 0
equation yields t = x Vmax = 1 nH x l .
0
( )( )
d max d min = nmax . Thus the equation On the other hand, since V = H l and
~
above gives V = Vmax n we can write that
V min =
V max
n max
(35 ) ~
( )
l = Vmax H −1 n .Thus x 0 l = H (nt) = Ht max .
~ ~
Therefore, we can finally write
which leads to following conclusion

V =
V max
n
(36 ) (~
)( )
t = 1 nH x 0 l = t max n (37)
this equation shows that velocity is also
which shows the quantization of time.
quantized.
 8

From Eqs. (27) and (37) we can

easily conclude that the spacetime is not Δp =
(m g − Δm g ) V
1 − (V c )
2
continuous it is quantized.
Now, let us go back to Eq. (20) From the Eq.(16) we obtain:
Eg = 2Ei 0 − Ei = 2Ei 0 − (Ei 0 + ΔEi ) = Ei 0 − ΔEi
which will be called the gravitational
Hamiltonian to distinguish it from the
inertial Hamiltonian H i : However, Eq.(14) tells us that −ΔEi = ΔEg ;
what leads to Eg = Ei0 + ΔEg or mg = mi0 + Δmg .
H i = c p 2 + mi 0 c 2 .
2
(38)
Thus, in the expression of Δ p we
( )
Consequently, Eq. (18) can be rewritten
in the following form: can replace m g − Δm g for mi 0 , i.e,
H i − H g = 2ΔH i (39) mi0 V
Δp =
where Δ H i is the variation on the
1 − (V c )
2

inertial Hamiltonian or inertial kinetic We can therefore write

energy. A momentum variation Δp yields
Δp
a variation Δ H given by: =
V c
(42)
mi 0 c 1 − (V c )
i 2

ΔHi = ( p + Δp) c2 + mi0 c4 − p2c2 + mi0 c4 (40)

2 2 2
By substitution of the expression above
By considering that the particle is into Eq. (41), we thus obtain:
initially at rest ( p = 0) . Then, Eqs. (20),
(38) and (39) give respectively: Hg = mgc , 2
⎢⎣
(
mg = mi 0 − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 ) − 12
− 1⎤mi 0
⎥⎦
(43)
Hi = mi0c2 and
For V = 0 we obtain mg = mi0 .Then,
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞
ΔH i = 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ mi 0 c 2 mg (min) = mi0(min)
⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ Substitution of m g (min ) into the quantized
By substituting H g , H i and ΔH i into expression of M g (Eq. (33)) gives
Eq.(39), we get
M g = n 2 mi 0(min )
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎛ Δp ⎞
⎢
mg = mi0 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥mi0. (41) where mi 0 (min ) is the elementary
⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠
m c ⎥
⎣ ⎦ quantum of inertial mass to be
determined.
This is the general expression of the For V = 0 , the relativistic
correlation between the gravitational and
inertial mass. Note that expression Mg = mg 1−V2 c2 becomes
for Δ p > m i 0 c ( )
5 2 , the value of m g Mg = Mg0 = mg0 . However, Eq. (43) shows
becomes negative.
that m g 0 = mi 0 . Thus, the quantized
Equation (41) shows that mg
expression of M g reduces to
decreases of Δm g for an increase of
m i 0 = n 2 m i 0 (min )
Δp . Thus, starting from (4) we
obtain In order to define the inertial quantum

p + Δp =
(m g − Δm g ) V
number, we will change n in the
expression above for ni . Thus we have
1 − (V c )
2

By considering that the particle is initially m i 0 = n i2 m i 0 (min ) (44 )

at rest ( p = 0) , the equation above gives
 9

which shows the quantization of inertial 10 9 . In 1963, the experiment was

mass; ni is the inertial quantum number.
We will change n in the quantized
expression of M g for n g in order to
define the gravitational quantum number.
Thus, we have
repeated with an even greater accuracy,
one part in 1011 . The result was the
same previously obtained.
In all these experiments, the ratio
V 2c 2 is less than 10 −17 , which is much
2

smaller than the accuracy of 10 −11

M g = n mi 0(min )
2
g (44a ) obtained in the previous more precise
experiment.
Finally, by substituting m g given Then, we arrive at the conclusion
by Eq. (43) into the relativistic expression that all these experiments say nothing in
regard to the relativistic behavior of
of M g , we readily obtain
masses in relative motion.
mg Let us now consider a planet in the
Mg = = Sun’s gravitational field to which, in the
1−V 2 c2 absence of external forces, we apply
Lagrange’s equations. We arrive at the

⎢⎣
(
= M i − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 )
− 12
− 1⎤⎥ M i
⎦
(45) well-known equation:
2 2
⎛ dr ⎞ 2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞ 2GM i
By expanding in power series and ⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r
neglecting infinitesimals, we arrive at:
dϕ
V2 r2 =h
M g = 1− 2 Mi dt
c where M i is the inertial mass of the Sun.
Since 1 − V 2 c 2 > 0 , the equation above The term E = − GM i a , as we know, is
can be rewritten as follows: called the energy constant; a is the
⎛ V2 ⎞ semiaxis major of the Kepler-ellipse
M g = ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ M i
⎜
(46) described by the planet around the Sun.
⎝ c ⎟⎠ By replacing Mi into the
Thus, the well-known expression for the differential equation above for the
simple pendulum period, T =2π Mi Mg (l g) , ( ) expression given by Eq. (46), and
can be rewritten in the following form: expanding in power series, neglecting
infinitesimals, we arrive, at:
l ⎛⎜ V2 ⎞
T = 2π 1+ 2 ⎟ for V << c ⎛ dr ⎞
2
2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞
2
2GM g 2GM g ⎛ V 2 ⎞
g ⎜⎝ 2c ⎟⎠ ⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E + ⎜ ⎟
⎜ c2 ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r r ⎝ ⎠
Now, it is possible to learn why
Newton’s experiments using simple Since V = ωr = r (dϕ dt ) , we get
2 2 2
penduli do not find any difference ⎛ dr ⎞ 2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞ 2GM g 2GM g r ⎛ dϕ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E + ⎜ ⎟
between M g and M i . The reason is due ⎝ ⎠
dt ⎝ ⎠
dt r c 2 ⎝ dt ⎠
to the fact that, in the case of penduli, the which is the Einsteinian equation of the
2 2 −17 planetary motion.
ratio V 2c is less than 10 , which is
Multiplying this equation by
much smaller than the accuracy of the
mentioned experiments. (dt dϕ )2 and remembering that
Newton’s experiments have been (dt dϕ )2 = r 4 h 2 , we obtain
improved upon (one part in 60,000) by
⎛ dr ⎞
2
⎛ r 4 ⎞ 2GMg r3 2GMg r
Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (1784–1846). ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + r 2 = E⎜ 2 ⎟ + +
⎝ dϕ ⎠ ⎜h ⎟ h2 c2
In 1890, Eötvos confirmed Newton’s ⎝ ⎠
results with accuracy of one part in 10 7 . Making r =1 u and multiplying both
Posteriorly, Eötvos experiment has been members of the equation by u 4 , we get
repeated with accuracy of one part in
 10

⎡ ⎞⎤
2
⎛ du ⎞ E 2GMgu 2GMgu
3
⎛ ⎞ Gmi0 ⎢ ⎛⎜
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + u2 = 2 + + ⎜ 1 ⎟ 1 ⎟
⎝ dϕ ⎠ h h2 c2 ⎜⎜ −1⎟ = − 2 1− 2⎜ −1⎟⎥
⎟ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎝ 1 −V ′ c ⎣ ⎝ 1 −V ′ c
2 2 c r ⎢ 2 2
This leads to the following expression ⎠ ⎠⎦⎥
d 2u GMg ⎛ 3 u2h 2 ⎞ By multiplying both members of this
+u = ⎜1 + ⎟
dϕ 2
h 2 ⎜⎝ c2 ⎟⎠ equation by 1 − V ′ 2 c 2 the result is
In the absence of term 3h 2 u 2 c 2 , the ⎛1 − 1 − V ′ 2 c 2 ⎞ = − Gmi 0 ⎛ 3 1 − V ′ 2 c 2 − 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
integration of the equation should be ⎝ ⎠ c2r ⎝ ⎠
immediate, leading to 2π period. In order For V ′ = c we obtain
to obtain the value of the perturbation we 2Gm i 0
can use any of the well-known methods, 1=
which lead to an angle ϕ , for two c2r
whence
successive perihelions, given by
2Gm i 0
r=
6G 2 M g2 c2
2π + Thus, we see that there is a limit at
c 2h 2 r = 2Gmi 0 c 2 . This is the called
Schwzarzschilds’ radius, which defines
Calculating per century, in the case of the called event horizon of a Black-hole.
Mercury, we arrive at an angle of 43” for In the beginning of this article, it
the perihelion advance. was shown that, besides the inertial
This result is the best theoretical kinetic energy E Ki , there is also the
proof of the accuracy of Eq. (45).
Now consider a relativistic particle gravitational kinetic energy E Kg , which in
inside a gravitational field. The condition agreement with Eq. (12), is expressed by
for it to escape from the gravitational field mg
is that its inertial kinetic energy becomes EKg = EKi
mi
equal to the absolute value of the
gravitational energy of the field, which is Thus, we can write that
given by m′ ⎛ ⎞
′ =⎜ ⎟m′ c2
1
Gm g m ′g ′ = g EKi
EKg − 1
U (r ) = − ′ ⎜ ⎟ g
⎝ 1−V c
mi 2 2
⎠
r 1−V 2 c 2
By multiplying both members of this
By substituting m g and m ′g given by Eq. equation by φ = − Gmi0 r , we can write that
(43) into this expression, and assuming Gmi 0 m ′g ⎛ rc 2 ⎞
that the velocity V of the particle that ′ =−
E Kg ⎜− ⎟ − m ′g c 2
2 ⎜ Gmi 0 ⎟
creates the field is small (V << c ) , we get r 1−V c ⎝ ⎠
2

⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤ As we have shown, in the case of

Gmi 0 mi′0 ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ photons (V ′ = c ) we have
U (r ) = −
1
1 − 2⎜ − 1⎟⎥
r ⎢ ⎜ 1 − V ′2 c 2 ⎟⎥ 2Gm i 0
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ 1=
Due to the fact that the velocity V ′ of c2r
particle inside the field is relativistic, then Thus, the expression of E Kg ′ becomes
its inertial kinetic energy is given by Gmi 0 m ′g
⎛ ⎞ ′ =
E Kg − m ′g c 2
′ = (M i′0 − mi′0 )c 2 = ⎜ ⎟ ′ 2 r 1−V
1 2
c 2
E Ki ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟mi 0 c
⎝ 1 − V ′ 2
c 2
⎠ If the energy of the photon m ′g c 2 is much
Thus, by making E Ki ′ = U (r ) we obtain less than the energy of the relativistic
gravitational field, the equation above
can be rewritten in the following form
 11

Gmi 0 m ′g ∂ψ
′ =
E Kg ω=
r 1−V 2 c 2 ∂T
Thus, we conclude that
ω ∂t
′ into
Substitution of the expression of E Kg =
ω 0 ∂T
this expression gives
whence we obtain
⎛ ⎞ ω
⎜ 1
−1⎟⎟c2 =
Gmi0 t
= =
1
⎜ ω0 T ⎛ φ ⎞
⎝ 1 −V c r 1−V 2 c2
2 2
⎠ ⎜1 + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
which simplifies to
Gm φ By expanding in power series, neglecting
1 −V 2 c2 = 1 − 2i0 = 1+ 2 infinitesimals, we arrive at:
rc c ⎛ φ ⎞
For V << c this expression gives ω = ω 0 ⎜1 − 2 ⎟
2Gmi0 ⎝ c ⎠
V2 = In this way, if a light ray with a frequency
r ω 0 is emitted from a point where the
By substituting this expression of V 2 into gravitational potential is φ1 , it will have a
the equation of g , obtained at the
frequency ω1 . Upon reaching a point
beginning of this work, where we replace
where the gravitational potential is φ 2 its
m g by mi 0 because m g ≅ mi 0 in the case
frequency will be ω 2 . Then, according to
of V << c , the result is
equation above, it follows that
⎛ φ ⎞ ⎛ φ ⎞
∂Φ Gmi 0 ω1 = ω 0 ⎜1 − 12 ⎟ and ω 2 = ω 0 ⎜1 − 22 ⎟
g= = ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
∂r r 2 1 − 2 Gm rc 2
i0 Thus, from point 1 to point 2 the
Note that for r = 2Gmi 0 c 2 there occurs a frequency will be shifted in the
singularity, g → ∞ . interval Δω = ω1 − ω 2 , given by
⎛φ −φ ⎞
Substitution of 1−V 2 c2 =1+ φ c2 Δω = ω 0 ⎜ 2 2 1 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
into the well-known expression below
If Δω < 0 , (φ1 > φ 2 ) , the shift occurs in the
T = t 1 − V 2 c2 direction of the decreasing frequencies
which expresses the relativistic (red-shift). If Δω > 0 , (φ1 < φ 2 ) the blue-
correlation between own time (T) and shift occurs.
universal time (t), gives Let us now consider another
⎛ φ ⎞ consequence of the existence of
T = t ⎜1 + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ correlation between M g and M i .
It is known from the Optics that the Lorentz's force is usually written in
frequency of a wave, measured in units the following form:
of universal time, remains constant r r r r
during its propagation, and that it can be d p dt = qE + qV × B
r r
expressed by means of the following where p = mi 0V 1 − V 2 c 2 . However,
relation: r
∂ψ Eq.(4) tells us that p = mgV 1 − V c .
2 2
ω0 =
∂t Therefore, the expressions above must
where dψ dt is the derivative of the be corrected by multiplying its members
eikonal ψ with respect to the time. by m g mi 0 ,i.e.,
r r
On the other hand, the frequency r mg mg mgV
mi 0V r
of the wave measured in units of own p = = = p
time is given by mi 0 mi 0 1 − V 2 c2 1 − V 2 c2
and
 12

r
⎞
dp d ⎛ r m g
= ⎜p
r
(
r r m
⎟ = qE + qV × B g
⎟
dt dt ⎜⎝ mi 0 mi 0
) dU
dFdt =
v
(49)
⎠
That is now the general expression for However we know that dF= dp dt , then
Lorentz's force. Note that it depends
on m g .
dp =
dU
(50)
v
When the force is perpendicular to From Eq. (48), it follows that
dVdD
the speed, Eq. (5) gives
dU = dPd V = (51)
( )
r r
dp dt = mg dV dt 1−V2 c2 .By comparing v
Substitution into (50) yields
with Eq.(46), we thus obtain
dVdD
(m i0 )( r
)
r r r
1 − V 2 c 2 dV dt = qE + qV × B dp =
v2
(52 )
Note that this equation is the expression or
of an inertial force. Δp 1 D V
Starting from this equation, well- ∫0 dp = ∫0 ∫0 dVdD
known experiments have been carried v2
out in order to verify the relativistic whence
VD
expression: m i 1 − V 2 c 2 . In general, Δp = (53)
v2
the momentum variation Δp is This expression is general for all types of
expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the waves including non-electromagnetic
applied force during a time interval Δt . waves such as sound waves. In this
Note that there is no restriction case, v in Eq.(53), will be the speed of
concerning the nature of the force F , sound in the medium and D the intensity
i.e., it can be mechanical, of the sound radiation.
electromagnetic, etc. In the case of electromagnetic
For example, we can look on the waves, the Electrodynamics tells us that
momentum variation Δp as due to v will be given by
dz ω c
absorption or emission of v= = =
electromagnetic energy by the particle dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎟
2
(by means of radiation and/or by means 2 ⎝ ⎠
of Lorentz's force upon the charge of the
particle). where kr is the real part of the
r r
In the case of radiation (any propagation vector k ; k = k = k r + iki ;
type), Δp can be obtained as follows. It
ε , μ and σ, are the electromagnetic
is known that the radiation pressure ,
characteristics of the medium in which
dP , upon an area dA = dxdy of a the incident (or emitted) radiation is
volume d V = dxdydz of a particle( the propagating ( ε = ε r ε 0 where ε r is the
incident radiation normal to the
relative dielectric permittivity and
surface dA )is equal to the energy dU
ε0 = 8.854×10 F / m ; μ = μ r μ 0 where
−12
absorbed per unit volume (dU dV ) .i.e.,
μ r is the relative magnetic permeability
dP =
dU
=
dU
=
dU
(47) and μ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 H / m ; σ is the
dV dxdydz dAdz
electrical conductivity). For an atom
Substitution of dz = vdt ( v is the speed
inside a body, the incident (or emitted)
of radiation) into the equation above
radiation on this atom will be propagating
gives
dU (dU dAdt ) dD
inside the body, and consequently,
dP == = (48) σ=σbody, ε=εbody, μ=μbody.
dV v v It is then evident that the index of
Since dPdA = dF we can write: refraction nr = c v will be given by
 13

εμ reducing the gravitational mass of the

= r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (54)
c
nr =
2
disk practically disappears. In addition,
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ the equation above shows that, in
On the other hand, from Eq. (50) follows practice, the frequency f of the
that radiation cannot be high, and that
U ⎛c⎞ U extremely-low frequencies (ELF) are
Δp = ⎜ ⎟ = nr
v ⎝c⎠ c most appropriated. Thus, if the frequency
Substitution into Eq. (41) yields of the electromagnetic radiation applied
upon the disk is f = 0.1Hz (See Fig. I (a))
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪ and the radius of the disk is R = 0.15m ,
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜
U
n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi0
2 r⎟
(55)
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎥⎪ and its angular speed
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ (
ω = 1.05×10 rad / s ~ 100,000 rpm ,
4
) the
If the body is also rotating, with an result is
angular speed ω around its central axis, m g (disk ) ≅ −2.6mi 0(disk )
then it acquires an additional energy
equal to its rotational energy This shows that the gravitational mass of
(E )
= 1 2 Iω 2 . Since this is an increase
k
a body can also be controlled by means
of its angular velocity.
in the internal energy of the body, and In order to satisfy the condition
this energy is basically electromagnetic, U << ΔU , we must have dU dt <<dΔU dt ,
we can assume that E k , such as U , where Pr = dU dt is the radiation power.
corresponds to an amount of By integrating this expression, we
electromagnetic energy absorbed by the
get U = Pr 2 f . Thus we can conclude
body. Thus, we can consider E k as an
that, for U << ΔU , we must have
increase ΔU = E k in the electromagnetic
Pr 2 f << 12 Iω 2 , i.e.,
energy U absorbed by the body.
Consequently, in this case, we must Pr << Iω 2 f
replace U in Eq. (55) for (U + ΔU ) . If By dividing both members of the
U << ΔU , the Eq. (55) reduces to expression above by the area S = 4πr 2 ,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ we obtain
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Iω 2 n r ⎞ ⎪
m g ≅ ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥⎥ ⎬mi 0 Iω 2 f
⎜ 2m c 2 ⎟ Dr <<
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ i0 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
⎩ 4πr 2
For σ << ωε , Eq. (54) shows that Therefore, this is the necessary condition
in order to obtain U << ΔU . In the case
n r = c v = ε r μ r and n r = μσc 2 4πf in of the Mumetal disk, we must have
the case of σ >> ωε . In this case, if the
body is a Mumetal disk
Dr << 10 5 r 2 (
watts / m 2 )
(μ r = 105,000 at 100gauss; σ = 2.1 × 10 S.m −1
7
) From Electrodynamics, we know
that a radiation with frequency f
( )
with radius R , I = 1 2 mi 0 R , the equation
2 propagating within a material with
electromagnetic characteristics ε, μ and
above shows that the gravitational mass
of the disk is
σ has the amplitudes of its waves
attenuated by e−1=0.37 (37%) when it
⎧ ⎡ R4ω 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
⎪ penetrates a distance z, given by *
mg (disk ) ≅ ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.12 × 10−13 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0(disk )
⎪⎩ ⎢ f ⎥⎪ 1
⎣ ⎦⎭ z=
Note that the effect of the ω 1 2 εμ ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε )2 − 1⎞⎟
electromagnetic radiation applied upon ⎝ ⎠
the disk is highly relevant, because in the
absence of this radiation the index of
refraction, present in equations above, *
Quevedo, C. P. (1978) Eletromagnetismo
becomes equal to 1. Under these McGraw-Hill, p.269-270.
circumstances, the possibility of strongly
 14

