Introduction, definition, scope and importance of environmental studies.

Environment definition and importance

• Word environment derived from French verb environner, means to “encircle” or

“surround.”

• Environment can be defined as the physical, chemical and biological world that
surrounds us, as well as the complex of social and cultural conditions affecting an
individual or community

Environmental Science

• Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary field involves both the physical and the
social sciences

• Physical sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography, resource technology

and engineering)

• Social sciences (resource management and conservation, demography, economics,

politics and ethics).

• It encompasses the surrounding conditions that affect man and other organisms.

• Natural and human resources are interdependent and the use or misuse of one affects the
other

Scope of environmental studies

1. The study creates awareness among the people to know about various renewable and
nonrenewable resources of the region. The endowment or potential, patterns of utilization and
the balance of various resources available for future use in the state of a country are analyzed in
the study

2. It provides the knowledge about ecological systems and cause and effect relationships.

3. It provides necessary information about biodiversity richness and the potential dangers to the
species of plants, animals and microorganisms in the environment.

4. The study enables one to understand the causes and consequences due to natural and main
induced disasters (flood, earthquake, landslide, cyclones etc.,) and pollutions and measures to
minimize the effects.

5. It enables one to evaluate alternative responses to environmental issues before deciding an

alternative course of action.
6. The study enables environmentally literate citizens (by knowing the environmental acts,
rights, rules, legislations, etc.) to make appropriate judgments and decisions for the protection
and improvement of the earth.

7. The study exposes the problems of over population, health, hygiene, etc. and the role of arts,
science and technology in eliminating/ minimizing the evils from the society

8. The study tries to identify and develop appropriate and indigenous eco-friendly skills and
technologies to various environmental issues.

9. It teaches the citizens the need for sustainable utilization of resources as these resources are
inherited from our ancestors to the younger generating without deteriorating their quality.

10. The study enables theoretical knowledge into practice and the multiple uses of environment.

Components of environment

1. Atmospheric sciences

2. Ecology

3. Environmental chemistry

4. Geosciences

Importance of Environmental Studies

 The environmental studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and
conservation of our indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment
 At present a great number of environment issues, have grown in size and complexity day
by day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth.

Environmental studies have become significant for the following reasons

• Environment issues being of international importance

• It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming and ozone
depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but
global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.

• Problems cropped in the wake of development

• Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation

Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the
developed world.

• Explosively increase in pollution

 • World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planet lives in India.

• Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area,
there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land.

• Agricultural experts have recognized soil health problems like deficiency of

micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.

Major environmental issues

• Industrial / Vehicular pollution

• Climate Change

• Water pollution

• Poisoned by Pesticides

• Natural Resources:

• A resource is anything needed by an organism or group of organisms.

• The sum of all physical, chemical, biological and social factors, which compose the
surroundings of man, is referred as environment and each element of these surroundings
constitutes a resource on which man draws in order to develop a better life

Natural Resources:

• Any material which can be transformed in a way that it becomes more valuable and
useful can be termed as a resource.

• Thus, only part of our natural environment, such as land, water, air, minerals, forest,
rangeland, wildlife, fish or even human population that man can utilize to promote his
welfare may be regarded as a natural resource.

Classification of natural resources

• Based on quantity, mutability and reusability schematic representation of classification of

natural resources.

• Classification of natural resources

• Classification of natural resources

Based on Continual Utility

• Renewable

• Non renewable

• Cyclic resource

Classification of natural resources

Based on origin

• Biotic and

• Abiotic

Based on Utility

• Some as raw materials

• Some as energy resources

Ecology

• Ecology is the branch of biological science concerned with the relationships and
interactions between living organisms and their physical surroundings or environment.

• Ecology from the Greek words oikos (house or place where one lives) and logos (study
of).

• Ecology means the Study of the “House” in which We Live

• The term ecology was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel (1834–
1919).

• Ecology can be defined more specifically as the “Study of the interactions between
organisms and the non-living components of their environment.

Or

• “Study of interrelationship between the organism and Environment”

Ecosystem

• Living organisms and the environment with which they exchange materials and energy
together make up an ecosystem - basic unit of ecology.

• An ecosystem includes
 • Biotic components – living plants and animals

• Abiotic components – Air, Water, Minerals, and soil that constitute the environment.

• A third and essential component of most natural ecosystems is energy - form of sunlight.

• Land-based or terrestrial ecosystems include forests, deserts, jungles, and meadows

• Water-based or aquatic ecosystems include streams, rivers, lakes, marshes, and

estuaries

• No specific limitation on the size or boundaries of an ecosystem

• A small pond can be studied as a separate ecosystem.

• A desert comprising hundreds of square kilometers or even the entire surface of earth can
be viewed as an ecosystem.

Structural units of ecology

• Basic structural units of ecological organization are species and populations.

• Biological species consists of all the organisms potentially able to interbreed under
natural conditions and to produce fertile offspring.

• Population consists all the members of a single species occupying a common

geographical area at the same time.

• An ecological community is composed of a number of populations that lie and interact in

a specific region.

Environment, Ecology and Ecosystem

• Environment, Ecology and Ecosystem are three different terms. But they are interrelated.

• The natural surroundings of an organism, both living and physical are its environment.

• Physical surroundings - Light, Water, Air, Land

• living surroundings - Humans, Rats, Lizards, Dogs etc

• Definitions of Environment

Douglas and Holland:

• ‘The term environment is used to describe, in the aggregate, all the external forces,
influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behavior and the growth,
development and maturity of living organisms.’
 • Generally, our surroundings are called as environment.

Elements of Environment

Physical elements

• Physical elements are as space, landforms, water bodies, climate soils, rocks and
minerals.

• They determine the variable character of the human habitat, its opportunities as well as
limitations

• Elements of Environment

Biological elements

• Biological elements such as plants, animals, microorganisms and humans constitute the
biosphere

Cultural elements

• Cultural elements such as economic, social and political elements are essentially man-
made features, which make cultural milieu.

• Structure of Environment

• Environment is both physical and biological.

• Physical Environment - classified into three categories.

(i) Solid,

(ii) Liquid

(iii) Gas.

These represent the following spheres

(i) The lithosphere (solid earth)

(ii) The hydrosphere (water component)

(iii) The atmosphere (gaseous component)

• Physical Environment

• The scientists have classified them into smaller units based on different spatial scales, e.g.

• Mountain Environment
• Glacier Environment

• Plateau Environment

• Coastal Environment

• Biological Environment

• The biological of the environment consists of:

• (i) Plants (flora)

• (ii) Animals (fauna).

• Biogeochemical cycles

• The flow of energy through the ecosystem drives the movement of nutrients within the
ecosystem

• Inorganic nutrients are chemical elements and compounds necessary to living organisms.