For σ >>ωε , the equation above reduces ∇.DG = − ρ

to
∂BG
z=
1 ∇ × EG = −
πμfσ ∂t
In the case of the Mumetal subjected to ∇.BG = 0
an ELF radiation with frequency ∂DG
f = 0.1Hz , the value is z = 1.07 mm . ∇ × H G = − jG +
∂t
Obviously, the thickness of the Mumetal where DG = 4ε rG ε 0G E G is the
disk must be less than this value.
Equation (55) is general for all gravitodisplacement field ( ε rG is the
types of electromagnetic fields including gravitoelectric relative permittivity of the
gravitoelectromagnetic fields (See Fig. I medium; ε 0G is the gravitoelectric
(b)).
permittivity for free space and E G = g
is the gravitoelectric field intensity); ρ is
Transmitter the density of local rest mass in the local
ELF electromagnetic radiation
rest frame of the matter;
BG = μ rG μ 0G H G is the gravitomagnetic
field ( μ rG is the gravitomagnetic relative
Mumetal disk permeability, μ 0G is the gravitomagnetic
Motor permeability for free space and H G is
the gravitomagnetic field intensity;
jG = −σ G E G is the local rest-mass
Balance current density in this frame ( σ G is the
gravitoelectric conductivity of the
(a)
medium).
Then, for free space we can write
that
⎛ GM ⎞
Gravitoelectric DG = 4ε 0G EG = 4ε 0G g = 4ε 0G ⎜ 2 ⎟
Field ⎝ r ⎠
But from the electrodynamics we know
that
q
D = εE =
Acceleration

4πr 2
By analogy we can write that
Mg
Gravitomagnetic DG =
Field 4πr 2
By comparing this expression with the
(b)
previous expression of DG , we get
Fig. I – (a) Experimental set-up in order to measure the 1
gravitational mass decreasing in the rotating Mumetal ε 0G = = 2.98 × 10 8 kg 2 .N −1 .m − 2
disk. A sample connected to a dynamometer can measure 16πG
the decreasing of gravity above the disk. (b) which is the expression of the
Gravitoelectromagnetic Field. gravitoelectric permittivity for free
space.
The gravitomagnetic permeability
The Maxwell-like equations for for free space [10,11] is
16πG
weak gravitational fields are [9] μ 0G = 2
= 3.73 × 10 −26 m kg
c
We then convert Maxwell-like equations
 15

for weak gravity into a wave equation for ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫

⎪ ⎢ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎥⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ G 2 ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi0
free space in the standard way. We
conclude that the speed of Gravitational ⎜ρ c ⎟
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎪
Waves in free space is ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
1
v= =c ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
ε 0G μ 0G ⎪ ⎛ BG2 ⎞
⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬mi 0 (55a)
⎢ 2 ⎟ ⎥⎪
This means that both electromagnetic ⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ μ0G ρ c ⎠ ⎥⎦⎭
and gravitational plane waves propagate ⎩
at the free space with the same speed. where ρ = mi 0 V .
Thus, the impedance for free space is This equation shows how the
EG 16πG gravitational mass of a particle is altered
ZG = = μ0G ε 0G = μ0G c = by a gravitomagnetic field.
HG c
A gravitomagnetic field, according
and the Poynting-like vector is
r r r to Einstein's theory of general relativity,
S = EG × H G arises from moving matter (matter
For a plane wave propagating in the current) just as an ordinary magnetic
vacuum, we have E G = Z G H G . Then, it field arises from moving charges. The
Earth rotation is the source of a very
follows that
weak gravitomagnetic field given by
r 1 r 2 ω 2 r 2 c 2ω 2
S = EG = h = h0i
2
μ 0G ⎛ Mω ⎞
2Z G 2Z G 32πG BG ,Earth = − ⎜ ⎟ ≈ 10 −14 rad .s −1
16π ⎝ r ⎠ Earth
which is the power per unit area of a
harmonic plane wave of angular Perhaps ultra-fast rotating stars can
frequency ω . generate very strong gravitomagnetic
In classical electrodynamics the fields, which can make the gravitational
density of energy in an electromagnetic mass of particles inside and near the star
negative. According to (55a) this will
field, We , has the following expression
occur if BG > 1.06c μ 0G ρ . Usually,
We = 12 ε r ε 0 E 2 + 12 μ r μ 0 H 2
however, gravitomagnetic fields
In analogy with this expression we produced by normal matter are very
define the energy density in a weak.
gravitoelectromagnetic field, WG , as Recently Tajmar, M. et al., [12]
follows have proposed that in addition to
WG = 12 ε rG ε 0G EG2 + 12 μ rG μ 0G H G2 the London moment, B L ,
For free space we obtain ( )
( BL = − 2m* e* ω ≅ 1.1×10−11ω ; m and
*

μ rG = ε rG = 1 e* are the Cooper-pair mass and charge

ε 0G = 1 μ 0G c 2 respectively), a rotating superconductor
E G H G = μ 0G c should exhibit also a large
gravitomagnetic field, BG , to explain an
and
BG = μ 0 G H G apparent mass increase of Niobium
Cooper-pairs discovered by Tate et
Thus, we can rewrite the equation of WG al[13,14]. According to Tajmar and Matos
as follows [15], in the case of coherent matter, BG
2
⎛ 1⎞ 2 2 1 ⎛B ⎞ B2 is given by: BG = −2ωρc μ0G λ2gr where ρ c
WG = 1⎜ ⎟c BG + μ0G ⎜ G ⎟ = G
2⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ μ0G ⎟
⎝ μ0G c ⎠
2
⎝ ⎠ μ0G is the mass density of coherent matter
and λ gr is the graviphoton wavelength.
Since U G = WGV , (V is the volume of the By choosing λ gr proportional to the local
particle) and nr = 1 for free space we density of coherent matter, ρ c . i.e.,
can write (55) in the following form
 16

1 ⎛ m gr c ⎞ By means of (55c) it is possible to

= ⎜⎜ ⎟ = μ 0G ρ c check the changes in the gravitational
λ2gr h ⎟
⎝ ⎠ mass of the coherent part of a given
we obtain material (e.g. the Cooper-pair fluid). Thus
⎛ 1 ⎞ for the electrons of the Cooper-pairs we
BG = −2ωρc μ0G λ2gr = −2ωρc μ0G ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = have
⎝ μ0G ρ c ⎠
= −2ω ⎡ 2⎤
⎛ 2 ⎞
= mie + 2⎢1 − 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥m =
BG
and the graviphoton mass, m gr , is m ge 2 ⎟ ⎥ ie
⎢ μ ρ
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G e ⎠ ⎥
c
m gr = μ 0 G ρ c h c ⎦
Note that if we take the case of no ⎡ 2⎤
⎛ 4ω 2 ⎞ ⎥
local sources of coherent matter (ρ c = 0 ) , ⎢
= mie + 2 1 − 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ m =
⎢ 2 ⎟ ⎥ ie
the graviphoton mass will be zero. μ ρ
⎝ 0G e ⎠ ⎥
c
⎣⎢ ⎦
However, graviphoton will have non-zero
mass inside coherent matter (ρ c ≠ 0 ) . = mie + χ e mie
This can be interpreted as a
consequence of the graviphoton gaining where ρ e is the mass density of the
mass inside the superconductor via the electrons.
Higgs mechanism due to the breaking of In order to check the changes in
gauge symmetry. the gravitational mass of neutrons and
It is important to note that the protons (non-coherent part) inside the
minus sign in the expression for BG superconductor, we must use Eq. (55a)
can be understood as due to the and BG = −2ωρμ 0G λ2gr [Tajmar and
change from the normal to the
coherent state of matter, i.e., a switch Matos, op.cit.]. Due to μ 0G ρ c λ2gr = 1 ,
between real and imaginary values that expression of BG can be rewritten in
for the particles inside the material the following form
BG = −2ωρμ 0G λ2gr = −2ω (ρ ρ c )
when going from the normal to the
coherent state of matter. Consequently,
in this case the variable U in (55) Thus we have
must be replaced by iU G and not by U G ⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ BG2 ⎞
only. Thus we obtain mgn = min − 2 1+ ⎜ ⎟ −1⎥min =
⎢ ⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟ ⎥
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G n ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ UG ⎞ ⎪
mg = ⎨1− 2 1− ⎜⎜ n ⎟ −1⎥⎬mi0 (55b)
2 r⎟
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
⎛ 4ω2 (ρn ρc )2 ⎞
2
⎪ ⎣ ⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎦⎪⎭ ⎢
⎩ = min − 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ −1⎥min =
⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟ ⎥
Since U G = WGV , we can write (55b) ⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G n ⎠ ⎥⎦
for nr = 1 , in the following form
= min − χnmin
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ WG ⎞ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬mi 0
2
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎢ ⎛ B2 ⎞
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc c ⎠
2 ⎟ ⎥⎪ mgp = mip − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ G ⎟ −1⎥m =
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎜ μ0G ρ p c ⎟
2 ⎥ ip
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ B 2
⎞ ⎥⎪⎬m (55c)
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ − ⎡ ⎤
( )2 ⎞⎟
G
2 ⎟
1 2
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ μ 0G ρ c c ⎠ ⎥⎪ i 0 ⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ρ p ρc ⎥
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ = mip − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ − 1⎥mip =
⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟
where ρ c = mi 0 V is the local density ⎢ ⎝ 0G p ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
of coherent matter. = mip − χ p mip
Note the different sign (inside
the square root) with respect to (55a).
 17

where ρ n and ρ p are the mass density Δm g = m g − m i 0 = − χ p m i 0

of neutrons and protons respectively.
In Tajmar’s experiment, induced By comparing this expression with
accelerations fields outside the Δm g ≈ 1 × 10 −4 mi which has been
superconductor in the order of 100 μg , at
obtained from Tajmar’s experiment, we
−1
angular velocities of about 500rad .s conclude that at angular velocities
were observed. ω ≈ 500rad .s −1 we have
Starting from g = Gm g (initial ) r we
χ p ≈ 1 × 10 −4
(
can write that g + Δg = G mg(initial) + Δmg r . ) From the expression of m gp we get
Then we get Δg = GΔmg r . For
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ B G2 ⎞ ⎥
Δg =ηg =ηGmg(initial) r it follows that χ p = 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ =
⎜ μ 0G ρ p c ⎟
2
Δ m g = η m g (initial ) = η m i . Therefore a ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
variation of Δg = ηg corresponds to a ⎡ ⎤
( )
2
⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ρ p ρ c 2 ⎞ ⎥
gravitational mass variation Δmg = ηmi0 . = 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟
Thus Δg ≈ 100μg = 1×10−4 g corresponds ⎢
⎣
⎝ 0G p ⎠ ⎥
⎦
to where ρ p = m p V p is the mass density
Δm g ≈ 1 × 10 −4 mi 0 of the protons.
On the other hand, the total In order to calculate V p we need
gravitational mass of a particle can be
expressed by to know the type of space (metric) inside
the proton. It is known that there are just
mg = Nnmgn + N pmgp + Nemge + N p ΔE c2 = 3 types of space: the space of positive
Nn (min − χnmin ) + N p (mip − χ pmip ) + curvature, the space of negative
curvature and the space of null
+ Ne (mie − χemie ) + N pΔE c2 = curvature. The negative type is
= (Nnmin + N pmip + Nemie ) + N pΔE c2 − obviously excluded since the volume of

− (Nn χnmin + N p χ pmip + Ne χemie ) + N p ΔE c2 =

the proton is finite. On the other hand,
the space of null curvature is also
= mi − (Nn χnmin + N p χ pmip + Ne χemie ) + N pΔE c2 excluded since the space inside the
proton is strongly curved by its enormous
where ΔE is the interaction mass density. Thus we can conclude that
energy; N n , N p , N e are the number of inside the proton the space has positive
neutrons, protons and electrons curvature. Consequently, the volume of
respectively. Since min ≅ mip and the proton, V p , will be expressed by the
ρ n ≅ ρ p it follows that χn ≅ χ p and 3-dimensional space that corresponds to
a hypersphere in a 4-dimentional space,
consequently the expression of mg i.e., V p will be the space of positive
reduces to curvature the volume of which is [16]
2ππ π
mg ≅ mi0 − (2Npχpmip + Neχemie ) + NpΔE c2 (55d ) Vp = ∫ ∫ ∫ rp sin
3 2
χ sin θdχdθdφ = 2π 2 r p3
000

Assuming that Ne χemie <<2Np χ pmip and
Np ΔE c2 <<2Npχpmip Eq. (55d) reduces to
mg ≅ mi0 − 2Npχpmip = mi − χpmi
In the case of Earth, for example,
ρ Earth << ρ p . Consequently the
curvature of the space inside the Earth is
approximately null (space approximately
(55e) flat). Then V Earth ≅ 3 π r Earth .
4 3

or
For rp = 1.4 ×10−15 m we then get
 18

mp ⎡ 2⎤
ρp = ≅ 3 × 1016 kg / m 3 ⎛ ω 2 ⎞
Vp χ = 2⎢1 − 1 − ⎜⎜
* 4 ⎟ ⎥ = 0.84 × 10−4
⎢ * 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ μ 0G ρ c ⎠ ⎥
Starting from the London moment ⎦
it is easy to see that by precisely From this equation we then obtain
measuring the magnetic field and the
angular velocity of the
superconductor, one can calculate the
ρ * ≅ 3 × 1016 kg / m 3
mass of the Cooper-pairs. This has Note that ρ p ≅ ρ * .
been done for both classical and high-Tc Now we can calculate the
superconductors [17-20]. In the
graviphoton mass, m gr , inside the
experiment with the highest precision to
date, Tate et al, op.cit., reported a Cooper-pairs fluid (coherent part of the
disagreement between the theoretically superconductor) as
predicted Cooper-pair mass in Niobium
of m* 2me = 0.999992 and its m gr = μ 0G ρ * h c ≅ 4 × 10 −52 kg
experimental value of 1.000084(21) ,
Outside the coherent matter (ρ c = 0 ) the
where me is the electron mass. This
graviphoton mass will be zero
anomaly was actively discussed in the
literature without any apparent solution (m gr = μ 0 G ρ c h c = 0 . )
−1
[21-24]. Substitution of ρp, ρc =ρ and ω ≈ 500rad.s
*
If we consider that the apparent
mass increase from Tate’s into the expression of χ p gives
measurements results from an increase
in the gravitational mass m*g of the χ p ≈ 1 × 10 −4
Cooper-pairs due to BG , then we can
write Compare this value with that one
obtained from the Tajmar experiment.
m *g m *g
= * = 1.000084 Therefore, the decrease in the
2m e mi gravitational mass of the superconductor,
expressed by (55e), is
Δm *g = m *g − m *g (initial ) = m *g − m i* =
m g ,SC ≅ mi ,SC − χ p mi ,SC
= 1.000084 m i* − mi* =
≅ mi ,SC − 10 − 4 mi ,SC
−4
= +0.84 × 10 mi* =χ *
m i* This corresponds to a decrease of the
−4
where χ = 0.84 × 10 .
* −2
order of 10 % in respect to the initial
From (55c) we can write that gravitational mass of the superconductor.
However, we must also consider the
⎡ 2⎤ gravitational shielding effect, produced
⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ⎞ ⎥ * −2
m*g = mi* + 2 1− 1− ⎜ ⎟ mi = by this decrease of ≈ 10 % in the
⎢ ⎜ μ ρ*c2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G ⎠ ⎥ gravitational mass of the particles inside
⎦ the superconductor (see Fig. II).
= mi* + χ * mi* Therefore, the total weight decrease in
the superconductor will be much greater
−2
than 10 % . According to Podkletnov
where ρ * is the Cooper-pair mass
experiment [25] it can reach up to 1% of
density. the total weight of the superconductor
(5000rpm) . In this
Consequently we can write −1
at 523.6rad .s
experiment a slight decrease (up to
≈ 1% ) in the weight of samples hung
above the disk (rotating at 5000rpm) was
 19

observed. A smaller effect on the order acceleration, g ′ , upon the particle m ′g ,

of 0.1% has been observed when the
r GM g
disk is not rotating. The percentage of is g ′ = − g = + μ̂ . This means that
weight decrease is the same for samples R2
of different masses and chemical in this case, the gravitational flux, φ g′ ,
compounds. The effect does not seem to
diminish with increases in elevation through the particle m ′g will be given by
above the disk. There appears to be a φ g′ = g ′S = − gS = −φ g , i.e., it will be
“shielding cylinder” over the disk that symmetric in respect to the flux when
extends upwards for at least 3 meters.
No weight reduction has been observed
m′g = mi′0 (third case). In the second case
under the disk. (m′g ≅ 0) , the intensity of the
It is easy to see that the decrease
gravitational force between m ′g and M g
in the weight of samples hung above the
disk (inside the “shielding cylinder” over will be very close to zero. This is
the disk) in the Podkletnov experiment, equivalent to say that the gravity
is also a consequence of the acceleration upon the particle with mass
Gravitational Shielding Effect showed in m ′g will be g ′ ≅ 0 . Consequently we can
Fig. II.
write that φ g′ = g ′S ≅ 0 . It is easy to see
In order to explain the
Gravitational Shielding Effect, we start that there is a correlation between
with the gravitational field, m ′g m i′0 and φ g′ φ g , i.e.,
r GM g
g=− μ̂ , produced by a particle
R2 _ If m ′g mi′0 = −1 ⇒ φ g′ φ g = −1
with gravitational mass, M g . The
gravitational flux, φ g , through a spherical _ If m ′g m i′0 = 1 ⇒ φ g′ φ g = 1
surface, with area S and radius R ,
concentric with the mass M g , is given _ If m ′g m i′0 ≅ 0 ⇒ φ g′ φ g ≅ 0
by
r r Just a simple algebraic form contains the
φ g = ∫ gdS = g ∫ dS = g S = requisites mentioned above, the
S S
correlation
=
GM g
2
(4πR ) = 4πGM
2
g
φ g′
=
m ′g
R
φ g mi′0
Note that the flux φ g does not depend on
By making m ′g mi′0 = χ we get
the radius R of the surface S , i.e., it is
the same through any surface concentric
with the mass M g . φ g′ = χ φ g
Now consider a particle with
gravitational mass, m ′g , placed into the This is the expression of the gravitational
flux through m ′g . It explains the
gravitational field produced by Mg.
Gravitational Shielding Effect presented
According to Eq. (41), we can in Fig. II.
have m′g mi′0 = −1, m′g mi′0 ≅ 0 † , m′g mi′0 = 1, As φg = gS and φ g′ = g ′S , we obtain
etc. In the first case, the gravity

† g′ = χ g
The quantization of the gravitational mass
(Eq.(33)) shows that for n = 1 the gravitational This is the gravity acceleration inside m ′g .
mass is not zero but equal to mg(min).Although the Figure II (b) shows the gravitational
gravitational mass of a particle is never null,
shielding effect produced by two particles
Eq.(41) shows that it can be turned very close to
zero.
at the same direction. In this case, the
 20

gravity acceleration inside and above the flux on the surface α returns from O′ to
second particle will be χ 2 g if m g 2 = m i1 . O and is detected by the
These particles are representative galvanometer G . That is, there is no
of any material particles or material deflection for the cathodic rays. Then it
r r
substance (solid, liquid, gas, plasma, follows that eVB = eEy since FB = FE .
electrons flux, etc.), whose gravitational
mass have been reduced by the Then, we get
factor χ . Thus, above the substance, the Ey
V =
gravity acceleration g ′ is reduced at the B
same proportion χ = m g mi 0 , and, This gives a measure of the velocity of
the electrons.
consequently, g ′ = χ g , where g is the Thus, by means of the
gravity acceleration below the substance. experimental set-up, shown in Fig. III, we
Figure III shows an experimental can easily obtain the velocity V of the
set-up in order to check the factor χ electrons below the body β , in order to
above a high-speed electrons flux. As we calculate the theoretical value of χ . The
have shown (Eq. 43), the gravitational experimental value of χ can be obtained
mass of a particle decreases with the
by dividing the weight, Pβ′ = m gβ g ′ of
increase of the velocity V of the particle.
~
Since the theory says that the the body β for a voltage drop V across
factor χ is given by the correlation the anode and cathode, by its
m g mi 0 then, in the case of an electrons weight, Pβ = m gβ g , when the voltage
flux, we will have that χ = mge mie where ~
V is zero, i.e.,
m ge as function of the velocity V is Pβ′ g′
χ = =
given by Eq. (43). Thus, we can write Pβ g
that
According to Eq. (4), the gravitational
mass, M g , is defined by
m ge ⎧⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
χ = = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬ mg
mie ⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ 1−V c
2 2
⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ Mg =
1 − V 2 c2
Therefore, if we know the velocity V of
the electrons we can calculate χ . ( mie is While Eq. (43) defines m g by means of
the electron mass at rest). the following expression
When an electron penetrates the ⎧⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
electric field E y (see Fig. III) an electric m g = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0
r r ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
force, FE = −eE y , will act upon the
r In order to check the gravitational mass
electron. The direction of FE will be of the electrons it is necessary to know
r the pressure P produced by the
contrary to the direction of E y . The
r electrons flux. Thus, we have put a
magnetic force FB which acts upon the piezoelectric sensor in the bottom of the
r glass tube as shown in Fig. III. The
electron, due to the magnetic field B , is electrons flux radiated from the cathode
r r
FB = eVBμ̂ and will be opposite to FE is accelerated by the anode1 and strikes
because the electron charge is negative. on the piezoelectric sensor yielding a
By adjusting conveniently B we pressure P which is measured by
r r means of the sensor.
can make FB = FE . Under these
circumstances in which the total force is
zero, the spot produced by the electrons
 21

g g′ < g g′ < 0

mg = mi mg < mi mg < 0

g g g

(a)

Particle 2 P2 = mg 2 g′ = mg 2 ( x g )
mg 2
g′ < g due to the gravitational
g′ shielding effect produced by mg 1

mg 1 = x mi 1 ; x < 1
Particle 1
mg 1 P1 = mg 1 g = x mi 1 g
g

(b)

Fig. I I – The Gravitational Shielding effect.

 22

Let us now deduce the correlation piezoelectric sensor is the resultant of

between P and M ge . all the forces Fφ produced by each
When the electrons flux strikes electrons flux that passes through
the sensor, the electrons transfer to it each hole of area S φ in the grid of the
a momentum Q = neqe = ne MgeV . anode 1, and is given by
Since Q = FΔt = 2Fd V , we conclude that ⎛ αnSφ ⎞ ~ 32
F = nFφ = n(PSφ ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟
M VV
⎛F⎞
2d ⎝ 2ed ⎠
ge

M ge = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
V2
⎝ ne ⎠ where n is the number of holes in the
The amount of electrons, ne , is given grid. By means of the piezoelectric
sensor we can measure F and
by ne = ρSd where ρ is the amount of
consequently obtain M ge .
electrons per unit of volume
We can use the equation
(electrons/m3); S is the cross-section
above to evaluate the magnitude of
of the electrons flux and d the
the force F to be measured by the
distance between cathode and
piezoelectric sensor. First, we will find
anode.
the expression of V as a function of
In order to calculate ne we will ~
V since the electrons speed V
start from the Langmuir-Child law and ~
the Ohm vectorial law, respectively depends on the voltage V .
given by We will start from Eq. (46)
~ 3 which is the general expression for
and J = ρ cV , (ρ c = ρ e )
V2
J =α Lorentz’s force, i.e.,
r
( )
d dp r r r mg
where J is the thermoionic current = qE + qV × B
− 32
dt mi 0
density; α = 2.33 × 10 − 6 A.m −1 .V is
~ When the force and the speed
the called Child’s constant; V is the have the same direction Eq. (6) gives
voltage drop across the anode and r r
dp mg dV
cathode electrodes, and V is the =
( )
3
velocity of the electrons. dt 1 − V 2 c 2 2 dt
By comparing the Langmuir- By comparing these expressions we
Child law with the Ohm vectorial law obtain
we obtain r
r r r
~ 3
mi 0 dV
= q E + qV × B
αV
( )
2 3
ρ= 1 − V 2 c 2 2 dt
ed 2V
Thus, we can write that In the case of electrons accelerated
~ 3 by a sole electric field (B = 0) , the
αV S 2

ne = equation above gives

edV r r ~
and r dV
a=
dt
=
eE
mie
(
1 − V 2 c2
2eV
mie
)
⎛ 2ed ⎞ 2
M ge = ⎜⎜ ~ 3 ⎟⎟ P Therefore, the velocity V of the
⎝ α VV 2 ⎠ electrons in the experimental set-up
Where P = F S , is the pressure to be is
measured by the piezoelectric ~
( 2eV
)
3

sensor. V = 2ad = 1 − V c 2 2 4

In the experimental set-up the mie

total force F acting on the From Eq. (43) we conclude that
 23

Dynamometer (D)

d
~
Collimators g’= χ g ↓g + Vy
Grid d Collimators B
O’ +
α γ
F
e V
y Ey O⋅ e

Anode 1 Filaments Cathode Anode 2

Piezoelectric − G ↓iG
sensor
- +

~
V

+ −

Fig. III – Experimental set-up in order to check the factor χ above a high-speed electrons flux.
The set-up may also check the velocities and the gravitational masses of the electrons.
 24

mge ≅ 0 when V ≅ 0.745c . Substitution If we have nSφ ≅ 0.16m 2 and

of this value of V into equation above d = 0.08m in the experimental set-up
~
gives V ≅ 479.1KV . This is the then it follows that
~
F = 1.82 × 1014 M geVV
3
voltage drop necessary to be applied 2

across the anode and cathode ~

electrodes in order to obtain mge ≅ 0 . By varying V from 10KV up to 500KV
we note that the maximum value for
Since the equation above can ~
be used to evaluate the velocity V of F occurs when V ≅ 344.7 KV . Under
~ these circumstances, V ≅ 0.7c and
the electrons flux for a given V , then
M ge ≅ 0.28mie . Thus the maximum
we can use the obtained value of V to
r value for F is
evaluate the intensity of B in order to
produce eVB = eE y in the Fmax ≅ 1.9 N ≅ 190 gf
~
experimental set-up. Then by Consequently, for Vmax = 500KV , the
adjusting B we can check when the piezoelectric sensor must satisfy the
electrons flux is detected by the following characteristics:
galvanometer G . In this case, as we
have already seen, eVB = eE y , and − Capacity 200gf
the velocity of the electrons flux is − Readability 0.001gf
calculated by means of the
expression V = E y B . Substitution of Let us now return to the
explanation for the findings of
V into the expressions of m ge and
Podkletnov’s experiment. Next, we
M ge , respectively given by will explain the decrease of 0.1% in
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪ the weight of the superconductor
1
mge = ⎨1 − 2⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬mie when the disk is only levitating but not
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ rotating.
Equation (55) shows how the
and gravitational mass is altered by
electromagnetic fields.
mge The expression of nr for
M ge =
1 − V 2 c2 σ >> ωε can be obtained from (54),
yields the corresponding values of in the form
μσ c 2
m ge and M ge which can be compared
nr =
c
= (56 )
with the values obtained in the v 4πf
experimental set-up: Substitution of (56) into (55) leads to
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
( )
2
m ge = χmie = Pβ′ Pβ mie ⎪ ⎢ μσ ⎛ U ⎞ ⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0
⎛ 2ed 2 ⎞ ⎪ ⎢ 4πf ⎝ mi c ⎠ ⎥⎪
M ge =
F ⎜ ⎟ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
~3 ⎜ αnS φ ⎟
VV 2 ⎝ ⎠ This equation shows that atoms of
ferromagnetic materials with very-
where Pβ′ and Pβ are measured by high μ can have gravitational
masses strongly reduced by means
the dynamometer D and F is
of Extremely Low Frequency (ELF)
measured by the piezoelectric
electromagnetic radiation. It also
sensor.
shows that atoms of superconducting
 25

materials (due to very-high σ ) can other hand the transition temperature,

also have its gravitational masses for high critical temperature (HTC)
strongly reduced by means of ELF superconducting materials, is in the
electromagnetic radiation. order of 10 2 K . Thus (58a) gives
Alternatively, we may put ⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎪ ~ 10−9 ⎤⎪
Eq.(55) as a function of the power mg,CPfluid = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 −1⎥⎬mi,CPfluid (58b)
density ( or intensity ), D , of the ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ρCPfluid ⎥⎦⎪
⎭
radiation. The integration of (51)
Assuming that the number of Copper-
gives U =VD v . Thus, we can write
pairs per unit volume is N ≈ 10 26 m −3
(55) in the following form:
[27] we can write that
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
ρ CPfluid = Nm* ≈ 10 −4 kg / m 3
2
⎪ ⎛ nr2 D ⎞ ⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0
⎢ (57)
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc ⎠ ⎥⎪ Substitution of this value into (58b)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ yields
where ρ = mi 0 V .
For σ >> ωε , nr will be given by mg,CPfluid = m − 0.1 mi,CPfluid
i,CPfluid
(56) and consequently (57) becomes
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ This means that the gravitational
⎪ ⎛ μσ ⎞ ⎪
⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 (58)
D
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ masses of the electrons are
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎝ 4πfρc ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
decreased of ~10%. This
corresponds to a decrease in the
In the case of Thermal gravitational mass of the
radiation, it is common to relate superconductor given by
m g ,SC N (m ge + m gp + m gn + ΔE c 2 )
the energy of photons to
temperature, T, through the = =
relation, mi , SC N (mie + mip + min + ΔE c 2 )
hf ≈ κT ⎛ m ge + m gp + m gn + ΔE c 2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟=
where κ = 1.38 × 10 −23 J / °K is the ⎜ m + m + m + ΔE c 2 ⎟
⎝ ie ip in ⎠
Boltzmann’s constant. On the other
hand it is known that ⎛ 0.9mie + mip + min + ΔE c 2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟=
D = σ BT 4 ⎜ m + m + m + ΔE c 2 ⎟
⎝ ie ip in ⎠
where σ B = 5.67 × 10 −8 watts / m 2 ° K 4 = 0.999976
is the Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant. Where ΔE is the interaction energy.
Thus we can rewrite (58) in the Therefore, a decrease of
following form (1 − 0.999976) ≈ 10 , i.e., approximately
−5

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ μσσ 3
⎞ ⎪ 10 −3% in respect to the initial
⎢ − 1⎥⎬mi0 (58a)
⎜ hT ⎟
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + B
⎢ ⎜ 4πκρ c ⎟ ⎥ gravitational mass of the
⎪
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ superconductor, due to the local
Starting from this equation, we can thermal radiation only. However, here
evaluate the effect of the thermal we must also consider the
radiation upon the gravitational mass gravitational shielding effect
of the Copper-pair fluid, m g ,CPfluid . produced, in this case, by the
Below the transition temperature, Tc , decrease of ≈ 10 − 3% in the
gravitational mass of the particles
(T Tc < 0.5) the conductivity of the inside the superconductor (see Fig.
superconducting materials is usually II). Therefore the total weight
larger than 10 22 S / m [26]. On the decrease in the superconductor will

be much greater than ≈ 10 − 3% . This
can explain the smaller effect on the
order of 0.1% observed in the
Podkletnov measurements when the
disk is not rotating.
Let us now consider an electric
current I through a conductor
subjected to electromagnetic
radiation with power density D and
frequency f .
Under these circumstances the
gravitational mass mge of the
electrons of the conductor, according
to Eq. (58), is given by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ μσD ⎞ ⎪
m ge = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬m e
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfρc ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
−31
where me = 9.11 × 10 kg .
Note that if the radiation upon
the conductor has extremely-low
frequency (ELF radiation) then mge
can be strongly reduced. For
example, if f ≈ 10−6 Hz , D ≈ 10 5 W / m 2
and the conductor is made of copper
( μ ≅ μ0 ; σ = 5.8×107 S / mand
ρ = 8900kg / m3 ) then
⎛ μσD ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≈ 1
⎝ 4πfρc ⎠
and consequently mge ≈ 0.1me .
According to Eq. (6) the force
upon each free electron is given by
r m ge
Fe =
(1 − V 2
c2 )
3
2 dt
where E is the applied electric field.
Therefore, the decrease of mge
produces an increase in the velocity
V of the free electrons and
consequently the drift velocity Vd is
also increased. It is known that the
density of electric current J through
a conductor [28] is given by
26
r r
J = Δ eVd
where Δe is the density of the
free electric charges ( For cooper
conductors Δe = 1.3 × 1010 C / m 3 ).
Therefore increasing Vd produces an
increase in the electric current I .
Thus if mge is reduced 10 times
(m ge ≈ 0.1me ) the drift velocity Vd is
increased 10 times as well as the
electric current. Thus we conclude
that strong fluxes of ELF radiation
upon electric/electronic circuits can
suddenly increase the electric
currents and consequently damage
these circuits.
Since the orbital electrons
moment of inertia is given
by I i = Σ (mi ) j rj , where mi refers to
2
inertial mass and not to gravitational
mass, then the momentum L = I iω of
the conductor orbital electrons are not
affected by the ELF radiation.
Consequently, this radiation just
affects the conductor’s free electrons
velocities. Similarly, in the case of
superconducting materials, the
momentum, L = I iω , of the orbital
electrons are not affected by the
gravitomagnetic fields.
r r
The vector D = (U V )v , which we
may define from (48), has the same
r
direction of the propagation vector k
r and evidently corresponds to the
dV r r
= eE Poynting vector. Then D can be
r r
replaced by E× H .Thus we can write
D = 12 EH = 12 E(B μ) = 12 E[(E v) μ] = 12 (1 vμ)E2 .
For σ >> ωε Eq. (54) tells us that
v = 4πf μσ . Consequently, we obtain
σ
D = 12 E 2
4πfμ
This expression refers to the
instantaneous values of D and E .
The average value for E 2 is equal to
1 E 2 because E varies sinusoidaly
2 m
 27

( E m is the maximum value for E ). penetrates the magnetic field, its

Substitution of the expression of D negative inertial mass increases, but
into (58) gives its total inertial mass decreases, i.e.,
⎧ although there is an increase of
⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
μ ⎛σ ⎞ E
2
⎪ ⎪
⎟⎟ 2 − 1⎥⎬mi0 (59a)
inertial mass, the total inertial mass
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2 ⎜⎜
⎪⎩ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ ⎥⎪ (which is equivalent to gravitational
⎣ ⎦⎭ mass) will be reduced.
Since E rms = E m 2 and E = 12 E m2 we 2
On the other hand, Eq.(4)
can write the equation above in the shows that the velocity of the body
following form must increase as consequence of
⎧ ⎡ the gravitational mass decreasing
3 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ μ ⎛ σ ⎞ Erms 2
⎪
−1⎥⎬mi0 (59a)
since the momentum is conserved.
mg = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ 2
⎥⎪ Consider for example a spacecraft
⎦⎭ with velocity Vs and gravitational
Note that for extremely-low
mass M g . If M g is reduced to m g
frequencies the value of f − 3 in this
then the velocity becomes
V s′ = (M g m g )V s
equation becomes highly expressive.
Since E = vB equation (59a)
can also be put as a function of B , In addition, Eqs. 5 and 6 tell us that
i.e., the inertial forces depend on m g .
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ σ ⎞ B4 ⎤⎫⎪ Only in the particular case of
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟ 2
− 1⎥⎬mi 0 (59b) m g = m i 0 the expressions (5) and
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 4πfμc ⎠ ρ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
(6) reduce to the well-known
For conducting materials with Newtonian expression F = mi 0 a .
σ ≈ 10 S / m ; μ r = 1 ; ρ ≈ 10 kg / m3
7 3
Consequently, one can conclude that
the expression (59b) gives the inertial effects on the spacecraft
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ ≈ 10 −12 ⎞ 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪ will also be reduced due to the
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜
⎢ ⎟⎟ B − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 decreasing of its gravitational mass.
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
Obviously this leads to a new
This equation shows that the concept of aerospace flight.
decreasing in the gravitational mass Now consider an electric
of these conductors can become current i = i0 sin2πft through a
experimentally detectable for
conductor. Since the current density,
example, starting from 100Teslas at r r r r
10mHz. J , is expressed by J = di dS = σE ,
One can then conclude that an then we can write that
interesting situation arises when a E = i σS = (i0 σS ) sin 2πft . Substitution
body penetrates a magnetic field in of this equation into (59a) gives
the direction of its center. The ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
i4μ
gravitational mass of the body mg = ⎨1−2⎢ 1+ 3 20 2 4 3 sin4 2πft −1⎥⎬mi0 (59c)
decreases progressively. This is due ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 64π c ρ S f σ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
to the intensity increase of the If the conductor is a supermalloy rod
magnetic field upon the body while it
penetrates the field. In order to
(1 × 1 × 400mm) then μr = 100,000
understand this phenomenon we (initial); ρ = 8770kg / m 3 ; σ = 1.6 ×106 S / m
might, based on (43), think of the and S = 1 × 10 −6 m 2 . Substitution of
inertial mass as being formed by two these values into the equation above
parts: one positive and another yields the following expression for the
negative. Thus, when the body
 28

gravitational mass of the supermalloy Δp P2

rod =
m i 0 c 2 ρ 2 cv 3

⎩ ⎢⎣
( )
mg(sm) =⎧⎨1−2⎡ 1+ 5.71×10−12i04 f 3 sin42πft −1⎤⎫⎬mi(sm)
⎥⎦⎭
Substitution of this expression into
(41) gives
Some oscillators like the HP3325A ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
(Op.002 High Voltage Output) can mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ −1⎥⎥⎬mi 0 (60)
generate sinusoidal voltages with ⎜ 2ρ cv ⎟
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
extremely-low frequencies down to ⎩
f = 1 × 10 −6 Hz and amplitude up to This expression shows that in the
case of sound waves the decreasing
20V (into 50Ω load). The maximum
of gravitational mass is relevant for
output current is 0.08 App . very strong pressures only.
Thus, for i0 = 0.04 A (0.08 A pp ) It is known that in the nucleus
and f < 2.25 × 10 −6 Hz the equation of the Earth the pressure can reach
values greater than 1013 N / m 2 . The
above shows that the gravitational
mass of the rod becomes negative at equation above tells us that sound
waves produced by pressure
2πft = π 2 ; for f ≅ 1.7 × 10−6 Hz at
variations of this magnitude can
t = 1 4 f = 1.47 × 10 5 s ≅ 40.8h it shows cause strong decreasing of the
that m g ( sm ) ≅ − mi ( sm ) . gravitational mass at the
This leads to the idea of the surroundings of the point where the
Gravitational Motor. See in Fig. IV a sound waves were generated. This
type of gravitational motor (Rotational obviously must cause an abrupt
Gravitational Motor) based on the decreasing of the pressure at this
possibility of gravity control on a place since pressure = weight /area =
ferromagnetic wire. mgg/area). Consequently a local
It is important to realize that instability will be produced due to the
this is not the unique way of opposite internal pressure. The
decreasing the gravitational mass of conclusion is that this effect may
a body. It was noted earlier that the cause Earthquakes.
expression (53) is general for all Consider a sphere of radius r
types of waves including non- around the point where the sound
electromagnetic waves like sound waves were generated (at ≈ 1,000km
waves for example. In this case, the depth; the Earth's radius is 6 ,378km ).
velocity v in (53) will be the speed of If the maximum pressure, at the
sound in the body and D the intensity explosion place ( sphere of radius r0 ),
of the sound radiation. Thus from (53) is Pmax ≈ 1013 N / m 2 and the pressure
we can write that
at the distance r = 10km is
Δp V D D
= = Pmin = (r0 r ) Pmax ≈ 10 N / m then we can
2 9 2
mi c mi c ρcv 2
consider that in the sphere
It can easily be shown that
D = 2π 2 ρf 2 A 2 v where A = λP 2πρv 2 ; P = PmaxPmin ≈ 10 N / m .Thus assuming
11 2

A and P are respectively the v ≈ 103 m / s and ρ ≈103 kg/ m3 we can

amplitude and maximum pressure calculate the variation of gravitational
variation of the sound wave. mass in the sphere by means of the
Therefore we readily obtain equation of m g , i.e.,
 29

⎧ ⎡ i4μ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
α = ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢ 64π c ρ S f σ
3 2 2 4 3
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
Axis
of the
Rotor
Ferromagnetic wire F = m g g = α mi g