• Inorganic nutrients are chemical elements and compounds necessary to living organisms.

• Although an ecosystem needs a constant source of energy from outside, the nutrients
upon which life depends can be recycled indefinitely

• Biogeochemical cycles or nutrient cycles.

• The pathways in which the chemical nutrients move through the biotic and abiotic
components of the ecosystem.

• Major biogeochemical cycles include the water cycle, carbon cycle, oxygen cycle,
nitrogen cycle, phosphorous cycle, sulfur cycle and calcium cycle.

• Decomposers play a key role in many of these cycles, returning nutrients to the soil,
water, or air
 Ecology

• Ecology is the science that deals with the relationships between living organisms with
their physical environment and with each other.

• Ecology can be approached from the viewpoints

(1) The environment and the demands it places on the organisms in it or

(2) Organisms and how they adapt to their environmental conditions.

• An ecosystem consists of an assembly of mutually interacting organisms and their

environment in which materials are interchanged in a largely cyclical manner.

• An ecosystem has physical, chemical, and biological components along with energy
sources and pathways of energy and materials interchange.

• The environment in which a particular organism lives is called its habitat.

• The role of an organism in a habitat is called its niche.

• It is a science of relationships.

Ecology divides into four categories.

1. Terrestrial environment - The terrestrial environment is based on land and consists of biomes,
such as grasslands, one of several kinds of forests, savannas, or deserts.

2. Freshwater environment - The freshwater environment can be further subdivided between

standing-water habitats (lakes, reservoirs) and running-water habitats (streams, rivers).

3. Oceanic marine environment - The oceanic marine environment is characterized by saltwater

and may be divided broadly into the shallow waters of the continental shelf composing the
neritic zone

4. Oceanic region - The deeper waters of the ocean that constitute the oceanic region.

Subdivisions of modern ecology

• Ecosystem ecology - which views ecosystems as large units

• Population ecology - which attempts to explain ecosystem behavior from the properties of
individual units.

Structure and Function of ecosystem

 • An ecosystem has two components the biotic components consisting of living things, and
the abiotic portion, consisting of elements that are not alive.

• The non living constituents are said to include the following category, habitat, gases,
solar radiation, temperature, moisture and inorganic and organic nutrients.

• The living organisms may be sub divided into producers, consumers and decomposers.

• Abiotic Components include inorganic and organic components of the environment or

habitat of the organism.

• The inorganic components of an ecosystem are carbon dioxide, water nitrogen, calcium
phosphate all of which are involved in matter cycle (biogeochemical cycles).

• The organic components of an ecosystem are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and amino
acids, all of which are synthesized by the biota (flora and fauna) of an ecosystem and are
reached to ecosystem as their wastes, dead remains etc.

• The climate 'microclimate' temperature, light soil etc. are abiotic components of the
ecosystems.

Functions of an Ecosystem

• The capacity of natural processes and components to provide goods and services that
satisfy human needs, either directly or indirectly.

• Ecosystem functions are subset of ecological processes and ecosystem structures.

• Each function is the result of the natural processes of the total ecological sub-system of
which it is a part.

• Natural processes, are the result of complex interactions between biotic (living
organisms) and abiotic (chemical and physical) components of ecosystems through the
universal driving forces of matter and energy.

Primary groups of ecosystem functions

(1) Regulatory functions,

(2) Habitat functions,

(3) Production functions and

(4) Information functions.

This grouping concerns all ecosystems, not only for forests.

 • General characterization of ecosystem functions

Regulatory functions

• This group of functions relates to the capacity of natural and semi-natural ecosystems to
regulate essential ecological processes and life support systems through bio-geochemical
cycles and other biospheric processes.

• In addition to maintaining the ecosystem (and biosphere health), these regulatory

functions provide many services that have direct and indirect benefits to humans (i.e.,
clean air, water and soil, and biological control services).

Habitat functions

• Natural ecosystems provide refuge and a reproduction habitat to wild plants and animals
and thereby contribute to the (in situ) conservation of biological and genetic diversity and
the evolutionary process.

Production functions

• Photosynthesis and nutrient uptake by autotrophs converts energy, carbon dioxide, water
and nutrients into a wide variety of carbohydrate structures which are then used by
secondary producers to create an even larger variety of living biomass.

• This broad diversity in carbohydrate structures provides many ecosystem goods for
human consumption, ranging from food and raw materials to energy resources and
genetic material.

Information functions:

• Since most of human evolution took place within the context of an undomesticated
habitat, natural ecosystems contribute to the maintenance of human health by providing
opportunities for reflection, spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreation and
aesthetic experience

Components of an ecosystem

• Complete ecosystem consists of four basic components such as producers, consumers,

decomposers and abiotic components e.g. Pond.

• If anyone of these four components are lacking, then it is grouped under incomplete
ecosystem e.g. Ocean depth or a cave.

• Productivity in the Environment

 • The productivity of an ecosystem is the rate at which solar energy is fixed by the
vegetation of the ecosystem; it is further classified into primary productivity, secondary
productivity and net productivity.

Primary productivity

• Primary productivity refers to the rate at which radiant energy is stored by photosynthetic
and chemosynthetic activity of producers; it is further distinguished as gross primary
productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP).

• It is expressed in terms of weight (g/m2/yr) or energy (kcal/m2).

• Secondary productivity refers to the rates of energy storage at consumer levels

• An understanding of ecology is essential in the management of modern industrialized

societies in ways that are compatible with environmental preservation and enhancement.

• The branch of ecology that deals with predicting the impacts of technology and
development and making recommendations such that these activities will have minimum
adverse impacts, or even positive impacts, on ecosystems may be termed as Applied
Ecology.

• It is a multidisciplinary approach.

• Interactions

• Among living organisms are grouped into two major groups viz.

• Positive interactions

• Negative interactions

• Positive interactions

• Here the populations help one another, the interaction being either one way or reciprocal.
These include

• Commensalism,

• Proto co-operation and

• Mutualism.

• Commensalism

• In this one species derives the benefits while the other is unaffected.
 • Eg. Cellulolytic fungi produce a number of organic acids from cellulose which serve as
carbon sources for non-cellulolytic bacteria and fungi.

• Growth factors are synthesised by certain microorganisms and their excretion permits the
proliferation of nutritionally complex soil inhabitants.

• Proto-cooperation

• It is also called as non-obligatory mutualism. It is an association of mutual benefit to the

two species but without the co-operation being obligatory for their existence or for their
performance of reactions.

• Eg. N2 can be fixed by Azotobacter with cellulose as energy source provided that a
cellulose decomposer is present to convert the cellulose to simple sugars or organic acids.

Mutualism

• Mutually beneficial interspecific interactions are more common among organisms.

• Here both the species derive benefit.

• In such association there occurs a close and often permanent and obligatory contact more
or less essential for survival of each.

• Eg. (i) Pollination by animals. Bees, moths, butterflies etc. derive food from hectar, or
other plant product and in turn bring about pollination.

• (ii) Symbiotic nitrogen fixation: Legume - Rhizobium symbiosis. Bacteria obtain food
from legume and in turn fix gaseous nitrogen, making it available to plant.

Negative interactions

• Member of one population may eat members of the other population, compete for foods,
excrete harmful wastes or otherwise interfere with the other population.

• It includes

(i) Competition,

(ii) Predation,

(iii) Parasitism and

(iv) antibiosis.

Competition
 • It is a condition in which there is a suppression of one organism as the two species
struggle for limiting quantities of nutrients O2 space or other requirements.

• Eg. Competition between Fusarium oxysporum and Agrobacterium radiobacter

Predation

• A predator is free living which catches and kills another species for food.

• Most of the predatory organisms are animals but there are some plants (carnivorous) also,
especially fungi, which feed upon other animals.

• Eg. (i) Grazing and browsing by animals on plants.

• (ii) Carnivorous plants such as Nepenthes, Darligtoria, Drosera etc. consume insects and
other small animals for food.

• (iii) Protozoans feeding on bacteria.

Parasitism

• A parasite is the organism living on or in the body of another organisms and deriving its
food more or less permanently from its tissues.

• A typical parasite lives in its host without killing it, whereas the predator kills its upon
which it feeds.

• Eg. Species of Cuscuta (total stem parasite) grow on other plants on which they depend
for nourishment.

• Parasitism may occur even with in the species.

• Hyperparasites which are chiefly fungi growing parasitically on other parasites, (ie)
Parasite on a parasite.

• Eg. Cicinnobolus cesatii is found as hyperparasite on a number of powdery mildew fungi

Antibiosis

• The phenomenon of the production of antibiotic is called as antibiosis.

• Antibiotic is an organic substance produced by one organism which in low concentration

inhibits the growth of other organism.

• Eg. Streptomycin - S.griseus , Penicillin - P. notatum , Trichoderma harzianum inhibits

the growth of Rhizoctonia sp.
Producers

• In an ecosystem, producers are those organisms that use photosynthesis to capture energy
by using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to create carbohydrates, and then use that
energy to create more complex molecules like proteins, lipids and starches that are crucial
to life processes.

• Producers, which are mostly green plants, are also called autotrophs.

• Producers funnel into the ecosystem the energy needed for its biological processes.

• The carbohydrates and other organic chemicals formed by the producers are utilized by
the heterotrophs, or consumers; first by the herbivores who eat the plants--the primary
consumers--then by the predators who eat the herbivores--the secondary, tertiary, and so
on consumers.

• But at each step, much energy is lost.

• Less than 10 percent of the energy stored in plants is converted to herbivore mass.

• The loss from herbivore to predator is similar. Thus energy needs to be added to the
ecosystem continuously.

• Producers: Organism which produces its own food by using energy from the sun

Consumers

• Consumers are organisms (including humans) that get their energy from producers,
regarding the flow of energy through an ecosystem.

• For example, producers, (such as plants), make their own food by the process of
photosynthesis.

• An organism ate this plant, than it would be a primary consumer.

• The animal that eats this animal is known as the second order consumer. Scientifically,
all consumers are either herbivores, carnivores, omnivores or detrivores (decomposers
and other organism that break down organic matter).

• These 'orders' are known as trophic levels.

• Organism which doesn‘t make its own food, but gets it from eating plants or other
animals

Decomposers
• Decomposers eventually convert all organic matter into carbon dioxide (which they
respire) and nutrients.

• This releases raw nutrients (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and magnesium) in a form
usable to plants and algae, which incorporate the chemicals into their own cells.

• This process resupplies nutrients to the ecosystem, in turn allowing for greater primary
production.

• Although decomposers are generally located on the bottom of ecosystem diagrams such
as food chains, food webs, and energy pyramids, decomposers in the biosphere are
crucial to the environment.

• By breaking down dead material, they provide the nutrients that other organisms need to
survive.

• As decomposers feed on dead organisms, they leave behind nutrients.

• These nutrients become part of the soil.

• Therefore, more plants can grow and thrive.

• Decomposer: Organism which digests or breaks down formerly living material

 Ecological pyramids

• The trophic structure and function at successive trophic levels, i.e. producers -herbivores
-carnivores, may be shown graphically by means of ecological pyramids where the first
or producer level constitutes the base of the pyramid and the successive levels, the tiers
making the apex.

• The graphic expression of the trophic structure and function at successive trophic level is
referred as ―Ecological Pyramids

Ecological Pyramids are of three types

• Pyramid of numbers refers to number of individual organisms at each level.

• Pyramid of biomass refers to total dry weight of total amount of living matter

• Pyramid of energy shows the rate of energy flow/productivity at successive energy level.

• The pyramids of numbers and biomass may be upright or inverted depending upon the
nature of the food chain in the particular ecosystem,

• Whereas pyramids of energy are always upright.

Pyramid of numbers

• Relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at successive trophic level in

terms of their numbers.

• In grassland ecosystem, producers are maximum in number.

• This number then shows a decrease towards apex as the primary consumer/herbivore are
lesser in number than producers and tertiary consumers are least in number

• So pyramid becomes upright

• But in forest ecosystem, producers are lesser in number, which forms the base of
pyramid.

• Herbivores - fruit/eating birds, elephants, deers etc. are more in number than producers.

• In parasitic food chain, pyramids are always inverted. Number of organisms gradually
shows an increase making the pyramid inverted.

Pyramids of Biomass

• Grassland and forest ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass shows an upright position.
 • But in ponds and other aquatic systems, producers are small organisms and biomass is
also least.

• This value shows an increase towards the apex of the pyramid and making the pyramid
inverted.

Pyramids of Energy

• Of the three types of ecological pyramid, this energy of pyramid gives the best picture of
overall nature of the system.

• It is a picture of the rates of passage of food mass through food chains.

• It‘s shape is always upright.

• Because there is always a gradual decrease in the energy content at successive trophic
levels from the producers to various consumer.

Energy flow models

• The behaviorof energy in an ecosystem can be termed, as energy flow.

• It is always unidirectional.

• From energetics point of view it is essential to understand for an ecosystem

(i) The efficiency of the producers in absorption and conversion of solar energy.

(ii) the use of this converted chemical form of energy by the consumers.

(iii) the total input of energy in form of food and its efficiency of assimilation.

(iv) the loss through respiration heat, excretion etc., and

(v) the gross net production

There are two models to explain the flow of energy.

1. Single channel energy models (SCEM)

2. ̳Y‘ shaped/2 channel energy flow models

• Single channel energy model

• This model explains the unidirectional flow of energy.