P = mi g

~ One plate of ferromagnetic wire

of the Rotor
ELF current
source

Several plates of
ferromagnetic wire

Rotor of the Motor

Fig. IV - Rotational Gravitational Motor

 30

r
force, Fi , is given by Eq.(6), and from
Δmg = mg (initial) − mg = Eq.(13) we can obtain the
r r r
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ gravitational force, Fg . Thus, Fi ≡ Fg
⎪ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
= mi 0 − ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0 = leads to
⎢
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ 2ρ cv ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ mg r m′g mg
a ≡G ≡
⎡
⎛ P2 ⎞
2 ⎤ 1−V c (
2 2 2
3
) ⎛
⎜ r′ 1−V c ⎟
2 2 ⎞
2
1 −V 2 2
c
= 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ρV ≈ 1011 kg ⎝ ⎠
⎢ ⎝ 2 ρ cv ⎠ ⎥ ⎛ m′g ⎞ mg mg
⎣ ⎦ r
≡ ⎜⎜G 2 ⎟⎟ ≡g (61)
The transitory loss of this great ( )
⎝ r′ ⎠ 1−V 2 c2 2
3
( 3
)
1−V 2 c2 2
amount of gravitational mass may whence results
r r
evidently produce a strong pressure a≡g (62 )
variation and consequently a strong
Consequently, the equivalence is
Earthquake.
evident, and therefore Einstein's
Finally, we can evaluate the
equations from the General Relativity
energy necessary to generate those
continue obviously valid.
sound waves. From (48) we can write
The new expression for Fi
D max = Pmax v ≈ 10 16 W / m 2 . Thus, the
released power is P0 = Dmax(4πr02 ) ≈ 1021W
(Eqs. (5) and (6)) shows that the
inertial forces are proportional to the
and the energy ΔE released at the gravitational mass, m g . This means
time interval Δt must be ΔE = P0 Δt . that these forces result from the
Assuming Δt ≈ 10 s we readily obtain
−3
gravitational interaction between the
ΔE = P0 Δt ≈ 1018 joules ≈ 10 4 Megatons particle and the other gravitational
This is the amount of energy released masses of the Universe, just as
by an earthquake of magnitude 9 Mach’s principle predicts. Therefore
(Ms =9) , i.e., E = 1.74×10(5+1.44Ms ) ≅ 1018 joules. the new expression for the inertial
forces incorporates the Mach’s
The maximum magnitude in the principle into Gravitation Theory, and
Richter scale is 12. Note that the sole furthermore reveals that the inertial
releasing of this energy at 1000km effects upon a particle can be
depth (without the effect of reduced because, as we have seen,
gravitational mass decreasing) the gravitational mass may be
cannot produce an Earthquake, since reduced. When m g = mi 0 the
the sound waves reach 1km depth
with pressures less than 10N/cm2. nonrelativistic equation for inertial
r r
Let us now return to the Theory. forces, Fi = mg a , reduces to
The equivalence between r r
Fi = mi 0 a . This is the well-known
frames of non-inertial reference and
gravitational fields assumed m g ≡ mi Newton's second law for motion.
In Einstein's Special Relativity
because the inertial forces were given Theory the motion of a free-particle is
r r
by Fi = mi a , while the equivalent described by means of δS = 0 [29].
r r Now based on Eq. (1), δS = 0 will be
gravitational forces, by Fg = mg g .
given by the following expression
Thus, to satisfy the equivalence
r r r δS = − m g cδ ∫ ds = 0. (63 )
( a ≡ g and Fi ≡ Fg ) it was necessary
which also describes the motion of
that m g ≡ mi . Now, the inertial the particle inside the gravitational

field. Thus, Einstein's equations from
the General Relativity can be derived
starting from δ (S m + S g ) = 0 , where
S g and S m refer to the action of the
gravitational field and the action of
the matter, respectively [30].
The variations δS g and δS m can
be written as follows [31]:
∫( )
c3
δSg = Rik − 12 gik R δg ik − g dΩ
16πG
1
2c ∫
δS m =− Tik δg ik − g dΩ
where Rik is the Ricci's tensor; g ik the
metric tensor and Tik the matter's
energy-momentum tensor:
Tik = (P + ε g )μ i μ k + Pg ik (66 )
where P is the pressure and εg = ρgc2
is now, the density of gravitational
energy, E g , of the particle; ρ g is then
the density of gravitational mass of
the particle, i.e., M g at the volume
unit.
Substitution of (64) and (65) into
δS m + δS g = 0 yields
c3
16πG
( 8πG
)
∫ Rik − 2 gik R − c 4 Tik δg − g dΩ = 0
1 ik
whence,
⎛⎜ R − 1 g R − 8πG T ⎞⎟ = 0
⎝ ik 2 ik c4
ik
⎠
because the δg ik are arbitrary.
Equations (67) in the following form
Rik − 12 g ik R = 8π4G Tik
c
or
Rik − 12 gδ ik R = 8π4G Tik .
c
are the Einstein's equations from the
General Relativity.
It is known that these equations
are only valid if the spacetime is
continuous. We have shown at the
beginning of this work that the
spacetime is not continuous it is
quantized. However, the spacetime
can be considered approximately
“continuous” when the quantum
31
number n is very large (Classical
limit). Therefore, just under these
circumstances the Einstein's
equations from the General Relativity
can be used in order to “classicalize”
the quantum theory by means of
approximated description of the
spacetime.
Later on we will show that the
length d min of Eq. (29) is given by
(64)
( )
1
≈ 10 −34 m (70)
~ ~
d min = k l planck = k Gh c 3 2
(65 )
(See Eq. (100)). On the other hand,
we will find in the Eq. (129) the length
scale of the initial Universe, i.e.,
dinitial ≈10−14m. Thus, from the Eq. (29)
we get: n = dinitial dmin = 10−14 10−34 ≈ 1020
this is the quantum number of the
spacetime at initial instant. That
quantum number is sufficiently large
for the spacetime to be considered
approximately “continuous” starting
from the beginning of the Universe.
Therefore Einstein's equations can be
used even at the Initial Universe.
Now, it is easy to conclude why
the attempt to quantize gravity
starting from the General Relativity
was a bad theoretical strategy.
Since the gravitational
interaction can be repulsive, besides
(67)
attractive, such as the
electromagnetic interaction, then the
graviton must have spin 1 (called
graviphoton) and not 2.
(68) Consequently, the gravitational forces
are also gauge forces because they
are yielded by the exchange of the
(69) so-called "virtual" quanta of spin 1,
such as the electromagnetic forces
and the weak and strong nuclear
forces.
Let us now deduce the Entropy
Differential Equation starting from Eq.
(55). Comparison of Eqs. (55) and
(41) shows that Unr = Δpc . For small
velocities, i.e., (V << c ) , we have
Unr << mi 0 c 2 . Under these
 32

circumstances, the development of T (∂Ei ∂T ) = 2EKi (77)

( )
Eq. (55) in power of Unr mi 0 c 2 gives However, Eq.(18) shows that
⎛ Un ⎞
2 2EKi =Ei −Eg .Therefore Eq.(77) becomes
mg = mi 0 − ⎜⎜ r 2 ⎟⎟ mi 0 (71) Eg = Ei − T (∂Ei ∂T ) (78)
⎝ mi0 c ⎠
In the particular case of thermal Here, we can identify the energy E i
radiation, it is usual to relate the with the free-energy of the system-F
energy of the photons to the and E g with the internal energy of
temperature, through the relationship the system-U. Thus we can write the
hν ≈ kT where k = 1.38×10−23 J K is Eq.(78) in the following form:
the Boltzmann's constant. Thus, in U = F − T (∂F ∂T ) (79)
that case, the energy absorbed by the This is the well-known equation of
particle will be U = η hν ≈ ηkT , Thermodynamics. On the other hand,
where η is a particle-dependent remembering that ∂Q = ∂τ +∂U (1st
absorption/emission coefficient. principle of Thermodynamics) and
Therefore, Eq.(71) may be rewritten F = U − TS (80)
in the following form: (Helmholtz's function), we can easily
⎡⎛ nrηk ⎞2 T 2 ⎤ obtain from (79), the following
mg = mi0 − ⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥mi0 (72) equation
⎢⎣⎝ c ⎠ mi0 ⎥⎦ (81)
2
∂Q = ∂τ + T∂S .
For electrons at T=300K, we have For isolated systems, ∂τ = 0 , we have
⎛ nrηk ⎞ T 2
2
∂Q = T∂S (82)
⎜ 2 ⎟ ≈ 10 −17
⎝ c ⎠ me which is the well-known Entropy
2

Comparing (72) with (18), we obtain Differential Equation.

Let us now consider the
1 ⎛ nrηk ⎞ T 2
2

EKi = ⎜ ⎟ . (73) Eq.(55) in the ultra-relativistic case

2 ⎝ c ⎠ mi 0 where the inertial energy of the
The derivative of E Ki with respect to particle E i = M i c 2 is much larger than
temperature T is its inertial energy at rest mi 0 c 2 .
∂E Ki
= (nrηk c ) (T mi 0 ) (74) Comparison of (4) and (10) leads to
2

∂T Δp = EiV c 2 which, in the ultra-

Thus, relativistic case, gives
∂E
T Ki = r 2
(n ηkT)2 (75) Δp = EiV c ≅ Ei c ≅ Mi c . On the other
2

∂T mi0 c hand, comparison of (55) and (41)

Substitution of EKi = Ei − Ei0 into (75) shows that Unr = Δpc . Thus
gives Unr = Δpc ≅ Mi c2 >> mi0c2 . Consequently,
⎛ ∂Ei ∂Ei 0 ⎞ (nrηkT )
2

T⎜ + ⎟= (76) Eq.(55) reduces to

⎝ ∂T ∂T ⎠ mi 0 c 2
By comparing the Eqs.(76) and (73) m g = mi 0 − 2 Un r c 2 (83 )
and considering that ∂Ei0 ∂T = 0
because E i 0 does not depend on T , Therefore, the action for such
particle, in agreement with the Eq.(2),
the Eq.(76) reduces to is
 33

t2
S = −∫t mgc2 1 − V 2 c2 dt = complete description of the
1 electromagnetic field. This means
t2
( )
= ∫t − mi + 2Unr c2 c2 1 −V 2 c2 dt = that from the present theory for

[ ]
1
gravity we can also derive the
= ∫t − mic2 1 − V 2 c2 + 2Unr 1 − V 2 c2 dt. (84)
t2
equations of the electromagnetic
1
field.
The integrant function is the Due to Un r = Δpc ≅ M i c 2 the
Lagrangean, i.e.,
second term on the right hand side of
L = −mi0c2 1−V 2 c2 + 2Unr 1−V 2 c2 (85) Eq.(86) can be written as follows
Starting from the Lagrangean we can
find the Hamiltonian of the particle, by Δpc⎢
(
⎡ 4V 2 c 2 − 2 ⎤
⎥=
)
means of the well-known general ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦
formula:
H = V (∂L ∂V ) − L.
=⎢
( )
⎡ 4V 2 c 2 − 2 ⎤
⎥M i c 2 =
The result is ⎢⎣ 1 − V c ⎥⎦
2 2

H=
mi0c2
+ Unr ⎢
(
⎡ 4V 2 c2 − 2 ⎤
⎥.
)
(86) = Qϕ =
QQ′
=
QQ′
1−V c2 2
⎢
⎣ 1−V c ⎦
2 2
⎥ 4πε0 R 4πε0 r 1 − V 2 c 2
The second term on the right hand whence
QQ ′
side of Eq.(86) results from the
particle's interaction with the (4V 2
)
c 2 − 2 M ic 2 =
4πε 0 r
electromagnetic field. Note the
similarity between the obtained (
The factor 4V 2 c 2 − 2 becomes )
Hamiltonian and the well-known equal to 2 in the ultra-relativistic case,
Hamiltonian for the particle in an then it follows that
QQ ′
electromagnetic field [32]: 2M i c 2 = (88 )
4πε 0 r
H = mi0c2 1 − V 2 c2 + Qϕ. (87) From (44), we know that there is a
minimum value for M i given by
in which Q is the electric charge and M i (min) = mi (min) . Eq.(43) shows that
ϕ , the field's scalar potential. The mg (min) = mi0(min) and Eq.(23) gives
quantity Q ϕ expresses, as we mg (min) = ± h cLmax 8 = ± h 3 8 cdmax .
know, the particle's interaction with
Thus we can write
the electromagnetic field in the same
way as the second term on the right Mi(min) = mi0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax (89)
hand side of the Eq. (86). According to (88) the value 2M i (min )c 2
It is therefore evident that it is
the same quantity, expressed by is correlated to (QQ′ 4πε0r)min =Qmin2
4πε0 rmax,
different variables. i.e.,
2
Thus, we can conclude that, in Q min
= 2 M i (min )c 2 (90 )
ultra-high energy conditions 4πε 0 rmax
( 2 2
)
Unr ≅ M i c > mi 0 c , the gravitational where Qmin is the minimum electric
and electromagnetic fields can charge in the Universe ( therefore
be described by the same equal to minimum electric charge of
Hamiltonian, i.e., in these
the quarks, i.e., 13 e ); rmax is the
circumstances they are unified !
It is known that starting from maximum distance between Q and
that Hamiltonian we may obtain a Q ′ , which should be equal to the so-
 34

called "diameter", dc , of the visible matter in the

Universe is
nU VU ≅ 10 particles/ m
46
we can 3
conclude
Universe ( d c = 2lc where l c is obtained
that these particles fill all space in the
from the Hubble's law for V = c , i.e., Universe, by forming a Continuous 3
~
l c = cH −1 ). Thus, from (90) we readily Universal Medium or Continuous
obtain Universal Fluid (CUF), the density of
which is
Qmin = πε 0 hc 24 (dc d max ) = nU m i 0(min )
ρ CUF = ≅ 10 − 27 kg / m 3
( ~
= πε 0 hc 2 96H −1 d max = ) VU
Note that this density is much smaller
= 13 e (91) than the density of the Intergalactic
whence we find (
Medium ρ IGM ≅ 10 −26 kg / m 3 . )
d max = 3 .4 × 10 30 m The extremely-low density of the
This will be the maximum "diameter" that Continuous Universal Fluid shows that its
the Universe will reach. Consequently, local gravitational mass can be strongly
Eq.(89) tells us that the elementary affected by electromagnetic fields
quantum of matter is (including gravitoelectromagnetic fields),
pressure, etc. (See Eqs. 57, 58, 59a,
mi 0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax = ±3.9 × 10−73 kg 59b, 55a, 55c and 60). The density of
this fluid is clearly not uniform along the
Universe, since it can be strongly
This is, therefore, the smallest indivisible compressed in several regions (galaxies,
particle of matter. stars, blackholes, planets, etc). At the
Considering that, the inertial mass normal state (free space), the mentioned
of the Observable Universe is fluid is invisible. However, at super
MU = c 2H0G ≅10 kg and that its volume
3 53 compressed state it can become visible
by giving origin to the known matter
is V U = 4
3
π R U3 = 4
3
π (c H 0 )3 ≅ 10 79 m 3 , since matter, as we have seen, is
where H 0 = 1.75 × 10 −18 s −1 is the Hubble quantized and consequently, formed by
an integer number of elementary
constant, we can conclude that the
number of these particles in the quantum of matter with mass mi 0(min ) .
Observable Universe is Inside the proton, for example, there are
nU =
MU
≅ 10125 particles n p = m p mi0(min) ≅ 1045 elementary quanta
mi 0(min ) of matter at supercompressed state, with
By dividing this number by VU , we get volume V proton n p and “radius”
nU
≅ 10 46 particles / m 3 Rp 3 n p ≅ 10 −30 m .
VU
Therefore, the solidification of the
Obviously, the dimensions of the
matter is just a transitory state of this
smallest indivisible particle of matter
Universal Fluid, which can back to the
depend on its state of compression. In
primitive state when the cohesion
free space, for example, its volume is
conditions disappear.
VU nU . Consequently, its “radius” is
Let us now study another aspect
RU 3 nU ≅ 10 −15 m . of the present theory. By combination of
If N particles with diameter φ fill gravity and the uncertainty principle we
will derive the expression for the Casimir
all space of 1m 3 then Nφ 3 = 1 . Thus, if force.
φ ≅ 10 −15 m then the number of particles, An uncertainty Δmi in mi
with this diameter, necessary to fill produces an uncertainty Δp in p and
all 1m 3 is N ≅ 10 45 particles . Since the
number of smallest indivisible particles of 3
At very small scale.
 35

therefore an uncertainty Δmg in m g , ⎛ 2 ⎞ hc

ΔF = −⎜ ⎟ l2 =
⎝ π ⎠ (Δr )
4 planck
which according to Eq.(41) , is given
by
⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎡⎛ 960 ⎞ 2 ⎤
⎡ ⎤ = −⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜ π 2 ⎟l planck ⎥ =
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δr )
2
⎛ Δp ⎞ 4
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎢
Δmg = Δmi − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ Δmi (92)
⎢ Δ
⎝ i ⎠
m c ⎥ ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
⎣ ⎦ = −⎜ 0 ⎟ (97 )
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δr )
4
From the uncertainty principle for
position and momentum, we know or
that the product of the uncertainties of ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
the simultaneously measurable F0 = −⎜ 0 ⎟ 4 (98)
⎝ 480 ⎠ r
values of the corresponding position which is the expression of the Casimir
and momentum components is at
least of the magnitude order of h , (
force for A = A0 = 960 π 2 l planck
2
. )
i.e., This suggests that A0 is an
Δ p Δr ~ h elementary area related to the
Substitution of Δp ~ h Δr into (92) yields existence of a minimum length
~
⎡ ⎤ d min = k l planck what is in accordance
h Δmi c ⎞
2
⎛
Δmg = Δmi − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥Δmi (93) with the quantization of space (29)
⎢
⎣ ⎝ Δr ⎠ ⎥
⎦ and which points out to the existence
Therefore if of d min .
h
Δr << (94 ) It can be easily shown that the
Δmi c minimum area related to d min is the
then the expression (93) reduces to: area of an equilateral triangle of side
2h
Δm g ≅ − (95) length d min ,i.e.,
Δrc
Note that Δmg does not depend on
( )
Amin = 43 d min
2 ~ 2
( )
= 43 k 2 l planck
On the other hand, the maximum
mg . area related to d min is the area of a
Consequently, the uncertainty sphere of radius d min ,i.e.,
ΔF in the gravitational ~ 2
Amax = πd min
2
= πk 2 l planck
force F = − Gmg m′g r , will be given by
2

Thus, the elementary area

Δmg Δm′g A0 = δ A d min
2 ~ 2
= δ A k 2l planck (99)
ΔF = −G =
(Δr )2 must have a value between Amin and
Amax , i.e.,
⎡ 2 ⎤ hc ⎛ Gh ⎞
= −⎢ 2⎥ 2 ⎜ 3 ⎟
(96) <δA <π
3

⎣π (Δr ) ⎦ (Δr ) ⎝ c ⎠
4
The previous assumption that
(
A 0 = 960 π l planck
2 2
) shows that
( ) 1
The amount Gh c 3 2 = 1.61 × 10 −35 m ~2
δ A k = 960 π 2 what means that
is called the Planck length, l planck ,( the ~
5 .6 < k < 14 .9
length scale on which quantum
fluctuations of the metric of the space Therefore we conclude that
time are expected to be of order
~
d min = k l planck ≈ 10 −34 m. (100 )
unity). Thus, we can write the The n − esimal area after A0 is
expression of ΔF as follows
 36

A = δ A (ndmin ) = n 2 A0 (101) we conclude that Lmax ≅ 1030 m . From

2

It can also be easily shown that the Hubble's law and (22) we have
the minimum volume related to d min that

( )
is the volume of a regular tetrahedron
Vmax = Hlmax = H (d max 2 ) =
~ ~ ~
of edge length d min , i.e., 3 2 HLmax
( )
Ω min = 122 d min3
( ) ~
= 122 k 3 l 3planck ~
where H = 1.7 × 10−18 s −1 . Therefore we
The maximum volume is the volume
obtain
of a sphere of radius d min , i.e.,
Vmax ≅ 1012 m / s .
Ω max = ( 43π )d min = ( 43π )k 3l 3planck
3 ~

Thus, the elementary volume This is the speed upper limit imposed
~3 3
Ω 0 = δ V d min = δ V k l planck must have a
3
by the quantization of velocity (Eq.
36). It is known that the speed upper
value between Ω min and Ω max , i.e.,
( )< δ
limit for real particles is equal to c .
2
12< 43π V However, also it is known that
On the other hand, the n − esimal imaginary particles can have
volume after Ω 0 is velocities greater than c
(Tachyons). Thus, we conclude that
Ω = δ V (ndmin )3 = n3Ω0 n = 1,2,3,...,nmax . Vmax is the speed upper limit for
The existence of nmax given by imaginary particles in our ordinary
(26), i.e., space-time. Later on, we will see that
nmax = Lmax Lmin = d max d min = a speed upper limit to the imaginary
= (3.4 × 1030 ) k l planck ≈ 1064
~ particles in the imaginary space-time
also exists.
shows that the Universe must have a Now, multiplying Eq. (98) (the
finite volume whose value at the expression of F 0 ) by n 2 we obtain
present stage is
Ω 0 = (d p d min )3 δ V d min
⎛ πn2 A0 ⎞ hc ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
Ω Up = nUp = δ V d 3p F = n2 F0 = −⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 = −⎜ ⎟ 4 (102)
3 3

⎝ 480 ⎠ r ⎝ 480 ⎠ r
where d p is the present length scale
This is the general expression of the
of the Universe. In addition as
( )
Casimir force.
12 < δ V < 3
2 4π
we conclude that the Thus, we conclude that the
Universe must have a polyhedral Casimir effect is just a gravitational
space topology with volume between effect related to the uncertainty
the volume of a regular tetrahedron principle.
of edge length d p and the volume of Note that Eq. (102) arises only
the sphere of diameter d p . when Δmi and Δmi′ satisfy Eq.(94). If
A recent analysis of only Δ m i satisfies Eq.(94), i.e.,
astronomical data suggests not only Δmi <<h Δrc but Δmi′ >> h Δrc then
that the Universe is finite, but also Δm g and Δm′g will be respectively
that it has a dodecahedral space
given by
topology [33,34], what is in strong
accordance with the previous
Δ m g ≅ − 2 h Δ rc and Δ m ′g ≅ Δ mi
theoretical predictions.
From (22) and (26) we have
that Lmax = dmax 3 = nmaxdmin 3 . Since Consequently, the expression (96)
becomes
(100) gives dmin ≅ 10−34 m and nmax ≅ 10 64
 37

hc ⎛ GΔmi′ ⎞ hc ⎛ GΔmi′c 2 ⎞ Δmi >> h Δrc

ΔF = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟=
(Δr )3 ⎝ πc 2 ⎠ (Δr )3 ⎜⎝ πc 4 ⎟⎠ Δmi′ >> h Δrc
hc ⎛ GΔE ′ ⎞ In this case, Δmg ≅ Δmi and
= ⎜ ⎟ (103)
(Δr )3 ⎝ πc 4 ⎠ Δm ′g ≅ Δmi′ . Thus,
However, from the uncertainty
ΔF = −G
Δmi Δmi′
= − G
(ΔE c 2 )(ΔE ′ c 2 ) =
principle for energy and time we know (Δr )2 (Δr )2
that
⎛ G ⎞ (h Δt ) ⎛ Gh ⎞ hc ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
ΔE ~ h Δt (104) = −⎜ 4 ⎟ = −⎜ 3 ⎟ 2 ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
=
⎝ c ⎠ (Δr ) ⎝ c ⎠ (Δr ) ⎝ c Δt ⎠
2
Therefore, we can write the
expression (103) in the following ⎛ 1 ⎞ hc 2
= −⎜ ⎟ l =
⎝ 2π ⎠ (Δr )
4 planck
form:
hc ⎛ Gh ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎛ 960 2 ⎞ ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
ΔF = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟= = −⎜ ⎟ 4 ⎜ 2 planck ⎟
l = −⎜ 0 ⎟
(Δr )3 ⎝ c 3 ⎠⎝ πΔt ′c ⎠ ⎝ 1920 ⎠ (Δr ) ⎝ π ⎠ ⎝ 1920 ⎠ (Δr )
4

⎛ 1 ⎞ whence
=
hc
3 planck ⎜
l2 ⎟ (105) ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
(Δr ) ⎝ πΔt ′c ⎠
F = −⎜⎜ ⎟ 4 (107)
From the General Relativity Theory ⎟r
⎝ 1920⎠
we know that dr = cdt − g 00 . If the The force will be attractive and its
field is weak then g 00 = −1 − 2φ c and 2 intensity will be the fourth part of the
dr = cdt (1 + φ c 2 ) = cdt (1 − Gm r 2c 2 ) .
intensity given by the first expression
(102) for the Casimir force.
For Gm r 2 c 2 <<1 we obtain dr ≅ cdt . We can also use this theory to
Thus, if dr = dr′ then dt = dt ′ . This explain some relevant cosmological
means that we can change (Δt ′c ) by phenomena. For example, the recent
(Δr ) into (105). The result is discovery that the cosmic expansion
of the Universe may be accelerating,
hc ⎛ 1 2 ⎞ and not decelerating as many
ΔF = 4 ⎜
l planck ⎟ =
(Δ r ) ⎝ π ⎠ cosmologists had anticipated [35].
We start from Eq. (6) which
⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎛ 480 2 ⎞ r
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2 l planck ⎟ =
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δ r )
shows that the inertial forces, Fi ,
⎝1π4 2 4 3⎠
4

1
A0
whose action on a particle, in the
2
case of force and speed with same
⎛ π A 0 ⎞ hc direction, is given by
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 960 ⎠ (Δ r )
4
r mg r
Fi =
( )
or 3 a
1 − V 2 c2
2

⎛ π A 0 ⎞ hc
F0 = ⎜ ⎟ 4 Substitution of m g given by (43) into
⎝ 960 ⎠ r
whence the expression above gives
⎛ πA ⎞ hc r r
(106)
3 2
F = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 Fi = − mi 0 a
⎝ 960⎠ r (1 − V 2
c 2
)
3
2
(1 − V 2
c )
2 2

Now, the Casimir force is repulsive, whence we conclude that a particle

and its intensity is half of the intensity with rest inertial mass, mi 0 , subjected
previously obtained (102). r
to a force, Fi , acquires an
Consider the case when both Δmi r
acceleration a given by
and Δmi′ do not satisfy Eq.(94), and
 38
r
r Fi
a =
3 2
− m i0
(1 − V 2
c 2
)
3
2
(1 − V 2
c2 ) 2

δ
By substituting the well-known
β
expression of Hubble’s law for
~ ~ S C β
velocity, V = Hl , ( H = 1.7 × 10 −18 s −1 is
the Hubble constant) into the Photons
r
expression of a , we get the
acceleration for any particle in the
expanding Universe, i.e., Fig. V – Gravitational deflection of light about
r
r Fi the Sun.
a= Since δ and β are very small we can
3 2
~ 2 2 2 32 −
write that
(
1− H l c 1− H l c ) (
~ 2 2 2 2 mi 0
) δ = 2β and β =
Vy
Obviously, the distance l increases c
with the expansion of the Universe. Then
Under these circumstances, it is easy 2V y
to see that the term δ=
c
3 2 Consider the motion of the
~ 2 2 2 32 −
(1− H l c ) (
~2 2 2 2
1− H l c ) photons at some time t after it has
passed the point of closest approach.
decreases, increasing the We impose Cartesian Co-ordinates
acceleration of the expanding with the origin at the point of closest
Universe. approach, the x axis pointing along its
Let us now consider the path and the y axis towards the Sun.
phenomenon of gravitational The gravitational pull of the Sun is
deflection of light. M gS M gp
A distant star’s light ray, P = −G
under the Sun’s gravitational force r2
field describes the usual central force where M gp is the relativistic
hyperbolic orbit. The deflection of the gravitational mass of the photon and
light ray is illustrated in Fig. V, with M gS the relativistic gravitational mass
the bending greatly exaggerated for a
better view of the angle of deflection. of the Sun. Thus, the component in a
The distance CS is the perpendicular direction is
distance d of closest approach. The M gS M gp
F y = −G sin β =
angle of deflection of the light ray, δ , r2
is shown in the Figure V and is M gS M gp d
δ = π − 2β . = −G
d +c t
2 2 2
d + c 2t 2
2
where β is the angle of the
asymptote to the hyperbole. Then, it According to Eq. (6) the expression of
follows that the force Fy is
tan δ = tan(π − 2 β ) = − tan 2 β
m gp dV y
From the Figure V we obtain Fy =
(1 − V )
3

Vy 2
c2 2 dt
tan β = . y
c By substituting Eq. (43) into this
expression, we get
 39

4 ⎛ hf ⎞
3 2 dV y m gp = + ⎜ ⎟i
Fy =
(1 − V 2
y c2 ) − (1 − V y
2
c 2
)
3
2
M ip
dt
3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
This means that the gravitational and
For V y << c , we can write this inertial masses of the photon are
imaginaries, and invariants with
expression in the following form respect to speed of photon, i.e.
F y = M ip (dV y dt ). This force acts on M ip = mip and M gp = m gp .On the other
the photons for a time t causing an hand, we can write that
increase in the transverse velocity 2 ⎛ hf ⎞
Fy mip = mip (real ) + mip (imaginary ) = ⎜ ⎟i
dV y = dt 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
M ip and
Thus the component of transverse 4 ⎛ hf ⎞
mgp = mgp(real ) + mgp(imaginary) = ⎜ ⎟i
velocity acquired after passing the 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
point of closest approach is This means that we must have
M gp (
d − GM gS ) mip (real ) = m gp (real ) = 0
Vy = ∫ dt =
(d )
3
M ip The phenomenon of gravitational
2
+ c 2t 2 2
deflection of light about the Sun
− GM gS ⎛ M gp ⎞ − GM gS ⎛ m gp ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ shows that the gravitational
dc ⎜⎝ M ip ⎟ dc ⎜ mip ⎟
⎠ ⎝ ⎠ interaction between the Sun and the
Since the angle of deflection δ photons is attractive. Thus, due to the
is given by gravitational force between the Sun
2V y and a photon can be expressed by
δ = 2β = F = −G M g (Sun ) m gp (imaginary ) r 2 , where
c
we readily obtain m gp (imaginary ) is a quantity positive and
2V y − 2GM gS ⎛ m gp ⎞ imaginary, we conclude that the
δ= = ⎜ ⎟
c c2d ⎜ mip ⎟ force F will only be attractive if the
⎝ ⎠
matter ( M g (Sun ) ) has negative
If m gp mip = 2 , the expression above
imaginary gravitational mass.
gives
The Eq. (41) shows that if the
4GM gS
δ =− inertial mass of a particle is null then
c2d its gravitational mass is given by
As we know, this is the correct m g = ± 2Δp c
formula indicated by the experimental
where Δp is the momentum variation
results.
Equation (4) says that due to the energy absorbed by the
particle. If the energy of the particle is
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎥⎪ invariant, then Δp = 0 and,
m gp = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬mip
⎜ mip c ⎟ consequently, its gravitational mass
⎪
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
will also be null. This is the case of
Since m gp mip = 2 then, by making the photons, i.e., they have an
Δp = h λ into the equation above we invariant energy hf and a momentum
get h λ . As they cannot absorb
2 ⎛ hf ⎞ additional energy, the variation in the
mip = + ⎜ ⎟i
3 ⎝ c2 ⎠ momentum will be null (Δp = 0) and,
Due to m gp mip = 2 we get therefore, their gravitational masses
will also be null.

However, if the energy of the
particle is not invariant (it is able to
absorb energy) then the absorbed
energy will transfer the amount of
motion (momentum) to the particle,
and consequently its gravitational
mass will be increased. This means
that the motion generates
gravitational mass.
On the other hand, if the
gravitational mass of a particle is null
then its inertial mass, according to
Eq. (41), will be given by
2 Δp
mi = ±
5 c
From Eqs. (4) and (7) we get
⎛ Eg ⎞ ⎛p ⎞
Δp = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ΔV = ⎜ 0 ⎟ΔV
⎝c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
Thus we have
⎛ 2p ⎞ 2 ⎛p ⎞
mg = ±⎜ 20 ⎟ΔV and mi = ± ⎜⎜ 20 ⎟⎟ΔV
⎝ c ⎠ 5⎝c ⎠
Note that, like the gravitational mass,
the inertial mass is also directly
related to the motion, i.e., it is also
generated by the motion.
Thus, we can conclude that is
the motion, or rather, the velocity is
what makes the two types of mass.
In this picture, the fundamental
particles can be considered as
immaterial vortex of velocity; it is the
velocity of these vortexes that causes
the fundamental particles to have
masses. That is, there exists not
matter in the usual sense; but just
motion. Thus, the difference between
matter and energy just consists of the
diversity of the motion direction;
rotating, closed in itself, in the matter;
ondulatory, with open cycle, in the
energy (See Fig. VI).
Under this context, the Higgs
mechanism † appears as a process,
† the fundamental particles to have masses? The
The Standard Model is the name given to
the current theory of fundamental particles and
how they interact. This theory includes: Strong
interaction and a combined theory of weak and
electromagnetic interaction, known as
40
by which the velocity of an immaterial
vortex can be increased or decreased
by making the vortex (particle) gain or
lose mass. If real motion is what
makes real mass then, by analogy,
we can say that imaginary mass is
made by imaginary motion. This is
not only a simple generalization of the
process based on the theory of the
imaginary functions, but also a
fundamental conclusion related to the
concept of imaginary mass that, as it
will be shown, provides a coherent
explanation for the materialization of
the fundamental particles, in the
beginning of the Universe.
It is known that the
simultaneous disappearance of a pair
(electron/positron) liberates an
2
amount of energy, 2mie(real )c , under
the form of two photons with
frequency f , in such a way that
2mie (real )c 2 = 2hf
Since the photon has imaginary
masses associated to it, the
phenomenon of transformation of the
energy 2mie(real )c 2 into 2hf suggests
that the imaginary energy of the
photon, m gp (imaginary )c 2 , comes from the
transformation of imaginary energy of
the electron, m ge (imaginary )c 2 , just as the
real energy of the photon, hf , results
from the transformation of real energy
of the electron, i.e.,
2 m ge (imaginary )c 2 + 2 m ge (real )c 2 =
= 2 m gp (imaginary )c 2 + hf
electroweak theory. One part of the Standard
Model is not yet well established. What causes
simplest idea is called the Higgs mechanism. This
mechanism involves one additional particle,
called the Higgs boson, and one additional force
type, mediated by exchanges of this boson.
 41

Real Particles Imaginary Particles

(Tardyons) (Tachyons)

Real Inertial Mass Imaginary Inertial Mass

Non-null Null Non-null Null

V<c c < V ≤ Vmax*

v=∞
**
v=c
V 0≤v<c V 0≤v<c V 0≤v<Vmax V 0≤v<Vmax

Vortex Anti-vortex Vortex Anti-vortex

(Particle) (Anti-Particle) Real Photons (Particle) (Anti-particle) Imaginary Photons
( “virtual” photons )

(Real Bodies) (Real Radiation) (Imaginary Bodies) (Imaginary Radiation)

* Vmax is the speed upper limit for Tachyons with non-null imaginary inertial mass. It has been previously
~
(
obtained starting from the Hubble's law and Eq.(22). The result is: Vmax = 3 2 HLmax ≅ 10 m. s .)
12 −1

**
In order to communicate instantaneously the interactions at infinite distance the velocity of the quanta
(“virtual” photons) must be infinity and consequently their imaginary masses must be null .

Fig. VI - Real and Imaginary Particles.

Then, it follows that gravitational masses, respectively

given by
m ge(imaginary ) = −m gp (imaginary ) mie (real ) = 9.11 × 10 −31 kg
⎧ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪
The sign (-) in the equation above, is ⎪ 1
m ge (real ) = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬mie (real )
due to the imaginary mass of the ⎪⎩ ⎢ 1−V 2 c2 ⎥⎪
photon to be positive, while the ⎣ ⎦⎭
imaginary gravitational mass of the The existence of imaginary
matter is negative, as we have mass associated to a real particle
already shown. suggests the possible existence of
Thus, we then conclude that imaginary particles with imaginary
mge(imaginary) = −mgp(imaginary) = masses in Nature.
In this case, the concept of
=− 4
3
(hf e )
c2 i = wave associated to a particle (De
Broglie’s waves) would also be
=− 4 (h λec) i=− 4 m
3 ie(real)
i applied to the imaginary particles.
3 Then, by analogy, the imaginary
where λe = h mie(real) c is the Broglies’ wave associated to an imaginary
wavelength for the electron. particle with imaginary masses miψ
In addition to the imaginary and m gψ would be described by the
masses mie (imaginary ) and m ge (imaginary ) following expressions
the electron has real inertial and

r r
pψ = hkψ
Eψ = hωψ
Henceforth, for the sake of
simplicity, we will use the Greek
letterψ to stand for the word
r
imaginary; pψ is the momentum
carried by the ψ wave and Eψ its
r simultaneously.
energy; kψ = 2π λψ is the
propagation number and λψ the
wavelength of the ψ wave;
ωψ = 2πfψ is the cyclical frequency.
According to Eq. (4), the
r not a measurable quantity and can,
momentum pψ is
r r
pψ = M gψ V
where V is the velocity of the ψ
particle.
By comparing the expressions
r
of pψ we get
h This is the expression of the wave
λψ =
M gψ V
It is known that the variable
quantity which characterizes the De
Broglie’s waves is called wave
function, usually indicated by
symbol Ψ . The wave function
associated with a material particle
describes the dynamic state of the
particle: its value at a particular point
x, y, z, t is related to the probability
of finding the particle in that place
and instant. Although Ψ does not
have a physical interpretation, its
square Ψ 2 (or Ψ Ψ * ) calculated for
a particular point x, y, z, t is
proportional to the probability of
finding the particle in that place and
instant.
Since Ψ 2 is proportional to
the probability P of finding the
particle described by Ψ , the integral
of Ψ 2 on the whole space must be
finite − inasmuch as the particle is
somewhere.
On the other hand, if
42
+∞
dV = 0
∫−∞ Ψ
2
the interpretation is that the particle
will not exist. However, if
+∞
dV = ∞ (108)
∫−∞ Ψ
2
The particle will be everywhere
In Quantum Mechanics, the
wave function Ψ corresponds, as
we know, to the displacement y of
the undulatory motion of a rope.
However, Ψ , as opposed to y , is
hence, be a complex quantity. For
this reason, it is assumed that Ψ is
described in the x − direction by
−(2π i h )( Et − px )
Ψ = Ψ0 e
function for a free particle, with total
r
energy E and momentum p ,
moving in the direction + x .
As to the imaginary particle,
the imaginary particle wave function
will be denoted by Ψψ and, by
analogy the expression of Ψ , will be
expressed by:
− (2π i h )(Eψ t − pψ x )
Ψψ = Ψ0ψ e
Therefore, the general expression of
the wave function for a free particle
can be written in the following form
−(2π i h )(E( real )t − p( real ) x )
Ψ = Ψ0(real )e +
− (2π i h )(Eψ t − pψ x )
+ Ψ0ψ e
It is known that the
uncertainty principle can also be
written as a function of ΔE
(uncertainty in the energy) and Δt
(uncertainty in the time), i.e.,
 43

ΔE.Δt ≥ h mg χ mi
Mg = = = χ Mi
1−V 2
c 2
1−V 2
c 2
This expression shows that a
variation of energy ΔE , during a
time interval Δt , can only be where
detected if Δt ≥ h ΔE . Consequently,
a variation of energy ΔE , during a χ = ⎧⎨1 − 2⎡ 1 + (Δp mi 0 c ) − 1⎤ ⎫⎬
2

⎩ ⎢ ⎣ ⎥ ⎦⎭
time interval Δt < h ΔE , cannot be
experimentally detected. This is a
limitation imposed by Nature and not Since the condition to make
by our equipments. the particle imaginary is
Thus, a quantum of energy
ΔE = hf that varies during a time λg
λi <
interval Δt = 1 f = λ c < h ΔE (wave 2π
and
period) cannot be experimentally
detected. This is an imaginary
photon or a “virtual” photon. λg h h λi
= = =
Now, consider a particle with 2π M gc χ M i c 2π χ
energy M g c 2 . The DeBroglie’s
gravitational and inertial wavelengths Then we get
are respectively λ g = h M g c and
1
λi = h M i c . In Quantum Mechanics, χ < = 0.159
2π
particles of matter and quanta of
radiation are described by means of This means that when
wave packet (DeBroglie’s waves)
with average wavelength λi . − 0.159 < χ < +0.159
Therefore, we can say that during a
time interval Δt = λi c , a quantum of the particle becomes imaginary.
energy ΔE = Mgc varies. According
2 Under these circumstances, we can
say that the particle made a
to the uncertainty principle, the
transition to the imaginary space-
particle will be detected if Δt ≥ h ΔE , time.
i.e., if λi c ≥ h M g c 2 or λi ≥ λ g 2π . Note that, when a particle
This condition is usually satisfied becomes imaginary, its gravitational
when M g = M i . In this case, λ g = λi and inertial masses also become
imaginary. However, the factor
and obviously, λi > λi 2π . However, χ = M g (imaginary ) M i (imaginary ) remains
when M g decreases λ g increases real because
and λ g 2π can become bigger than
λi , making the particle non- χ =
M g (imaginary )
=
M gi
=
Mg
= real
detectable or imaginary. M i (imaginary ) M ii Mi
According to Eqs. (7) and (41)
we can write M g in the following
form:
 44

Body
χ Ordinary Space-time
0≤V < c
+0.159
0≤V ≤ ∞

Imaginary Body

0 Imaginary Space-time

“Virtual” Photons ( V = ∞ )
−0.159
Ordinary Space-time

Real Photons ( V = c )

Fig. VII – Travel in the imaginary space-time. Similarly to the “virtual” photons,
imaginary bodies can have infinite speed in the imaginary space-time.
 45

Real particle Real particle

Δt1 ΔE

Δt2 c (speed upper limit)

Δt3

(a)

Imaginary Space-time Ordinary Space-time

Δt3

Δt2 Vmax
(speed upper limit)

ΔE
Δt1
Imaginary particle Imaginary particle
(b)
Fig. VIII – “Virtual” Transitions – (a) “Virtual” Transitions of a real particle to the imaginary
space-time. The speed upper limit for real particle in the imaginary space-time is c.
(b) - “Virtual” Transitions of an imaginary particle to the ordinary space-time. The
speed upper limit for imaginary particle in the ordinary space-time is Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1
Note that to occur a “virtual” transition it is necessary thatΔt=Δt1+ Δt2+ Δt3 <ℏ/ΔE
Thus, even at principle, it will be impossible to determine any variation of energy in
the particle (uncertainty principle).