• Whatever the energy captured by the autotrophs does not revert back to solar input.
 • As it moves progressively through the various trophic levels, it is no longer available to
the previous level

• The system would collapse if the primary source, the sun, were cut off.

• There is a progressive decrease in energy level at each trophic level.

• So, shorter the food chain, greater would be the available food energy.

Y” shaped energy flow model

• Applicable to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

• In this energy model, one arm represents herbivore food chain and the other arm
represents the decomposer (detritus) food chain.

• The primary producers are entirely different for each arms.

• This model also indicates that two food chains are in fact, under natural conditions, not
completely isolated from one another.

• It confirms to the basic stratified structure of ecosystem.

• It separates the grazing and detritus food chains in both time and space, and

• Micro consumers and macro consumers differ greatly in size and metabolic relations.

Food Chain

• A food chain shows how each living thing gets its food.

• Some animals eat plants and some animals eat other animals.

• For example, a simple food chain links the trees & shrubs, the giraffes (that eat trees &
shrubs), and the lions (that eat the giraffes).

• Each link in this chain is food for the next link.

• A food chain always starts with plant life and ends with an animal.

1. Plants are called producers because they are able to use light energy from the Sun to produce
food (sugar) from carbon dioxide and water.

2. Animals cannot make their own food so they must eat plants and/or other animals. They are
calledconsumers.

There are three groups of consumers.

 • Three groups of consumers

• Animals that eat only plants are called herbivores(or primary consumers).

• Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.

• Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers

• Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers

• e.g., killer whales in an ocean food web ...

• phytoplankton → small fishes → seals → killer whales

3. Animals and people who eat both animals and plants are called omnivores.

4. Then there are decomposers (bacteria and fungi) which feed on decaying matter.

• These decomposers speed up the decaying process that releases mineral salts back into
the food chain for absorption by plants as nutrients.

• The consumer organisms are heterotrophic. Unlike the autotrophic plants, which
manufacture their own food from simple inorganic chemicals, the herbivores must utilize
the energy-rich compounds synthesized by the plants. In turn, the carnivores obtain
energy for their metabolism when they consume the herbivores.

• Phytoplanktons → Zoos planktons → Fish

• Grasses → Rabbit → fox

• Grasses → grasshopper → Frog Snake Hawk

• Small Bacteria → Bdellovibio → Protozoa

Food Web

• There cannot be too many links in a single food chain because the animals at the end of
the chain would not get enough food (and hence energy) to stay alive.

• Most animals are part of more than one food chain and eat more than one kind of food in
order to meet their food and energy requirements.

• These interconnected food chains form a food web ie. Interlocking pattern of food chain
is called food web.
 Natural Resources

• Forests

• Water

• Minerals

• Energy

• Land

Natural Resources:

• A resource is anything needed by an organism or group of organisms.

• The sum of all physical, chemical, biological and social factors, which compose the
surroundings of man, is referred as environment and each element of these surroundings
constitutes a resource on which man draws in order to develop a better life.

Classification of Natural Resources

1. Based on Origin:

a. BIOTIC: (living organisms)

b. ABIOTIC: (non living organisms)

2. Based on Availability:

a. Inexhaustible: (replenishes naturally)

b. Exhaustible: (replenishing process is extremely slow)

3. Based on Distribution:

a. Omni present: (found everywhere)

b. Location based: (found at some specific locations only)

Based on Source:

a. Water Resources

b. Forest Resources
 c. Mineral Resources

d. Marine Resources

5. Based on Chemical Composition:

a. organic: (vegetables, animals, bacteria, mineral oil)

b. Inorganic: (Air, water, minerals)

c. mixed: (land)

Forests

 Earth’s land area where the vegetations are grown naturally in groups is known as a
forest.
 Vegetations means trees, shrubs, creepers or any woody vegetations having a closed
canopy.

Classification of Indian Forests

1. Evergreen forests

2. Deciduous forests

3. Dry forests

4. Mountain or Hill forests

5. Tidal forests

Reasons for Deforestation

1. For obtaining raw materials for industry.

2. For obtaining timber for furniture and construction work.

3. For obtaining fire wood.

4. For developing the mineral industry.

5. For constructing projects on rivers.

6. For expanding Agricultural land.

7. For the purpose of constructing the roads.

 8. For establishing industries.

9. For the construction of railway tracks.

10. Human accommodation.

11. Over grassing of forest by live stocks.

12. Destruction by insects and pests.

13. Forest fires.

14. Extreme weather conditions.

Threats associated with Deforestation

1. Increase in the possibilities of flash floods.

2. Decrease in the rain fall.

3. Increase in the atmospheric temperature.

4. Increase in the amount of soil erosion.

5. Migration of tribal population leads to mental frustration.

6. Extinction of some useful medicinal species.

7. Shelter problem for forest animals will increase.

8. Problem of urbanization will arise.

9. Atmosphere will become adverse.

10. Desertification of forests and agricultural land.

11. Forest dwellers will have a problem of survival.

12. Increased chances of cyclone due to climate change.

Need and measures of Forest Conservation

Needs:

1. To maintain equilibrium in Ecosystem.

 2. To maintain Bio-diversity.

Measures:

1. Forest fires should be prevented.

2. Use of pesticides to eliminate the risk of pests.

3. Plantation of resistant varieties.

4. Replacements of trees (aforestation)

5. Replacing the fire woods by biogas and solar cooker.

6. Implementation of social forestry programmes.

7. Aforestation programmes should be undertaken on wastelands.

8. Trees of aesthetic value should be planted.

9. Renewal of forest crops.

10. Reforestation by suitable monoculture.

11. Unwanted felling of trees should be restricted

What is Biodiversity?

Biological diversity is that part of nature which includes the differences in

genes among the individuals of a species.”

It deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere.

This variety can be observed at three levels:

1. The genetic variability within the species

2. Variety of species within the community

3. Organization of species in an area into distinctive plant and animal

communities.

Forests as a reservoir of Biodiversity.

The vegetations created without ploughing and animals which are not considered as tamed
animals are the species of forests.”
Biodiversity in India:

1. 350 mammals

2. 1200 birds

3. 20000 insects and bacteria

Note: 55 mammals, 38 birds and 18 reptiles are on the verge of extinction.

Services provided by forests:

1. Watershed protection

2. Atmospheric regulation

3. Erosion control

4. Food , fuel wood, charcoal, poles, timber, medicines

5. Livelihood for dwelling peoples. (market use)

Water

Uses of Water:

1. Use of water in Agricultural and Industrial activities.

2. Drinking and Washing purposes.

3. Vital for Fishing Industry.

4. Marine transportation.

5. Electricity generation.
 Sources of Water: (Water sheds)

Sources of Water: (Water sheds)

Rain

Underground water Surface water Evaporation water

Stream Wells
Tanks Sea Rivers Lakes Lakes
1. Artesian or and and formed
Stream Ocean Streams Ponds bycollected
2. GravityStream Water
3. SurfaceStream

Dug Wells Shallow Deep Tube Artesian

Wells Wells Wells Wells

Impact of Over Utilization of Water:

1. Water scarcity specially in summer.

2. Wastage of Water may lead to blockage of drainage line, water pollution, Air pollution
and Virulent disease or epidemics.