Thus, if the gravitational mass of
particle is reduced by means of
absorption of an amount
electromagnetic energy U ,
example, we have
χ=
Mg ⎧
= ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + U mi0 c 2
Mi ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
This shows that the energy U of the
electromagnetic field remains acting
on the imaginary particle. In
practice, this means that
electromagnetic fields act on
imaginary particles.
The gravity acceleration on a
imaginary particle (due to the rest of
the imaginary Universe) are given
by
g ′j = χ g j j = 1,2,3,..., n.
where χ = M g (imaginary ) M i (imaginary
and g j = − Gmgj (imaginary ) r .
the gravitational forces acting on the
particle are given by
Fgj = M g (imaginary) g ′j =
(
= M g (imaginary) − χGmgj (imaginary) r j2 =
( )
= M g i − χGmgj i r j2 = + χGM g mgj r j2 .
Note that these forces are real.
Remind that, the Mach’s principle
says that the inertial effects upon a
particle are consequence of the
gravitational interaction of the
particle with the rest of the Universe.
Then we can conclude that the
inertial forces upon an imaginary
particle are also real.
Equation (7) shows that , in
the case of imaginary particles, the
relativistic mass is
46
the mg (imaginary)
the M g (imaginary) = =
of 1 − V 2 c2
for
mg i mg
= =
i V 2 c2 − 1 V 2 c2 − 1
( )2 ⎫
− 1⎤⎥⎬
This expression shows that
imaginary particles can have
velocities V greater than c in our
ordinary space-time (Tachyons).
The quantization of velocity (Eq. 36)
shows that there is a speed upper
limit Vmax > c . As we have already
calculated previously, Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1 ,
(Eq.102).
Note that this is the speed
upper limit for imaginary particles in
our ordinary space-time not in the
imaginary space-time (Fig.7)
because the infinite speed of the
“virtual” quanta of the interactions
) shows that imaginary particles can
have infinite speed in the imaginary
2
j Thus,
space-time.
While the speed upper limit
for imaginary particles in the
ordinary space-time is
Vmax ≈ 10 m.s , the speed upper limit
12 −1
) for real particles in the imaginary
space-time is c , because the
relativistic expression of the mass
shows that the velocity of real
particles cannot be larger than c in
any space-time. The uncertainty
principle permits that particles make
“virtual” transitions, during a time
interval Δt , if Δt < h ΔE . The
“virtual” transition of mesons emitted
from nucleons that do not change of
mass, during a time interval
Δt < h mπ c 2 , is a well-known
example of “virtual” transition of
particles. During a “virtual”
transition of a real particle, the
speed upper limit in the imaginary
space-time is c , while the speed
 47

upper limit for an imaginary particle ⎛ ⎞

M g 2 = 1 − 2⎜ − 1⎟ M i 2
in the our ordinary space-time is 1
⎜ ⎟
Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1 . (See Fig. 8). ⎝ 1 − V2 c
2 2
⎠
There is a crucial where V2 is the average velocity
cosmological problem to be solved:
of the bodies ;
the problem of the hidden mass.
Most theories predict that the M i 2 = mi 2 1 − V22 c 2 and mi 2 is the
amount of known matter, detectable total inertial mass of the bodies of
and available in the universe, is only region 2.
about 1/100 to 1/10 of the amount Now consider that from
needed to close the universe. That Eq.(7), we can write
is, to achieve the density sufficient Eg M gc2
to close-up the universe by ξ = = = ρgc2
maintaining the gravitational V V
where ξ is the energy density of
curvature (escape velocity equal to
the speed of light) at the outer matter.
boundary. Note that the expression of ξ
Eq. (43) may solve this only reduces to the well-known
problem. We will start by substituting expression ρc 2 , where ρ is the
the expression of Hubble's law for sum of the inertial masses per
~
velocity, V = Hl , into Eq.(43). The volume unit, when m g = mi .
expression obtained shows that Therefore, in the derivation of the
particles which are at distances
( )( ) ~ well-known difference
l = l0 = 5 3 c H =1.3×1026 m have 8πGρU ~ 2
−H
quasi null gravitational mass 3
m g = m g (min ) ; beyond this distance, which gives the sign of the curvature
the particles have negative of the Universe [36], we must use
gravitational mass. Therefore, there ξ = ρ gU c 2 instead of ξ = ρ U c 2 .The
are two well-defined regions in the result obviously is
Universe; the region of the bodies 8πGρ gU
with positive gravitational masses
~
− H2 (109)
and the region of the bodies with 3
negative gravitational mass. The where
M gU M g1 + M g 2
total gravitational mass of the first ρ gU = = (110)
region, in accordance with Eq.(45), VU VU
will be given by M gU and VU are respectively the
mi1
M g1 ≅ M i1 = ≅ mi1 total gravitational mass and the
1 − V1 2 c 2 volume of the Universe.
where mi1 is the total inertial mass Substitution of M g 1 and M g 2
of the bodies of the mentioned into expression (110) gives
region; V1 << c is the average ⎡
3 2
⎤
velocity of the bodies at region 1. miU + ⎢ − m − m ⎥
⎢ ⎥
i 2 i 2
1−V22 c2 1−V22 c2
The total gravitational mass of the ρgU = ⎣ ⎦
second region is VU

where miU = mi1 + mi 2 is the total

inertial mass of the Universe.
 48

The volume V1 of the region 1 must be sufficient to close

and the volume V 2 of the region 2,
are respectively given by
V 1 = 2π 2 l 03 and
~
where l c = c H = 1.8 × 10 26 m is the
so-called "radius" of the visible
Universe. Moreover, ρ i1 = mi1 V1 and
ρi 2 = mi 2 V 2 . Due to the hypothesis
of the uniform distribution of matter
in the space, it follows that
ρi1 = ρi2 .Thus, we can write
m i1 V 1 ⎛ l 0 ⎞
the Universe.
There is another cosmological
problem to be solved: the problem of
the anomalies in the spectral red-
V 2 = 2π 2 l c3 −V 1 shift of certain galaxies and stars.
Several observers have
noticed red-shift values that cannot
be explained by the Doppler-
Fizeau effect or by the Einstein
effect (the gravitational spectrum
shift, supplied by Einstein's theory).
This is the case of the so-
called Stefan's quintet (a set of five
galaxies which were discovered in
1877), whose galaxies are located
3

= = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.38 at approximately the same distance

mi 2 V 2 ⎜⎝ l c ⎟⎠ from the Earth, according to very
Similarly, reliable and precise measuring
miU mi 2 mi1 methods. But, when the velocities of
= = the galaxies are measured by its
VU V 2 V1
red-shifts, the velocity of one of
Therefore, them is much larger than the
V2 ⎡ ⎛ l ⎞3 ⎤ velocity of the others.
mi 2 = m iU = ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ ⎥ m iU = 0.62 m iU
VU ⎢⎣ ⎝ l c ⎠ ⎥⎦
Similar observations have
been made on the Virgo
and mi1 = 0.38miU . constellation and spiral galaxies.
Substitution of mi 2 into the Also the Sun presents a red-shift
greater than the predicted value by
expression of ρ gU yields
the Einstein effect.
It seems that some of these
1.86 1.24 anomalies can be explained if we
miU + − − 0.62 miU consider the Eq.(45) in the
1 −V22 c2 1 −V22 c2 calculation of the gravitational mass
ρgU =
VU of the point of emission.
The expression of the
gravitational spectrum shift was
Due to V 2 ≅ c , we conclude that the
previously obtained in this work. It is
term between bracket is much larger the same supplied by Einstein's
than 10miU . The amount miU is the theory [37], and is given by
mass of matter in the universe (1/10 φ −φ
to 1/100 of the amount needed to Δω = ω1 − ω2 = 2 2 1 ω0 =
c
close the Universe).
− Gmg2 r2 + Gmg1 r1
Consequently, the total = ω0 (111)
mass c2
where ω1 is the frequency of the
1.86 1.24
miU + − − 0.62 miU light at the point of emission ; ω 2 is
1 − V22 c 2 1 − V22 c 2
the frequency at the point of
observation; φ1 and φ 2 are

respectively, the Newtonian
gravitational potentials at the point
of emission and at the point of
observation.
In Einstein theory, this
expression has been deduced from
T = t − g 00 [38] which correlates
own time (real time), t , with the
temporal coordinate x0 of the space-
time ( t = x 0 c ).
When the gravitational field is
weak, the temporal component g 00
of the metric tensor is given by
goo =−1−2φ/ c2 [39].Thus, we readily
obtain
T = t 1 − 2Gm g rc 2 (112 )
This is the same equation that we
have obtained previously in this
work.
Curiously, this equation tell us
that we can have T < t when m g > 0
; and T > t for m g < 0 . In addition, if
m g = c 2 r 2G , i.e., if r = 2Gm g c 2
(Schwarzschild radius) we obtain T =0.
Let us now consider the well-
known process of stars' gravitational
contraction. It is known that the
destination of the star is directly
correlated to its mass. If the star's
mass is less than 1.4M~
(Schemberg-Chandrasekhar's limit),
it becomes a white dwarf. If its mass
exceeds that limit, the pressure
produced by the degenerate state of
the matter no longer
counterbalances the gravitational
pressure, and the star's contraction
continues. Afterwards there occurs
the reactions between protons and
electrons (capture of electrons),
where neutrons and anti-neutrinos
are produced.
The contraction continues
until the system regains stability
(when the pressure produced by the
neutrons is sufficient to stop the
49
gravitational collapse). Such systems
are called neutron stars.
There is also a critical mass
for the stable configuration of
neutron stars. This limit has not
been fully defined as yet, but it is
known that it is located between
1.8M~ and 2.4M~. Thus, if the mass
of the star exceeds 2.4M~ , the
contraction will continue.
According to Hawking [40]
collapsed objects cannot have mass
less than hc 4G = 1.1 × 10 −8 kg . This
means that, with the progressing of
the compression, the neutrons
cluster must become a cluster of
superparticles where the minimal
inertial mass of the superparticle is
mi(sp) =1.1×10−8 kg. (113)
Symmetry is a fundamental
attribute of the Universe that
enables an investigator to study
particular aspects of physical
systems by themselves. For
example, the assumption that space
is homogeneous and isotropic is
based on Symmetry Principle. Also
here, by symmetry, we can assume
that there are only superparticles
with mass mi ( sp) = 1.1 × 10−8 kg in the
cluster of superparticles.
Based on the mass-energy of
the superparticles ( ~1018 GeV ) we
can say that they belong to a
putative class of particles with mass-
energy beyond the supermassive
Higgs bosons ( the so-called X
bosons). It is known that the GUT's
theories predict an entirely new
force mediated by a new type of
boson, called simply X (or X boson
). The X bosons carry both
electromagnetic and color charge, in
order to ensure proper conservation
of those charges in any interactions.
The X bosons must be extremely
 50

massive, with mass-energy in the electromagnetic interactions were

unification range of about 1016 GeV. unified.
If we assume the From the unification condition
superparticles are not hypermassive
Higgs bosons then the possibility of ( )
Unr ≅ Mi c2 , we may conclude that
the neutrons cluster become a the superparticles' relativistic inertial
Higgs bosons cluster before mass M i ( sp ) is
becoming a superparticles cluster
Unr ηnr kT
must be considered. On the other = 2 ≈ 10−8 kg
M i( sp) ≅
2
(115)
hand, the fact that superparticles c c
must be so massive also means that Comparing with the superparticles'
it is not possible to create them in inertial mass at rest (113), we
any conceivable particle accelerator conclude that
that could be built. They can exist as
free particles only at a very early
stage of the Big Bang from which Mi( sp) ≈ mi(sp) =1.1×10−8 kg (116)
the universe emerged.
Let us now imagine the
Universe coming back to the past. From Eqs.(83) and (115), we obtain
There will be an instant in which it the superparticle's gravitational
will be similar to a neutrons cluster, mass at rest:
such as the stars at the final state of m g ( sp ) = mi ( sp ) − 2 M i ( sp ) ≅
gravitational contraction. Thus, with
ηn r kT
the progressing of the compression, (117 )
≅ − M i ( sp ) ≅ −
the neutrons cluster becomes a c2
superparticles cluster. Obviously, Consequently, the superparticle's
this only can occur before 10-23s relativistic gravitational mass, is
(after the Big-Bang).
The temperature T of the mg (sp)
M g (sp) = =
Universe at the 10-43s< t < 10-23s 1 −V 2 c2
period can be calculated by means
ηnr kT
of the well-known expression[41]: = (118)
c2 1 −V 2 c2
T ≈ 10 22 (t 10 )
− 23 − 2
(114)
1

− 43 Thus, the gravitational forces

Thus at t ≅ 10 s (at the first between two superparticles ,
spontaneous breaking of symmetry) according to (13), is given by:
the temperature was T ≈ 10 32 K
(∼1019GeV).Therefore, we can r r M g(sp) M 'g(sp)
F12 = −F21 = −G μˆ 21 =
assume that the absorbed r2
electromagnetic energy by each ⎡⎛ M ⎞ 2 G ⎤
⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞ 2 hc
superparticle, before t ≅ 10 −43 s , was = ⎢⎜
i ( sp)
⎟( ηn κT ) ⎥ μˆ 21 (119)
⎢⎜⎝ mi(sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5 h ⎠ ⎥ r2
r
U =ηkT >1×109 J (see Eqs.(71) and ⎣ ⎦
(72)). By comparing with
mi(sp)c ≅ 9×10 J , we conclude that
2 8
Due to the unification of the
U > m i ( sp )c . Therefore, the gravitational and electromagnetic
(
unification condition Unr ≅ Mi c > mi c
2 2
) interactions at that period, we have

is satisfied. This means that, before

t ≅ 10 −43 s ,the gravitational and
 51

r r M g ( sp) M 'g ( sp) component of its position at that

F12 = −F21 = G μˆ 21 = time ,i.e., a particle cannot be
r2
precisely located in a particular
⎡⎛ M ⎞ 2 G ⎤
⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞ 2 hc direction without loss of all
= ⎢⎜
i ( sp)
⎟(ηκ T ) ⎥ μˆ 21 =
⎢⎜⎝ mi( sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5 h ⎠ ⎥ r2 knowledge of its momentum
⎣ ⎦ component in that direction . This
2
means that in intermediate cases
=
e
(120)
4πε0 r 2 the product of the uncertainties of
From the equation above we can the simultaneously measurable
write values of corresponding position
and momentum components is at
⎡⎛ M ⎞2 G ⎤ least of the magnitude order of h ,
⎢⎜ i(sp) ⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟(ηκT )2 hc⎥ = e
2
(121)
⎢⎜⎝ mi(sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5h ⎠ ⎥ 4πε0 Δp.Δr ≥ h (127)
⎣ ⎦
Now assuming that
2 This relation, directly obtained here
⎛ M i ( sp ) ⎞ ⎛ G ⎞
⎜
⎜m
⎟ ⎜
⎟ ⎝ c 5 h ⎟⎠
(ηκT )2 = ψ (122) from the Unified Theory, is the well-
⎝ i ( sp ) ⎠ known relation of the Uncertainty
the Eq. (121) can be rewritten in the Principle for position and
following form: momentum.
According to Eq.(83), the
e2
ψ= =
1
(123) gravitational mass of the
4πε0 hc 137 superparticles at the center of the
which is the well-known reciprocal cluster becomes negative when
fine structure constant. 2η n r kT c > m i ( sp ) , i.e., when
2

For T = 10 32 K the Eq.(122)

gives mi(sp)c2
T > Tcritical= ≈1032K.
2
2ηnr k
⎛ M i ( sp ) ⎞ ⎛ G ⎞
ψ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎟ 5 ⎟
(η n r κ T )2 ≈ 1 (124 )
⎝ m i ( sp ) ⎠ ⎝ c h ⎠ 100
According to Eq. (114) this
temperature corresponds to tc ≈10−43s .
This value has the same order of
magnitude as the exact value(1/137) With the progressing of the
of the reciprocal fine structure compression, more superparticles
constant. into the center will have negative
From equation (120) we can gravitational mass. Consequently,
write: there will be a critical point in which
the repulsive gravitational forces
⎛ M g ( sp ) M 'g ( sp ) ⎞ r
⎜G
⎜ r ⎟r = h
⎟
(125 ) between the superparticles with
⎝ ψ c r ⎠ negative gravitational masses and
The term between parentheses has the superparticles with positive
the same dimensions as the linear gravitational masses will be so
r strong that an explosion will occur.
momentum p . Thus, (125) tells us
that This is the event that we call the Big
r r
p ⋅ r = h. (126) Bang.
A component of the momentum of a Now, starting from the Big
particle cannot be precisely Bang to the present time.
specified without loss of all Immediately after the Big Bang, the
knowledge of the corresponding superparticles' decompression
 52

begins. The gravitational mass of during a period of time tc ≈10−43s

the most central superparticle will .Thus,
only be positive when the
temperature becomes smaller than dcr − dinitial = 12 g(tc ) = χ
2
( )
GMi(U )
dcr dinitial
(tc )2 (130)
the critical temperature, Tcritical ≈ 1032 K .
At the maximum state of The Eq.(83), gives
compression (exactly at the Big
Bang) the volumes of the mg (sp) 2Unr 2ηnr kT
χ= = 1− = 1−
superparticles were equal to mi(sp) mi(sp) c 2 mi(sp) c 2
the elementary volume Ω 0 = δ V d min 3

and the volume of the Universe was Calculations by Carr, B.J

Ω = δ V (ndmin )3 = δ V d initial
3
where d initial [41], indicate that it would seem
reasonable to suppose that the
was the initial length scale of the fraction of initial primordial black
Universe. At this very moment the hole mass ultimately converted into
average density of the Universe was photons is about 0.11 . This means
equal to the average density of the that we can take
superparticles, thus we can write η = 0.11
3
⎛ dinitial⎞ Mi(U) Thus, the amount η M iU c 2 ,
⎜
⎜d ⎟ =m
⎟ (128) where M iU is the total inertial mass
⎝ min ⎠ i( sp)
of the Universe, expresses the total
where M i (U ) ≈ 10 53 kg is the inertial
amount of inertial energy converted
mass of the Universe. It has already into photons at the initial instant of
been shown that the Universe(Primordial Photons).
~ −34
d min = k l planck ≈ 10 m. Then, from It was previously shown that
Eq.(128), we obtain: photons and also the matter have
imaginary gravitational masses
dinitial ≈ 10−14 m (129) associated to them. The matter has
After the Big Bang the negative imaginary gravitational
Universe expands itself from d initial mass, while the photons have
positive imaginary gravitational
up to d cr (when the temperature
mass, given by
decrease reaches the critical
temperature Tcritical ≈ 10 32 K , and the 4 ⎛ hf ⎞
M gp (imaginary ) = 2M ip (imaginary ) = + ⎜ ⎟i
gravity becomes attractive). Thus, it 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
expands by d cr − d initial , under
effect of the repulsive gravity where M ip (imaginary) is the imaginary
inertial mass of the photons.
g = gmaxgmin = Then, from the above we can

[ (12 dinitial)2 ] [G ( 12 dcr )2 ]

conclude that, at the initial instant of
= G(12 Mg(U ) ) 1
2
Mi(U ) = the Universe, an amount of
imaginary gravitational mass,
=
2G Mg(U )Mi(U )
=
2G ∑m ( g sp) Mi(U )
=
total
M gm (imaginary ) , which was associated
dcrdinitial dcrdinitial to the fraction of the matter
2G χ∑mi(sp)Mi(U ) 2GMi(U ) χ transformed into photons, has been
= = converted into imaginary
dcrdinitial dcrdinitial
gravitational mass of the primordial
 53

total
photons, M gp (imaginary ) , while an where m gp (imaginary ) (the imaginary
amount of real inertial mass of the gravitational mass of the photon) is
a quantity positive and imaginary,
(real) =η MiU c , has been
total 2
matter, Mim
and M gSun (imaginary ) (the imaginary
converted into real energy of the
N gravitational mass associated to the
primordial photons, E p = ∑ hf j , i.e., matter of the Sun) is a quantity
j =1 negative and imaginary.
The fact of the gravitational
interaction between the imaginary
gravitational masses of the
(imaginary) + M im( real) =
total total
M gm
primordial photons and the
= M gp (imaginary) + M ip( real)
total total
imaginary gravitational mass of the
1424 3
Ep matter be attractive is highly
c2 relevant, because it shows that it is
necessary to consider the effect of
this gravitational interaction, which is
(imaginary ) = M gp (imaginary ) and
total total
where M gm
equivalent to the gravitational effect
produced by the amount of real
(real) = M im(real) = ηM iU ≅ 0.11M iU
E p c 2 ≡ M iptotal total
(real) ≅ 0.22M iU ,
total
gravitational mass, M gp
sprayed by all the Universe.
It was previously shown that, for the This means that this amount,
photons equation: M gp = 2 M ip , is which corresponds to 22% of the
valid. This means that total inertial mass of the Universe,
must be added to the overall
M gp(imagimary) + M gp(real) = computation of the total mass of the
14444244443 matter (stars, galaxies, etc., gas and
M gp
dust of interstellar and intergalactic
(
= 2 M ip(imagimary) + M ip(real)
14444244443
) media). Therefore, this additional
portion corresponds to what has
M ip
been called Dark Matter (See Fig.
By substituting M gp(imaginary) = 2Mip(imaginary) IX).
into the equation above, we get On the other hand, the total
amount of gravitational mass at the
M gp(real ) = 2M ip (real ) initial instant, M gtotal , according to
Eq.(41), can be expressed by
Therefore we can write that M gtotal = χ M iU
(real ) = 2 M ip (real ) = 0.22 M iU
total total
M gp This mass includes the total
The phenomenon of negative gravitational mass of the
total
gravitational deflection of light about matter, M gm (−) , plus the total
the Sun shows that the gravitational gravitational mass, total
M gp ( real ) ,
interaction between the Sun and the
photons is attractive. This is due to converted into primordial photons.
the gravitational force between the This tells us that we can put
Sun and a photon, which is given by
M gtotal = M gm ( − ) + M gp ( real ) = χ M iU
total total

F = −G M gSun (imaginary ) m gp (imaginary ) r 2 ,

whence
 54

At the Initial Instant

M iU

Imaginary spacetime

Real spacetime
(imaginary) + Mip( real) ) + Mim(real)
total total total total
Mgp Mgm (imaginary

Primordial Photons
total
M gp (imaginary) + M iptotal
( real )
1
42 43
Ep
c2

∼ 10-14 m

Fig. IX – Conversion of part of the Real Gravitational Mass of the Primordial Universe into
Primordial Photons. The gravitational effect caused by the gravitational interaction of imaginary
gravitational masses of the primordial photons with the imaginary gravitational mass associated to
the matter is equivalent to the effect produced by the amount of real gravitational mass,
(real ) ≅ 0.22 M iU , sprayed by all Universe. This additional portion of mass corresponds to what
total
M gp
has been called Dark Matter.
 55

( −) = χ M iU − 0.22M iU ⎡
( ) ⎤
total
M gm −1
M g ( sp ) = 1 − 2⎢ 1 − V 2 c 2 2
⎥ M i ( sp )
⎣ ⎦
In order to calculate the value
of χ we can start from the By comparing this expression with
expression previously obtained for the equation above, we obtain
χ , i.e.,
1
m g ( sp ) 2η n r kT T ≅ 1 .5
χ= =1− =1−
1−V 2
c 2
mi ( sp ) mi ( sp ) c 2 Tcritical
where
Substitution of this value into the
mi ( sp ) c 2 expressions of χ and M gmtotal
( − ) results
Tcritical = = 3.3 × 10 32 K in
2ηn r k

χ = − 0.5
and
and
⎛ m ⎞
⎜ i(sp) ⎟c2
2 ⎜ ⎟
Mi(sp) c ⎜⎝ 1 −V c ⎟⎠
2 2
T
T= = = critical
( − ) ≅ −0.72 M iU
total
2ηnr k 2ηnr k M gm
1 − V 2 c2

This means that 72% of the total

We thus obtain
energy of the Universe ( M iU c 2 ) is
1 due to negative gravitational mass
χ =1− of the matter created at the initial
1 − V 2 c2 instant.
Since the gravitational mass
By substitution of this expression is correlated to the inertial mass (Eq.
total
into the equation of M gm ( − ) , we get
(41)), the energy related to the
negative gravitational mass is where
there is inertial energy (inertial
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 ⎟ mass). In this way, this negative
total
M gm = ⎜⎜ 0.78 − M iU
2 ⎟
(−)
1 − V 2
c ⎟ gravitational energy permeates all
⎝ ⎠ space and tends to increase the rate
of expansion of the Universe due to
On the other hand, the Unification produce a strong gravitational
condition ( Unr ≅ Δpc= MiUc2 ) previously repulsion between the material
shown and Eq. (41) show that at the particles. Thus, this energy
initial instant of the Universe, corresponds to what has been
M g (sp ) has the following value: called Dark Energy (See Fig. X).
The value of χ = −0.5 at the
initial instant of the Universe shows
⎧ ⎡
⎪ ⎛ Un ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪ that the gravitational interaction was
Mg(sp) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ r ⎟ −1⎥⎬Mi(sp) ≅ 0.1Mi(sp)
⎜ Mi(sp) ⎟ ⎥
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪⎭ repulsive at the Big-Bang. It remains
repulsive until the temperature of the
Universe is reduced down to the
Similarly, Eq.(45) tells us that critical limit, Tcritical . Below this
temperature limit,
 56

Negative
Gravitational Mass of Matter

72%
22%

6% Positive Gravitational Mass

carried by the primordial photons
Positive
Gravitational M ass of
M atter

Fig. X - Distribution of Gravitational Masses in the Universe. The total

energy related to negative gravitational mass of all the matter in the
Universe corresponds to what has been called Dark Energy. While
the Dark Matter corresponds to the total gravitational mass carried by the
primordial photons, which is manifested in the interaction of the
imaginary gravitational masses of the primordial photons with the
imaginary mass of matter.
 57

the attractive component of the imaginary bodies. Just as the real

gravitational interaction became particles constitute the real bodies.
greater than the repulsive The idea that we make about
component, making attractive the a consciousness is basically that of
resultant gravitational interaction. an imaginary body containing
Therefore, at the beginning of the psychic energy and intrinsic
Universe – before the temperature knowledge. We can relate psychic
decreased down to Tcritical , there energy with psychic mass (psychic
occurred an expansion of the mass= psychic energy/c2). Thus, by
Universe that was exponential in analogy with the real bodies the
time rather than a normal power-law psychic bodies would be constituted
expansion. Thus, there was an by psychic particles with psychic
evident Inflation Period during the mass. Consequently, the psychic
beginning of the expansion of the particles that constitute a
Universe (See Fig. XI). consciousness would be equivalent
With the progressing of the to imaginary particles, and the
decompression the superparticles psychic mass , mΨ ,of the psychic
cluster becomes a neutrons cluster. particles would be equivalent to the
This means that the neutrons are imaginary mass, i.e.,
created without its antiparticle, the
antineutron. Thus, this solves the mΨ = mg(imaginary) (131)
matter/antimatter dilemma that is
unresolved in many cosmologies.
Now a question: How did the Thus, the imaginary masses
primordial superparticles appear at associated to the photons and
the beginning of the Universe? electrons would be elementary
It is a proven quantum fact psyche actually, i.e.,
that a wave function may collapse,
and that, at this moment, all the mΨphoton = m g (imaginary) photon =
possibilities that it describes are
4 ⎛ hf ⎞
suddenly expressed in reality. This = ⎜ 2⎟ i (132)
means that, through this process, 3 ⎝c ⎠
particles can be suddenly
materialized. mΨelectron = mg (imaginary)electron =
The materialization of the
primordial superparticles into a ⎛ hf electron ⎞
=− 4
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ i =
critical volume denotes knowledge 3
⎝ c2 ⎠
of what would happen with the
Universe starting from that initial =− 4
3
mi(real)electron i (133)
condition, a fact that points towards
the existence of a Creator. The idea that electrons have
It was shown previously the elementary psyche associated to
possible existence of imaginary
themselves is not new. It comes
particles with imaginary masses in
Nature. These particles can be from the pre-Socratic period.
associated with real particles, such as By proposing the existence of
in case of the photons and electrons, as psyche associated with matter, we
we have shown, or they can be are adopting what is called
associated with others imaginary panpsychic posture. Panpsychism
particles by constituting the dates back to the pre-Socratic period;
 58

χ ≅ − 0 .5
t =0 t ≈ 15 billion years
t ≈ 10 −43 s

T = Tcritical = 3.3 ×1032 K T = 2 .7 K

Inflation Period

Fig. XI – Inflation Period. The value of χ ≅ −0.5 at the Initial Instant of the Universe shows that the
gravitational interaction was repulsive at the Big-Bang. It remains repulsive until the temperature of
the Universe is reduced down to the critical limit, Tcritical . Below this temperature limit, the
attractive component of the gravitational interaction became greater than the repulsive component,
making attractive the resultant gravitational interaction. Therefore, at beginning of the Universe −
before the temperature to be decreased down to Tcritical , there occurred an expansion of the Universe
that was exponential in time rather than a normal power-law expansion. Thus, there was an evident
inflation period during the beginning of the expansion of the Universe.

remnants of organized panpsychism
may be found in the Uno of
Parmenides or in Heracleitus’s
Divine Flow. The scholars of
Miletus’s school were called
hylozoists, that is, “those who
believe that matter is alive”. More
recently, we will find the
panpsychistic thought in Spinoza,
Whitehead and Teilhard de Chardin,
among others. The latter one
admitted the existence of proto-
conscious properties at the
elementary particles’ level.
We can find experimental
evidences of the existence of
psyche associated to electron in an
experiment similar to that commonly
used to show the wave duality of
light. (Fig. XII). One merely
substitutes an electron ray (fine
electron beam) for the light ray. Just
as in the experiment mentioned
above, the ray which goes through
the holes is detected as a wave if a
wave detector is used (it is then
observed that the interference
pattern left on the detector screen is
analogous with that produced by the
light ray), and as a particle if a
particle detector is used.
Since the electrons are
detected on the other side of the
metal sheet, it becomes obvious
then that they passed through the
holes. On the other hand, it is also
evident that when they approached
the holes, they had to decide which
one of them to go through.
How can an electron “decide”
which hole to go through? Where
there is “choice”, isn’t there also
psyche, by definition?
The existence of psyche mass
associated to material particles can
solve the black hole information
59
paradox ‡ if we assume that any
information placed into a black hole
is saved into the psyche mass
associated to the black hole and
after - during the evaporation of the
black hole, carried by the psyche
masses associated to the
evaporated particles (Hawking
radiation). Thus, if the material
entering the black hole is a pure
quantum state, the transformation of
that state into the mixed state of
Hawking radiation does not destroy
information about the original
quantum state because the psyche
mass does not lose any structure of
the original quantum state in the
transformation. In this way, when
information goes into a black hole it
is not destroyed and might escape
from the black hole during its
evaporation.
The idea of psyche mass
associated to a black hole leads to
conclusion that there has been a
psyche mass associated to the
Initial Universe.
‡
In 1975, Stephen Hawking showed that
black holes eventually evaporate releasing
particles containing no information (Hawking
radiation). It was soon realized that this
prediction created an information loss. From the
no hair theorem one would expect the Hawking
radiation to be completely independent of the
material entering the black hole. However, if the
material entering the black hole were a pure
quantum state, the transformation of that state
into the mixed state of Hawking radiation would
destroy information about the original quantum
state. This violates Liouville's theorem and
presents a physical paradox. It is a contentious
subject for science since it violated a commonly
assumed tenet of science—that information
cannot be destroyed.
 60

Light

(a)

Dw

Light

(b)

Dp

Electrons ?
(c)

Fig. XII – A light ray, after going through the holes in the metal sheet, will be detected as a
wave(a) by a wave detector Dw or as a particle if the wave detector is substituted for the wave
detector Dp. Electron ray (c) has similar behavior as that of a light ray. However, before going
through the holes, the electrons must “decide” which one to go through.

If the primordial superparticles
that have been materialized at the
beginning of the Universe came from
the collapse of a primordial wave
function, then the psychic form
described by this wave function must
have been generated in
consciousness with a psychic mass
much greater than that needed to
materialize the Universe (material and
psychic).
This giant consciousness, in its
turn, would not only be the greatest of
all consciences in the Universe but
also the substratum of everything that
exists and, obviously, everything that
exists would be entirely contained
within it, including all the spacetime.
Thus, if the consciousness we
refer to contains all the space, its
volume is necessarily infinite,
consequently having an infinite psychic
mass.
This means that it contains all
the existing psychic mass and,
therefore, any other consciousness
that exists will be contained in it.
Hence, we may conclude that It is the
Supreme Consciousness and that
there is no other equal to It: It is
unique.
Since the Supreme Consciousness
also contains all time; past, present
and future, then, for It the time does
not flow as it flows for us.
Within this framework, when we
talk about the Creation of the Universe,
the use of the verb “to create” means
that “something that was not” came
into being, thus presupposing the
concept of time flow. For the Supreme
Consciousness, however, the instant of
Creation is mixed up with all other
times, consequently there being no
“before” or “after” the Creation and,
thus, the following question is not
justifiable: “What did the Supreme
Consciousness do before Creation?”
61
On the other hand, we may also
infer, from the above that the existence
of the Supreme Consciousness has no
defined limit (beginning and end), what
confers upon It the unique
characteristic of uncreated and eternal.
a If the Supreme Consciousness is
eternal, Its wave function ΨSC shall
never collapse (will never be null).
Thus, for having an infinite psychic
mass, the value of ΨSC 2
will be always
infinite and, hence, we may write that
+∞
∫−∞ ΨSC dV = ∞
2
By comparing this equation with Eq.
(108) derived from Quantum
Mechanics, we conclude that the
Supreme Consciousness is
simultaneously everywhere, i.e., It is
omnipresent.
Since the Supreme Consciousness
contains all consciences, it is expected
that It also contain all the knowledge.
Therefore, It is also omniscient.
Consequently, It knows how to
formulate well-defined mental images
with psychic masses sufficient for its
contents to materialize. In this way, It
can materialize everything It wishes
(omnipotence).
All these characteristics of the
Supreme Consciousness (infinite,
unique, uncreated, eternal,
omnipresent, omniscient and
omnipotent) coincide with those
traditionally ascribed to God by most
religions.
It was shown in this work that
the “virtual” quanta of the gravitational
interaction must have spin 1 and not 2,
and that they are “virtual” photons
(graviphotons) with zero mass outside
the coherent matter. Inside the
coherent matter the graviphoton mass
is non-zero. Therefore, the
gravitational forces are also gauge
forces, because they are yielded by the

exchange of "virtual" quanta of spin 1,
such as the electromagnetic forces and
the weak and strong nuclear forces.
Thus, the gravitational forces are
produced by the exchange of “virtual”
photons. Consequently, this is
precisely the origin of the gravity.
Newton’s theory of gravity does
not explain why objects attract one
another; it simply models this
observation. Also Einstein’s theory
does not explain the origin of gravity.
Einstein’s theory of gravity only
describes gravity with more precision
than Newton’s theory does.
Besides, there is nothing in both
theories explaining the origin of the
energy that produces the gravitational
forces. Earth’s gravity attracts all
objects on the surface of our planet.
This has been going on for well over
4.5 billions years, yet no known energy
source is being converted to support
this tremendous ongoing energy
expenditure. Also is the enormous
continuous energy expended by
Earth’s gravitational field for
maintaining the Moon in its orbit -
millennium after millennium. In spite of
the ongoing energy expended by
Earth’s gravitational field to hold
objects down on surface and the Moon
in orbit, why the energy of the field
never diminishes in strength or drains
its energy source? Is this energy
expenditure balanced by a conversion
of energy from an unknown energy
source?
The energy W necessary to
support the effort expended by the
gravitational forces F is well-known
and given by
M g mg
∫
r
W = Fdr = −G
∞ r
According to the principle of energy
conservation, this energy expenditure
must be balanced by a conversion of
energy from another energy type.
62
The Uncertainty Principle tells
us that, due to the occurrence of
exchange of graviphotons in a time
interval Δt < h ΔE (where ΔE is the
energy of the graviphoton), the energy
variation ΔE cannot be detected in the
system M g − m g . Since the total energy
W is the sum of the energy of the n
graviphotons, i.e., W = ΔE1 + ΔE2 + ...+ ΔEn ,
then the energy W cannot be detected
as well. However, as we know it can be
converted into another type of energy,
for example, in rotational kinetic
energy, as in the hydroelectric plants,
or in the Gravitational Motor, as shown
in this work.
It is known that a quantum of
energy ΔE = hf which varies during a
time interval Δt = 1 f = λ c < h ΔE
(wave period) cannot be
experimentally detected. This is an
imaginary photon or a “virtual” photon.
Thus, the graviphotons are imaginary
photons, i.e., the energies ΔEi of the
graviphotons are imaginaries energies
and therefore the energy
W = ΔE1 + ΔE 2 + ... + ΔE n is also an
imaginary energy. Consequently, it
belongs to the imaginary space-time.
According to Eq. (131),
imaginary energy is equal to psychic
energy. Consequently, the imaginary
space-time is, in fact, the psychic
space-time, which contains the
Supreme Consciousness. Since the
Supreme Consciousness has infinite
psychic mass, then the psychic space-
time has infinite psychic energy. This is
highly relevant, because it confers to
the psychic space-time the
characteristic of unlimited source of
energy.
This can be easily confirmed by
the fact that, in spite of the enormous
amount of energy expended by Earth’s
gravitational field to hold objects down
on the surface of the planet and
maintain the Moon in its orbit, the
energy of Earth’s gravitational field

never diminishes in strength or drains
its energy source.
If an experiment involves a large
number of identical particles, all
described by the same wave function
Ψ , real density of mass ρ of these
particles in x, y, z, t is proportional to
the corresponding value Ψ 2 ( Ψ 2 is
known as density of probability. If Ψ is
complex then Ψ 2 = ΨΨ* . Thus,
ρ ∝ Ψ2 = Ψ.Ψ* ). Similarly, in the case
of psychic particles, the density of
psychic mass, ρ Ψ , in x, y, z, will be
expressed by ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 = ΨΨ Ψ*Ψ . It is
known that ΨΨ2 is always real and
positive while ρ Ψ = mΨ V is an
imaginary quantity. Thus, as the
modulus of an imaginary number is
always real and positive, we can
transform the proportion ρΨ ∝ ΨΨ2 , in
equality in the following form:
ΨΨ2 = k ρ Ψ (134)
where k is a proportionality constant
(real and positive) to be determined.
In Quantum Mechanics we have
studied the Superpositon Principle,
which affirms that, if a particle (or
system of particles) is in a dynamic
state represented by a wave function
Ψ1 and may also be in another
dynamic state described by Ψ2 then,
the general dynamic state of the
particle may be described by Ψ ,
where Ψ is a linear
combination(superposition)of Ψ1 and Ψ2 ,
i.e.,
Ψ = c1 Ψ1 + c 2 Ψ2 (135 )
Complex constants c1 and c2
respectively indicates the percentage
of dynamic state, represented
by Ψ1 and Ψ2 in the formation of the
general dynamic state described by Ψ .
In the case of psychic particles
(psychic bodies, consciousness, etc.),
63
by analogy, if ΨΨ1 , ΨΨ 2 ,..., ΨΨn
refer to the different dynamic states the
psychic particle assume, then its
general dynamic state may be
described by the wave function ΨΨ ,
given by:
ΨΨ = c1ΨΨ1 + c2 ΨΨ 2 + ... + cn ΨΨn (136)
The state of superposition of wave
functions is, therefore, common for
both psychic and material particles. In
the case of material particles, it can be
verified, for instance, when an electron
changes from one orbit to another.
Before effecting the transition to
another energy level, the electron
carries out “virtual transitions” [42]. A
kind of relationship with other electrons
before performing the real transition.
During this relationship period, its wave
function remains “scattered” by a wide
region of the space [43] thus
superposing the wave functions of the
other electrons. In this relationship the
electrons mutually influence one
another, with the possibility of
intertwining their wave functions †† .
When this happens, there occurs the
so-called Phase Relationship
according to quantum-mechanics
concept.
In the electrons “virtual”
transition mentioned before, the
“listing” of all the possibilities of the
electrons is described, as we know, by
Schrödinger’s wave equation.
Otherwise, it is general for material
particles. By analogy, in the case of
psychic particles, we may say that the
“listing” of all the possibilities of the
psyches involved in the relationship will
be described by Schrödinger’s
equation – for psychic case, i.e.,
††
Since the electrons are simultaneously waves and
particles, their wave aspects will interfere with each
other; besides superposition, there is also the
possibility of occurrence of intertwining of their
wave functions.
 64
2 The imaginary gravitational
∇ 2 ΨΨ +
p
ΨΨ = 0
Ψ
2
(137 ) masses of the atoms must be much
h
Because the wave functions are smaller than their real gravitational
capable of intertwining themselves, the masses. On the contrary, the weight of
the bodies would be very different of
quantum systems may “penetrate”
the observed values. This fact shows
each other, thus establishing an
internal relationship where all of them that m g (imaginary ) proton and m g (imaginary )neutron
are affected by the relationship, no must have contrary signs. In this way,
longer being isolated systems but the imaginary gravitational mass of an
becoming an integrated part of a larger atom can be expressed by means of
system. This type of internal the following expression
ΔE ⎞
m g (imaginary )atom = N ⎜ me ± (m n − m p ) + 2 ⎟i
relationship, which exists only in ⎛
quantum systems, was called ⎝ c ⎠
Relational Holism [44]. where, ΔE , is the interaction energy.
The equation of quantization of By comparing this expression with the
mass (33), in the generalized form is following expression
expressed by: ⎛ ΔE ⎞
m g (imaginary ) = n 2 m g (imagynary )(min ) m g (real )atom = N ⎜ me + m p + mn + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
Thus, we can also conclude that the Thus,
psychic mass is also quantized, due to m g (imaginary )atom << m g (real )atom
m Ψ = m g (imaginary ) (Eq. 131), i.e.,
Now consider a monatomic body with
real mass M g (real ) and imaginary mass
m Ψ = n 2 m Ψ (min ) (138 )
M g (imaginary ) . Then we have
where
m Ψ (min ) = − 4 (hf min )
c2 i = ⎛ ΔE i ⎞
Σ⎜ m g (imaginary )atom + 2a ⎟
3