3. Economic loss due to over usage of Water.

4. It may be considered as Crime or Offence in the court of Almighty.

Recharging and Conservation of Water:

1. Construction of small Dams and artificial lakes for the water storage purpose.

2. Construction of ponds for the purpose of storing rain water.

3. Grow more trees to increase the chances of Rain.

4. Economical use of water. (avoid water wastage)

5. Try to reuse the water. E.g: Water used for bathing can be reused for vegetation in the
veranda.
 6. Use based water charges for controlling water usage.

7. After purification of Dirty water it should be used in farms or grass lands.

MINERALS

 A mineral is a naturally occurring substance of definite composition and identifiable

physical properties. Coal, natural gas and mineral oil
 Metals like iron, copper, silver, aluminum, manganese and other valuable stones.

Classification of Minerals:

1. Energy Providing Minerals: Coal, Natural Gas and Mineral oil etc.

2. Valuable Minerals: Gold, Silver and Diamond.

3. Minerals Useful in Construction Work: Stones, Marbles, Lime etc.

4. Industrial Minerals: Iron, Copper, Manganese, aluminum etc.

Impact of Mines and Minerals on Environment:

1. Air pollution by the emission of Sulphur Dioxide and Nitrogen Monoxide (SO2 and NO)
during the mining process.

2. Various types of diseases arise due to air pollution.

3. Possibility of Acid Rain due to Toxic substances in the air.

4. Increase in Noise pollution due to the use of Heavy machineries in mining process.

5. When water flows from mines, there will be Water Pollution.

7. Polluted water obtained from the Natural oil wells may create Land pollution.

Conservation of Minerals

 Recycling: Reusing of useless articles by adopting proper processes for them.

 Reusing: Reusing the Articles again and again. (glass bottles)
 Decrease consumption: Minimizing the requirements of certain minerals and reducing
the wastage.
 Substitution: Try to find the Substitute of the Minerals.
 Use of Waste: the Wastage of some industries can be used as Raw materials in other
Industries.
Energy

 Energy is the amount of force or power when applied can move one object from one
position to another.
 Energy defines the capacity of a system to do work.
 Energy exists in everybody whether they are human beings or animals or non living
things. e g: Jet, Light, Machines etc..
 Energy is intimately related to power.
 According to the law of conservation of energy, any form of energy can be converted
into another form, the total energy will remain the same.
 For example: when you charge your mobile phone the electrical energy is converted into
the chemical energy which gets stored inside the battery.

Renewable Energy

 Renewable energy is energy which is generated from natural sources i.e. sun, wind, rain,
tides and can be generated again and again as and when required.
 They are available in plenty and by far most the cleanest sources of energy available on
this planet.

Main forms of renewable energy

 Wind energy
 Hydro energy
 Solar energy
 Bio-fuel
 Geothermal energy

Wind Power

 Airflows can be used to run wind turbines.

 Areas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as offshore and high altitude
sites, are preferred locations for wind farms.
 Wind energy is believed to be five times total current global energy production, or 40
times current electricity demand.
 This could require large amounts of land to be used for wind turbines, particularly in
areas of higher wind resources.
 Offshore resources experience wind speeds of ~90% greater than that of land.
 Wind power produces no greenhouse gases during operation, and power is growing at the
rate of 30% annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of 157,900 MW.
Solar energy

 Solar energy is the energy derived from the sun through the form of solar radiation.
 Solar powered electrical generation relies on photovoltaic and heat engines.
 Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar
depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy.

Advantages of Renewable resources

 Wide availability

 Lower running cost

 Decentralized power production

 Low pollution

 Available for the foreseeable future

Disadvantages of Renewable Resources

 Unreliable supply

 Usually produced in small quantities

 Often very difficult to store

 Currently per unit cost of energy is more compared to other types

Nonrenewable resources

 A nonrenewable resource is a natural resource that cannot be re-made or re-grown at a

scale comparable to its consumption.

 NUCLEAR ENERGY

 COAL, PETROLEUM, AND GAS

 FOSSIL FUELS

Nuclear energy, coal, petroleum, and gas

 Nuclear fission uses uranium to create energy.

 Nuclear energy is a nonrenewable resource because once the uranium is used, it is gone!

 Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are considered nonrenewable because they can not be
replenished in a short period of time.
  These are called fossil fuels.

Disadvantages of Non-renewable resources

 When coal is burnt it produces carbon dioxide that causes global warming.

 Since coal contains impurities like S and N, it produces toxic gases during burning which
causes acid rain and air pollution.

 Traces of mercury and radioactive compounds are also released when coal is burned.

 Severe human health threat.(lung disease)

Advantages of Non-renewable Resources

 Available in highly concentrated form

 Easy to store

 Reliable supply

 Lower cost per unit of energy produced as the technology is matured

Land

 Uses of Land:

1. For Residential and for Construction purpose.

2. For the construction of roads.

3. For Agricultural and for Gardening purpose.

4. For creating Forests.

5. For the construction of big Industrial Units.

6. For preparing canal and water resources.

 Misuses of Land:

1. Destruction of forests.

2. Unused grass land.

3. Non planned urbanization.

4. Excess use of chemical fertilizers.

 5. Use of land for mineral industries.

Soil protection

1. Avoid Soil erosion.

2. Avoid Water congestion.

3. Water slop on the slope has to be controlled to minimum speed.

4. Water should be absorbed in the soil with a slow speed.

5. Control the wind velocity by growing more trees.

6. Construct the drain of such a breadth that the soil particles may be kept to stick one
another.

Importance of Land in India

 India is an Agricultural Economy and it is inevitable to have Agricultural activities

without proper usage of available land resource.

 60% of the land in India is either cultivable or non cultivable in which 1/3 of which is
not proper for crop-yield due to soil erosion and less mineral content in the land.

 1/3 land is having less productivity.

 So we have only 1/3 land available for crop yield.

Importance of Land in India

 Due to deforestation the problem of soil erosion is increasing day by day.

 To increase the crop production, we have to use scientific farming techniques and will
have to look for the solutions towards soil erosion.

Steps to conserve the Land

1. Waste land reclamation. (convert the non cultivable land into cultivable land)

2. Adopting diversity by the use of proper irrigation technique.

3. The Agricultural lands should be kept reserved for the Agricultural use only

• Use of Hybrid seeds should be promoted to maintain the fertility of the land for long
period.