=− 4
3
m i (real ) min i (139 ) M g (imaginary )
= ⎝
c ⎠
=
M g (real ) ⎛ ΔE a ⎞
It was shown that the minimum Σ⎜ m g (real )atom + 2 ⎟
quantum of real inertial mass in the ⎝ c ⎠
⎛ ΔE ΔE ⎞
n⎜ me ± (mn − m p ) + 2 + 2 a ⎟i
Universe, mi (real )min , is given by:
m i (real )min = ± h 3 8 cd max = c ⎠
= ⎝
c
≅
= ± 3 .9 × 10 − 73 kg (140 ) ⎛ ΔE ΔE a ⎞
n⎜ me + m p + mn + 2 + 2 ⎟
By analogy to Eqs. (132) and (133), ⎝ c c ⎠
ΔE ⎞
⎜ me ± (mn − m p ) + 2 ⎟
the expressions of the psychic masses ⎛
associated to the proton and the c ⎟i
neutron are respectively given by: ≅⎜
⎜ ΔE ⎟
m Ψ proton = m g (imaginary ) proton = ⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
=− 4
3
(hf proton )
c2 i = Since ΔE a << ΔE .
The intensity of the gravitational
=− 4
3
m i (real ) proton i (141 ) forces between M g (imaginary ) and an
imaginary particle with mass m g (imaginary )
m Ψ neutron = m g (imaginary )neutron =
is given by
=− 4
3
(hf neutron )
c2 i =

=− 4
3
m i (real )neutron i (142 )
 65
F = G M g (imaginary) m g (imaginary) r =
2 Note that the general expression for
the gravity acceleration of the Sun is
ΔE ⎞
⎜ me ± (mn − m p ) + 2 ⎟ M
⎛
≅⎜ c ⎟G g (real )i m g (real )i
⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2 (
g = 1+ ≈ 6 × 10 − 4 G ) M gS
⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟ r2
⎝ c ⎠ Therefore, in the case of the
gravitational deflection of light about
Therefore, the total gravity is the Sun, the new expression for the
M g (real ) deflection of the light is
g real + Δg (imaginary ) = −G −
r2 (
δ = 1+ ≈ 6 ×10 − 4 ) 4GM
2
gS
(144)
ΔE ⎞
⎜ me ± (mn − m p ) + 2 ⎟ M
⎛ c d
Thus, the increase in δ due to the
−⎜ c ⎟G g (real )
excess acceleration towards the Sun
⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟ can be considered negligible.
⎝ c ⎠ Similarly to the collapse of the
Thus, the imaginary gravitational mass real wave function, the collapse of the
of a body produces an excess of psychic wave function must suddenly
gravity acceleration, Δg , given by also express in reality all the
possibilities described by it. This is,
ΔE
⎜ me ± (mn − m p ) + 2
⎛ ⎞ therefore, a point of decision in which
⎟ M there occurs the compelling need of
Δg ≅ ⎜ c ⎟G g (real )
⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2 realization of the psychic form. Thus,
⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟ this is moment in which the content of
⎝ c ⎠
the psychic form realizes itself in the
space-time. For an observer in space-
In the case of soft atoms we can time, something is real when it is in the
consider ΔE ≅ 2 × 10 −13 joules . Thus, in form of matter or radiation. Therefore,
this case we obtain the content of the psychic form may
Mg realize itself in space-time exclusively
Δg ≅ 6 × 10−4 G (143) under the form of radiation, that is, it
r2
In the case of the Sun, for example, does not materialize. This must occur
there is an excess of gravity when the Materialization Condition is
acceleration, due to its imaginary not satisfied, i.e., when the content of
gravitational mass, given by the psychic form is undefined
(impossible to be defined by its own
Δg ≅ (6 × 10 − 4 )G 2
M gS
psychic) or it does not contain enough
r psychic mass to materialize ‡‡ the
At a distance from the Sun of respective psychic contents.
r = 1.0 × 1013 m the value of Δg is Nevertheless, in both cases,
there must always be a production of
Δg ≅ 8 × 10 −10 m.s −2 “virtual” photons to convey the psychic
interaction to the other psychic
Experiments in the pioneer 10 particles, according to the quantum
spacecraft, at a distance from the Sun field theory, only through this type of
of about 67 AU or r = 1.0 × 1013 m [45], quanta will interaction be conveyed,
measured an excess acceleration since it has an infinite reach and may
towards the Sun of be either attractive or repulsive, just as

Δg = 8.74 ± 1.33 × 10 −10 m.s −2 ‡‡

By this we mean not only materialization proper
but also the movement of matter to realize its
psychic content (including radiation).

electromagnetic interaction which, as
we know, is conveyed by the exchange
of “virtual” photons.
If electrons, protons and neutrons
have psychic mass, then we can infer
that the psychic mass of the atoms are
Phase Condensates §§ . In the case of
the molecules the situation is similar.
More molecular mass means more
atoms and consequently, more psychic
mass. In this case the phase
condensate also becomes more
structured because the great amount
of elementary psyches inside the
condensate requires, by stability
reasons, a better distribution of them.
Thus, in the case of molecules with
very large molecular masses
(macromolecules) it is possible that
their psychic masses already constitute
the most organized shape of a Phase
Condensate, called Bose-Einstein
Condensate *** .
The fundamental characteristic of
a Bose-Einstein condensate is, as we
know, that the various parts making up
the condensed system not only behave
as a whole but also become a whole,
i.e., in the psychic case, the various
consciousnesses of the system
become a single consciousness with
psychic mass equal to the sum of the
psychic masses of all the
consciousness of the condensate. This
obviously, increases the available
knowledge in the system since it is
proportional to the psychic mass of the
§§
Ice and NaCl crystals are common examples of
imprecisely-structured phase condensates. Lasers,
super fluids, superconductors and magnets are
examples of phase condensates more structured.
***
Several authors have suggested the possibility of
the Bose-Einstein condensate occurring in the
brain, and that it might be the physical base of
memory, although they have not been able to find a
suitable mechanism to underpin such a hypothesis.
Evidences of the existence of Bose-Einstein
condensates in living tissues abound (Popp, F.A
Experientia, Vol. 44, p.576-585; Inaba, H., New
Scientist, May89, p.41; Rattermeyer, M and Popp,
F. A. Naturwissenschaften, Vol.68, Nº5, p.577.)
66
consciousness. This unity confers
an individual character to this type of
consciousness. For this reason, from
now on they will be called Individual
Material Consciousness.
We can derive from the above
that most bodies do not possess
individual material consciousness. In
an iron rod, for instance, the cluster of
elementary psyches in the iron
molecules does not constitute Bose-
Einstein condensate; therefore, the
iron rod does not have an individual
consciousness. Its consciousness is
consequently, much more simple and
constitutes just a phase condensate
imprecisely structured made by the
consciousness of the iron atoms.
The existence of consciousnesses
in the atoms is revealed in the
molecular formation, where atoms with
strong mutual affinity (their
consciousnesses) combine to form
molecules. It is the case, for instance
of the water molecules, in which two
Hydrogen atoms join an Oxygen atom.
Well, how come the combination
between these atoms is always the
same: the same grouping and the
same invariable proportion? In the
case of molecular combinations the
phenomenon repeats itself. Thus, the
chemical substances either mutually
attract or repel themselves, carrying
out specific motions for this reason. It
is the so-called Chemical Affinity. This
phenomenon certainly results from a
specific interaction between the
consciousnesses. From now on, it will
be called Psychic Interaction.
Mutual Affinity is a
dimensionless psychic quantity with
which we are familiar and of which we
have perfect understanding as to its
meaning. The degree of Mutual
Affinity, A , in the case of two
consciousnesses, respectively
described by ΨΨ1 and ΨΨ 2 , must be
 67
correlated to Ψ and Ψ 2
Ψ1
2
. Only a
Ψ2
††† It is similar to the equation of the
simple algebraic form fills the gravitational field, with the difference
requirements of interchange of the that now instead of the density of
indices, the product gravitational mass we have the density
of psychic mass. Then, we can write
ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 = ΨΨ2 2 .ΨΨ2 1 =
the general solution of Eq. (147), in the
= A1, 2 = A2,1 = A (145 ) following form:
ρ Ψ dV
In the above expression, A is due to Φ = −G ∫ (148)
the product ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 will be always r2
This equation expresses, with
positive. From equations (143) and
nonrelativistic approximation, the
(134) we get
potential of the psychic field of any
A = ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 = k 2 ρ Ψ1 ρ Ψ 2 = distribution of psychic mass.
mΨ1 mΨ 2 Particularly, for the potential of
= k2 (146) the field of only one particle with
V1 V2
The psychic interaction can be psychic mass mΨ1 , we get:
G m Ψ1
described starting from the psychic
mass because the psychic mass is the
Φ=− (149 )
r
source of the psychic field. Basically, Then the force produced by this field
the psychic mass is gravitational mass, upon another particle with psychic
m Ψ ≡ m g (imaginary ) . In this way, the mass mΨ 2 is
equations of the gravitational r r ∂Φ
interaction are also applied to the FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = − mΨ 2 =
∂r
Psychic Interaction. However, due to
m Ψ1 m Ψ 2
the psychic mass, m Ψ , to be an = −G (150)
imaginary quantity, it is necessary to r2
put mΨ into the mentioned equations By comparing equations (150) and
(144) we obtain
in order to homogenize them, because
as we know, the module of an r r
imaginary number is always real and VV
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = −G A 12 22 (151)
positive. k r
Thus, based on gravity theory, In the vectorial form the above
we can write the equation of the equation is written as follows
r r
psychic
Mechanics.
field in nonrelativistic VV
FΨ 12 = − FΨ 21 = − GA 12 22 μ̂ (152 )
k r
ΔΦ = 4πG ρ Ψ (147 ) Versor μ̂ has the direction of the line
connecting the mass centers (psychic
mass) of both particles and oriented
from mΨ1 to mΨ 2 .
†††
Quantum Mechanics tells us that Ψ do not have In general, we may distinguish
a physical interpretation or a simple meaning and
and quantify two types of mutual
also it cannot be experimentally observed. However
affinity: positive and negative
such restriction does not apply to Ψ
2
, which is
(aversion). The occurrence of the first
known as density of probability and represents the type is synonym of psychic attraction,
probability of finding the body, described by the
(as in the case of the atoms in the
wave function Ψ , in the point x, y, z at the
water molecule) while the aversion is
moment t. A large value of Ψ
2
means a strong
synonym of repulsion. In fact, Eq. (152)
possibility to find the body, while a small value of r r
shows that the forces FΨ12 and FΨ 21 are
Ψ 2 means a weak possibility to find the body.
 68
attractive, if A is positive (expressing Otherwise a Trivial Relationship
positive mutual affinity between the two takes place.
psychic bodies), and repulsive if A is The psychic forces such as the
negative (expressing negative mutual gravitational forces, must be very weak
affinity between the two psychic when we consider the interaction
bodies). Contrary to the interaction of between two particles. However, in
the matter, where the opposites attract spite of the subtleties, those forces
themselves here, the opposites repel stimulate the relationship of the
themselves. consciousnesses with themselves and
A method and device to obtain with the Universe (Eq.152).
images of psychic bodies have been From all the preceding, we
previously proposed [46]. By means of perceive that Psychic Interaction –
this device, whose operation is based unified with matter interactions,
on the gravitational interaction and the constitutes a single Law which links
piezoelectric effect, it will be possible things and beings together and, in a
to observe psychic bodies. network of continuous relations and
Expression (144) can be exchanges, governs the Universe both
rewritten in the following form: in its material and psychic aspects. We
can also observe that in the
m m
A = k 2 Ψ1 Ψ 2 (153) interactions the same principle
V1 V2
reappears always identical. This unity
The psychic masses mΨ1 and mΨ 2 are of principle is the most evident
imaginary quantities. However, the expression of monism in the Universe.
product mΨ1 .mΨ 2 is a real quantity. One
can then conclude from the previous
expression that the degree of mutual
affinity between two consciousnesses
depends basically on the densities of
their psychic masses, and that:
1) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then
A > 0 (positive mutual affinity
between them)
2) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then
A > 0 (positive mutual affinity
between them)
3) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then
A < 0 (negative mutual affinity
between them)
4) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then
A < 0 (negative mutual affinity
between them)
In this relationship, as occurs in the
case of material particles (“virtual”
transition of the electrons previously
mentioned), the consciousnesses
interact mutually, intertwining or not
their wave functions. When this
happens, there occurs the so-called
Phase Relationship according to
quantum-mechanics concept.
 69
APPENDIX A: Allais effect explained

A Foucault-type pendulum close to the value of the interplanetary

slightly increases its period of medium.
oscillation at sites experiencing a solar Since the density of the
eclipse, as compared with any other interplanetary medium is very small it
time. This effect was first observed by cannot work as gravitational shielding.
Allais [47] over 40 years ago. Also Saxl However, there is a top layer in the
and Allen [48], using a torsion lunar atmosphere with density
−18 −3
pendulum, have observed the ≅ 1.3 × 10 kg.m that can work as a
phenomenon. Recently, an anomalous gravitational shielding and explain the
eclipse effect on gravimeters has Allais and pendulum effects. Below this
become well-established [49], while layer, the density of the lunar
some of the pendulum experiments atmosphere increases, making the
have not. Here, we will show that the effect of gravitational shielding
Allais gravity and pendulum effects negligible.
during solar eclipses result from a During the solar eclipses, when
shielding effect of the Sun’s gravity the Moon is between the Sun and the
when the Moon is between the Sun Earth, two gravitational shieldings Sh1
and the Earth. and Sh2 , are established in the top
The interplanetary medium layer of the lunar atmosphere (See
includes interplanetary dust, cosmic Fig. 1A). In order to understand how
rays and hot plasma from the solar these gravitational shieldings work (the
wind. Its density is inversely gravitational shielding effect) see Fig.
proportional to the squared distance II. Thus, right after Sh1 (inside the
from the Sun, decreasing as this system Moon-Lunar atmosphere), the
distance increases. Near the Earth- r
Sun’s gravity acceleration, g S ,
Moon system, this density is very low, r
with values about 5 protons / cm 3 becomes χ g S where, according to
( )
8.3 × 10−21 kg m3 . However, this density Eq. (57) χ is given by
is highly variable. It can be increased ⎧ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎪
2

( )
n D
up to ~ 100 protons / cm 3 1.7 ×10−19 k g m3 ⎢
χ = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ 3 ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎜ r
⎟ (1A)
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc ⎠ ⎥⎪
[50]. ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
The atmosphere of the Moon is The total density of solar radiation D
very tenuous and insignificant in arriving at the top layer of the lunar
comparison with that of the Earth. The atmosphere is given by
average daytime abundances of the D = σT 4 = 6.32 × 10 7 W / m 2
elements known to be present in the
Since the temperature of the surface of
lunar atmosphere, in atoms per cubic
the Sun is T = 5.778 × 10 3 K and
centimeter, are as follows: H <17, He
2-40x103, Na 70,K 17, Air 4x104, σ = 5.67 × 10 −8 W .m −2 .K −4 . The density
yielding ~8x104 total atoms per cubic of the top layer is ρ ≅ 1.3 ×10−18 kg.m−3
( )
centimeter ≅ 10−16 kg.m−3 [51]. According then Eq. (1A) gives
to Öpik [52], near the Moon surface, χ = − 1 .1
the density of the lunar atmosphere The negative sign of χ shows that
r r
can reach values up to 10 −12 kg.m −3 .The χg S , has opposite direction to g S . As
minimum possible density of the lunar previously showed (see Fig. II), after
atmosphere is in the top of the the second gravitational shielding
atmosphere and is essentially very
 70
(Sh2) the gravity acceleration χgr S g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 0 .4 ) g S − (− 0 .4 )g Moon =
2

r r
becomes χ 2 g S . This means that χ 2 g S ≅ g ⊕ − 9.6 × 10 − 4 m.s − 2 =
r
has the same direction of g S . In (
= 1 − 9.7 × 10 − 5 g ⊕) (4 A )
addition, right after the lunar (Sh2) This decrease in g increases the
r
gravity becomes χg moon . Therefore, the pendulum’s period by about
total gravity acceleration in the Earth g⊕
T′ =T = 1 .000048 T
will be given by ( )
1 − 9 .4 × 10 − 5 g ⊕
r r r r
g ′ = g ⊕ − χ 2 g S − χg moon (2 A) This corresponds to 0.0048% increase
in the pendulum’s period. Jun’s
abstract [53] tells us of a relative
Since g S ≅ 5.9 × 10 −3 m / s 2 and change less than 0.005% in the
−5
g moon ≅ 3.3 × 10 m / s Eq. (2A), gives
2 pendulum’s period associated with the
1990 solar eclipse.
For example, if the density of the
g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 1 .1) g S − (− 1 .1)g Moon =
2
top layer of the lunar atmosphere
≅ g ⊕ − 7 .1 × 10 − 3 m .s − 2 = increase up to 2.0917 × 10−18 k g m 3 , the
(
= 1 − 7 .3 × 10 − 4 g ⊕ ) (3 A ) value for χ becomes

This decrease in g increases the χ = −1.5 × 10 −3

period T = 2π l g of a paraconical
Thus, we obtain
g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 1.5 × 10−3 ) g S − (− 1.5 × 10−3 )g Moon =
pendulum (Allais effect) in about 2

g⊕
T′ = T = 1.00037 T
(
1 − 7.3 × 10 − 4 g ⊕ ) ≅ g ⊕ − 6.3 × 10−8 m.s −2 =
This corresponds to 0.037% increase ( )
= 1 − 6.4 × 10−9 g ⊕ (5 A)
in the period, and is roughly the value So, the total gravity acceleration in the
(0.0372%) obtained by Saxl and Allen Earth will decrease during the solar
during the total solar eclipse in March eclipses by about
1970 [48].
As we have seen, the density of 6.4 × 10 −9 g ⊕
the interplanetary medium near the
Moon is highly variable and can reach The size of the effect, as measured
values up to ~ 100 protons / cm 3 with a gravimeter, during the 1997
(1.7 ×10−19 k g m3 .) eclipse, was roughly (5 − 7 ) × 10 −9 g ⊕
When the density of the [54, 55].
interplanetary medium increases, the The decrease will be even
top layer of the lunar atmosphere can smaller forρ ≳ 2.0917 ×10-18kg.m-3. The
also increase its density, by absorbing lower limit now is set by Lageos
particles from the interplanetary satellites, which suffer an anomalous
medium due to the lunar gravitational
acceleration of only about 3 × 10 −13 g ⊕ ,
attraction. In the case of a density
increase of roughly 30% during “seasons” where the satellite
( )
1.7 × 10 k g m , the value for χ
−18 3 experiences eclipses of the Sun by the
Earth [56].
becomes
χ = − 0 .4
Consequently, we get
 71

Top layer of the Moon’s atmosphere

(Gravitational Shielding)
Interplanetary medium
≈ 10 −19 kg m 3
≈10−18 kg.m-3
Solar radiation ≈10−17 kg.m-3
≈10−12 kg.m-3 r
χg Moon
r Sh1 r Moon r Sh2 r r r r Earth
gS χg S g Moon χg Moon χ 2 g S χ 2gS g⊕

Fig. 1A – Schematic diagram of the Gravitational Shielding around the Moon – The top layer of the
Moon’s atmosphere with density of the order of 10-18 kg.m-3 , produces a gravitational shielding
r r
when subjected to the radiation from the Sun. Thus, the solar gravity g S becomes χ g S after the
r r
first shielding Sh1 and χ 2 g S after the second shielding Sh 2 . The Moon gravity becomes χ g Moon
after Sh2 . Therefore the total gravity acceleration in the Earth will be given by
r r r r
g ′ = g ⊕ − χ 2 g S − χg moon .
 72

APPENDIX B
In this appendix we will show n2h2 n2h2
why, in the quantized gravity equation En = = (3B)
8mg L2 8η 2 mi L2
(Eq.34), n = 0 is excluded from the
sequence of possible values of n . From this equation we can easily
Obviously, the exclusion of n = 0 , conclude that η cannot be
means that the gravity can have only zero (E n → ∞ or E n → 0 ) . On the
0
discrete values different of zero.
Equation (33) shows that the other hand, the Eq. (2B) shows that the
gravitational mass is quantized and exclusion of η = 0 means the exclusion
given by of m g = 0 as a possible value for the
gravitational mass. Obviously, this also
M g = n 2 mg (min) means the exclusion of M g = 0
(Relativistic mass). Equation (33) tells
Since Eq. (43) leads to us that M g = n 2 m g (min ) , thus we can
conclude that the exclusion of Mg = 0
mg (min) = mio(min)
implies in the exclusion of n = 0 since
where mg(min) = mi0(min) = finite value (elementary
quantum of mass). Therefore Eq. (3B)
mi0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax = ±3.9×10−73kg is only valid for values of n and η
different of zero. Finally, from the
is the elementary quantum of inertial quantized gravity equation (Eq. 34),
mass. Then the equation
for M g becomes GM ⎛ G m g (min ) ⎞
g =−
g
= n2⎜− ⎟=
r2 ⎜ (rmax n )2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
M g = n 2 mg (min) = n 2 mi 0(min)
= n 4 g min

On the other hand, Eq. (44) we conclude that the exclusion of n = 0

shows that means that the gravity can have only
M i = ni2 mi 0(min) discrete values different of zero.
Thus, we can write that
2
Mg ⎛n ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or M g = η 2 M i (1B)
M i ⎝ ni ⎠

where η = n ni is a quantum number

different of n .
By multiplying both members of
Eq. (1B) by 1 − V 2 c 2 we get
mg = η 2 mi (2B)
By substituting (2B) into Eq. (21)
we get
 73

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