• Grow more trees to avoid soil erosion.

• Farmers should be given advices after proper testing of the land minerals.
Biodiversity
The variety and variability of organisms and ecosystems is referred to as biological diversity

Biodiversity comprises of a complex collection of innumerable organisms which includes millions of

plants, animals and micro organisms ,the genes they contain and the ecosystems of which they are a
part.

Biodiversity is important for the vital life support for the survival of human race

Scientists have discovered and named only 1.75 million species – But only a fraction has been
examined for potential medicinal, agricultural or industrial value.

Of these, Biologists estimated that around 27,000 species are becoming extinct each year.

Around 3 species disappearing every hour.

Types or levels of Biodiversity- There are three levels of biodiversity.

1) Genetic diversity - In this every individual of a particular species differs from each other in
their genetic constitution. This includes different varieties in the same species

2) Species diversity - variety of different types of species found in a particular area. It refers to
the variety of species within a region.

3) Ecological diversity -This is the diversity seen among the different ecosystems in a region.
Like deserts, rainforests, mangroves, etc., The varieties of habitats and ecosystems connected in
this diversity are connected by food chains and food webs.

Diversity Indices
Alpha (α ) Diversity :

• Species diversity within a community or habitat

• Sometimes dominant of one vegetation stratum may affect the α diversity of the other
strata.

Beta (β) Diversity :

• β diversity is the inter community diversity

Gamma (γ) Diversity :

• Gamma diversity is the overall diversity at landscape level includes both α and β diversities.

γ=α+β+Q

• where, Q = Total number of habitats or communities, α = Average value of α diversities

 • β = Average value of β diversities

Bio diversity in India

• Total geographic area 33 lakh sq.km , Total forest coverage in India – 6.5 lakhs sq.km.

• coastline of 7,616 km

• 14 different types of climatic forests

India has a great diversity of natural ecosystems such as cold and high Himalayan ranges ,sea
coasts, wet north eastern green forests ,dry north western arid desertsdifferent types of forests,
wetlands, islands and the oceans.

• India is the home land of 13,000 species of flowering plants, 20,000 species of fungi,

• 50,000 species of insects, 65,000 species of fauna including 2000 species of birds,

• 350 mammals and 420 of reptiles.

• India has over 120 National parks 490 sanctuaries.

• India has wide spectrum of habitats from tropical rainforests to alpine vegetation and from
temperate forests to coastal wetlands

Biogeographical classification of India or BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES

Dept of Forest and Wildlife - Government of India divided into TEN major regions,

This classification is based on the geography, climate and pattern of vegetation and the
communities of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibian, insects and other invertebrates
•

FEATURES OF TRANS HIMALAYAS

• It is cold and arid region.

• Temp -35 to 3 degrees Celsius , 4500 mts. Above mean sea level

• sparse vegetation, has the richest wild sheep and goat community in the world

• Extensive area covered by bare rocks and glaciers

• FAUNA:• wild sheep, wild goats, ibex, snow leopard, marbled cats, marmots, black necked
crane, Marco polo sheep

HIMALAYAS

Flora: 2,50,000 species, Fauna: 45,000 species

Tropical Rainforests- Eastern Himalaya

Thick subtropical and Alpine forests – central Himalaya and western Himalaya

Chief species include wild sheep, mountain goats, ibex, shrew, and tapir. Panda and snow
leopard are also found here.
DESERT

Deserts in India include Thar desert and Kutch.

They receive around 25 cm of precipitation annually.

Temperature: 30 to 50 degrees

Hot and extreme climate.

States covered: Rajasthan and Gujarat

SEMI ARID REGIONS

States included: Parts of Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra.

Transitional zone between desert and dense forests of western Ghats.

Natural vegetation is thorn forest.

Open areas of bare and water deficit soil.

WESTERN GHATS
Covers Malabar plains and Western Ghats. States included: Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Parts of Kerala.

Mountains along the west coast of India.

Average altitude of mountains: 900-1500 mts.Above sea level.

Diverse topography. Unique sets of flora and fauna. • Rich evergreen forests, medicinal plants,
ornamental plants.

Included in the biodiversity hotspots of the world.

- Fertile land for rice cultivation, commercial crops, plantation etc. • 14 endemic species of legless
amphibians. • Fauna: home to 325 globally threatened species, 16 species of endemic mammals,
tiger, lion tailed macaque,

DECCAN PLATEAU •

Semi arid regions lying in the rain shadow region of western Ghats. •

• It is semi arid in the north and tropical in most parts. • Rain falls in the monsoon and temperature
can exceed up to 40 degrees in summer.

Types of forests: deciduous, thorn forests and scrublands. • Consists mainly of black soil. Suitable for
commercial crops, especially, cotton. •

GANGETIC PLAINS • Alluvial soil, fertile soil, drained by river ganga.

• States covered: Parts of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, parts of west Bengal.
25-35 cm of annual rainfall. • Patches of grassland ecosystem. • 79 known species of mammals. •
Lots of biodiversity conservation areas. • 95% of the land converted into agricultural land

Coastal zone •

Includes west coast, east coast and Lakshadweep. • India has coastline extending 5500 kms. • Best
preserved evergreen forests are found here, especially, in Lakshadweep. •

Mangrove forests – a prominent feature. • Coral reefs are found in Lakshadweep.

States covered: Kerala, Tamil nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, goa, Maharashtra, Orissa,
west Bengal.

NORTH EAST •

One of the richest areas of India in terms of biodiversity. • Several species of orchids, bamboos,
ferns, mango, bananas, citrus fruits, pepper, medicinal plants etc. • States included: Assam,
Arrunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura. •

One of the biodiversity hotspots of the world.

ISLANDS • It includes Andaman and Nicobar islands and Lakshadweep islands. • Tropical climate,
humid weather, no winter season. • Maximum temperature: 28 degree Celsius. • Flora: giant
evergreen forests, wet bamboo brakes, semi evergreen forests, mangrove forests, sub montane
forests. • Fauna: 50 varieties of forest mammals, wild boar, crocodile, sea cow, leopard, butterflies
and moths, shellfish

Biodiversity at Global, National and Local Levels

Global Level:

• Estimates of the existing biodiversity is 40 million species,Majority are insects

• we have till now enlisted about 1.4 million species.

National and Local Level:

• India has 108,276 species of bacteria, fungi, plants and animals already identified and
described

• Out of these Insect 49.3 % , fungi -21.2 %, flowering plants 3.9 % ,

• In terms of the number of species, insects alone constitute nearly half of the biodiversity
in India
Hotspots of Biodiversity
• Biogeographic region with significant levels of biodiversity that is threatened by humans.

• are defined as regions “where exceptional concentrations of endemic species are

undergoing an exceptional loss of habitat”

‘Global 200’

• The earth’s biodiversity is located in specific ecological regions.

• There are over a thousand major ‘ecoregions” in the world.

• Of these,200 are said to be richest, rarest and most distinctive natural areas.

Mega-diversity Nations

-Countries having relatively large proportion of biodiversity hotspots

CriteriaHave at least 5000 of the world’s endemic plants.

• Have marine ecosystems within its borders.

• Should have species diversity

1.USA, 2.Mexico, 3.Colombia, 4.Ecuador, 5.Peru, 6.Venezuela, 7.Brazil,8 Democratic Republic of

Congo, 9.South Africa, 10.Madagascar, 11.India, 12.Malaysia, 13.Indonesia, 14.Philippines,

15.Papua New Guinea, 16.China17.Australia.

Threats to Biodiversity

• Biodiversity in India faces pressure

 1. Depletion of vegetative cover- due to expansion in Agriculture.

2.Mining- biodiversity rich forests contain

3. Development projects-

4. Poaching and illegal trade of wildlife products

• Causal factors of threat

• Threat may be natural or man made.

• They are

• 1. Development pressure . Mainly due to following

• a Construction b Forest based industries c Hydroelectric / Irrigation projects

• d Mining e Oil drilling f Pollution g Resource extraction

• h Road & Transport

• 2. Encroachment
a. Agriculture b. Expansion of forest villages

c. Fishery d. Grazing / increased domestic animals

e. Habitat depletion / change f. New settlements

g. Shifting cultivation

3. Exploitation
a. Collection made by scientific/educational institutions

b. Exploitation by local authorities as revenue resources

c. Firewood collection

d. Food gathering and hunting

e. Poaching

4. Human induced disasters

a. Floods b. Major oil spills/leakage

c. Epidemics d. Forest fires

5. Management of Natural resources

 a. Inadequate water/ food for wildlife

b. Increased competition d. Introduction of exotic species

e. Predation In appropriate land use

6. Management of Human Resource

• a. Increasing demands

• b. Dilution of traditional values

• c Human harassment

• d. Inadequate trained human resources

• e Lack of effective management

Categories of threat
• As per IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources)

• 1. Endangered

• The taxa in danger of extinction

• whosesurvival is unlikely, the causal factors continue in operation.

• Number have been reduced to a critical level

• or whose habitats have been so drastically reduced

• (eg) Nepenthes sp., Vanda, Cycasbeddomii.

• Endangered plant and animal species

• 427 – endangered plant species in RED DATA BOOK

• Endangered plants

• • Acer laevigatum •

• Phoenix rupicola •

• Lactucacooperi •

• Carumvillosum •

• Amorphophaliusbulbifeer •

• Dioscorealaurifolia

IUCN Red List or Red Data List Established in 1964,

• This is theWorld's most comprehensive inventory of the conservation status of biological
species Most authoritative guide to the status of biological diversity.

Regional Red Lists

• Produced by countries or Local organizations

• To assess the risk of extinction of species within a in country.

Conservation of Biodiversity
Importance of conservation

• 1. continuous loss of biodiversity cause - very existence of human being

• 2. 15 rain forests have been identified as hot spots.

• Tropical rain forests –Carbon source

• Rain forest covers only 7% of the earth’s geographical area but supports more than half of
the world’s identified species.

• 3.Tropical deforestation will be the single greatest cause of species extinction in the next
century.

In situ strategy
• This strategy emphasizes on the conservation work at original site of biodiversity i.e. in
wild.

• This include Conservation of overall diversity of genes, populations, species, communities

• and the ecological processes

India has 17 biosphere reserves, 42 Ramsar wetlands. India has 102 national parks 490
sanctuaries covering an area of 1.53 lakh sq. km.

• In situ conservation There are 37,000 protected area in the world (World Conservation
Monitoring Centre , WCMC).

• Eg for in situ conservation

1.Biosphere reserve2.National parks3.Wetlands4.Wild life sanctuaries5.Sacred grooves

Ex situ Strategy
• Conservation work should be done outside the natural habitat

• In the form of1.Botanical gardens 2.Zoological gardens, 3.Seed and seedling banks,

4.Pollen banks, 5.Germ plasm banks, 6.Tissue culture banks, 7.Gene and DNA banks
 8.Cryopreservation 9.Home garden and aquaria etc.

Conservation of genetic diversity is done by diffrenr ICAR institutes like

• NBPGR (National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources). N Delhi

• NBAGR (National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources). Karnal

• NBFGR (National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources). Lucknow

Future strategy for Conservation has 4 goals

1. Maintenance of adequate resources

2. Conservation of resources through reduction in demand

3. Maximum use of renewable resources

• Solar energy, wind energy, hydropower,

4. Reduction in dependency of non-renewable resources such as Natural gas, coal

Endemic species
• limited in their distribution, i.e. they are restricted to a small area and are not found
elsewhere in the world.

• About 4,900 species of flowering plants

• These are concentrated in the North East India, the western Ghats, North West Himalayas

• Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Reason for Endemism 1.Poor adaptability of a species in a wide range of ecology

• 2.Presence of some geographical barrier

• 3.Failure of dispersal of reproductive organs

• 4.The species might have comparatively been young and not have time to spread

Biosphere Reserves
• launched by UNESCO in 1971 under MAB (Man and Biosphere Programme)

• protection is granted to the flora and fauna of the protected region,

• Also to Human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life.

• In the World -580 sites across 114 countries.

• In India- 18 Biosphere Reserves

 Biosphere reserve in India

Sl.
No Year Name State Type Key Fauna

1 2008 Great Rann of Kutch Gujarat Desert

2 1989 Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu Coasts Dugong or Sea Cow

3 1989 Sundarbans West Bengal Gangetic Delta Royal Bengal Tiger

4 2009 Cold Desert Himachal Pradesh Western Himalayas Snow Leopard

5 1988 Nanda Devi Uttarakhand Western Himalayas NA

Tamil Nadu, Kerala and

6 1986 Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Karnataka Western Ghats NilgiriTahr, Lion-tailed

7 1998 Dihang-Dibang Arunachal Pradesh Eastern Himalaya NA

Pachmarhi Biosphere
8 1999 Reserve Madhya Pradesh Semi-Arid Giant Squirrel, Flying S

9 2010 Seshachalam Hills Andhra Pradesh Eastern Ghats NA

Sl.
No Year Name State Type Key Fauna

10 1994 Simlipal Odisha Deccan Peninsula Gaur, Royal Bengal Tiger, Wild elephan

Madhya Pradesh,
11 2005 Achanakamar -Amarkantak Chhattisgarh Maikala Hills NA

12 1989 Manas Assam East Himalayas Golden Langur, Red Panda

13 2000 Khangchendzonga Sikkim East Himalayas Snow Leopard, Red Panda

 Agasthyamalai
14 2001 Biosphere Reserve Kerala, Tamil Nadu Western ghats NilgiriTahr, Elephants

Great Nicobar Andaman and Nicobar

15 1989 Biosphere Reserve Islands Islands Saltwater Crocodile

16 1988 Nokrek Meghalaya East Himalayas Red Panda

17 1997 Dibru-Saikhowa Assam East Himalayas Golden Langur

18 2011 Panna MP Tigar, Chithal

• India's largest biosphere reserve - Gulf of Mannar-TN

• First established biosphere reserve -Nilagiri.

• Smallest biosphere reserve - Panna locate in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh.

Policies of biodiversity conservation,

• 1. Identifying and monitoring the important components of biological diversity that needs
to be conserved and used sustainably.

• 2. Establishing protected areas to conserve biological diversity

• 3. Educating people about the importance of biological diversity and the need to conserve it
• 4 Promoting public participation while assessing the environmental impacts of development
projects that threaten biological diversity
 Biodiversity or biological diversity , refers to
the range of life forms on Earth.
 The biosphere comprises of a complex
collection of innumerable organisms , known
as the “Biodiversity”
 Which constitutes the vital life support for
the survival of human race
 Includes millions of plants animals and micro
organisms ,the genes they contain and the
ecosystems of which they are a part.
 Everyday around the globe species are being
lost others are being pushed towards
extinction.
 The Earth’s biodiversity is more threatened
today than any other time in the past
 During last 200 million years ,100 to 1000
species became extinct in each century.
 But evolution also brought forth new life forms,
replacing species that were lost.
 Today we are losing about 1500 species every two
months.
 Economically there are main two types of
values of biodiversity
 They are
 Use value
• Direct values
• Indirect values
• Option values
 Non use value
• Bequest value- willing to pay for its existence
• Existence value – knowing its existence
 T o ta l E c o n o m ic V a lu e

U s e v a lu e s N o n -u s e v a lu e s

D ir e c t u s e v a lu e s I n d ir e c t u s e v a lu e s O p t io n v a lu e s B e q u e s t v a lu e s E x is t e n c e v a lu e s
( s t r u c t u r a l v a lu e s ) ( f u n c t io n a l v a lu e s )

u s u a lly m e a s u r e s u s u a lly m e a s u r e s
o u tp u t b e n e fit s / s e r v ic e s
 The value of Nature’s Products that are
consumed directly such as firewoods , fodder
and meat.
 In other words the products which are
consumed directly without passing through
the market
 Consumptive use value seldom appear in
National income accounts.
 Consumptive use Values:
•The most important point of consumptive use is
that some rural communities closest to the
forests or other natural areas can prosper through
the sustainable harvesting of wildlife species.

•Hunting, direct-consumption (e.g. collection

of berries, mushrooms, herbs, plants) are all
“consumptive uses”
 Products that are commercially harvested for
exchange in formal markets
 Each species is valuable to humans.
 The global collection of genes , species ,
habitats and ecosystems is a resource that
provides for human needs now.
 It is also essential for human survival in the
future.
 This is often the only value of biological
resources that is reflected in the income
accounts
 Products such as animal skins,ivory,
medicinal plants,honey,beewax,fibers,
gums,ect…..,
 It deals primarily with the functions or
ecosystems
 Do not normally appear in national
accounting systems , but they may outweigh
direct values when they are computed
 Reflects the value of biological diversity to
society locally or at large rather than to
individuals or corporate entities.
 Direct values often derive from indirect
values because harvested species of plants
and animals are supported goods and services
provided by their environment
Non consumptive use
 Social values
 Ethical values
 Aesthetic values

Option values
 These are the indirect values of ecosystem
functions.
 Such as the watershed protection,
photosynthesis,regulation or climate and
production of soil
 Pollination , habitat for other species
 Biodiversity in INDIA, particularly ,is
important for its religious,spiritual and other
cultural uses.
 Many plants and animals have ritual
significance
 The entire ecosystem is utilized for cultural
and spiritual purposes.
 Among auspicious flowers offered in temples
are HIBISCUS offered to the goddess Kali
 Datura flowers to siva
 Gujarat Sami (Prosopis spicigera)is used in
sacrificial fires
 Sacred value was attached to patches of
forest believed to be the abode of gods and
ancestors, and utilized only for prayer and
related rituals.
 A network of such sacred groves is still in
evidence in some parts of India
 Although economic arguments can be
advanced to justify the protection of
biological diversity, there are also strong
ethical arguments for doing so.
 Protecting biological diversity can be
justified on ethical grounds as well as on
economic grounds.
 Ethical arguments assert that humans have a
duty to protect species based on their
intrinsic value, unrelated to human needs
 People do not have the rights to destroy
species and should take action to prevent
their extinction
 The loss of one species have far-reaching
consequences to biological community and
human society.
 People must learn to live within the
ecological constraints of the planet.
 Must learn to minimize the environmental
damage and take responsibility for their
action
 People also have responsibility to future
generations of humans to keep the Earth in
good condition.
 Regardless of our own material self-interest ,
we should treat nature respectfully.
 Enlightened self interest, arguing that
preserving biodiversity and developing our
knowledge of it will make us better and
happier people.
 Nearly everyone enjoys wildlife and joy
makes our lives good lives.
 A loss of biodiversity could very well limit
the creative energies of people in the future
and thus restrict the development.
 The beauty of wildflowers in Glacier National
Park .
 Hiking , canoeing and mountain climbing are
physically intellectually and emotionally
satisfying.
 People spend tens of billons of dollars
annually in these pursuits, proof enough of
their value.
 The intangible Values of biodiversity .
 That is keeping options for the future and
simply knowing that certain species exist .
 A species potential to provide an economic
benefit to human society at some point in
the future is its option value.
 As the needs of the society change , so must
the methods of satisfying those needs.
 The option value of species could be only
recently utilized by human beings
 Health agencies and pharmaceutical
companies are making a major effort to
collect and screen species for compounds
that have the ability to fight cancer.
 In some cases well known species have been
found to have exactly those properties
needed to deal with a significant human
problem
 Non-use values – including Bequest and Existence
values, are usually always measured using some form
of CVM (contingent valuation). Cultural values may
be very important in non-use values (e.g. Lake Sevan
in Armenia)
 Values may be small per person (a few dollars), but
large when aggregated (as in Armenia)
 Note:
 Non-use values are usually harder to “sell” to
decision makers, but
 For some types of biodiversity (e.g. the panda, the
blue whale) non-use values account for almost ALL of
the economic value measured in a TEV calculation.
 Assessing benefits and costs of protecting
biological resources provides a basis for
determining the total value of any protected
area or other system of biological resources
 The value of conserving biological resources can
be considerable , conservation should be seen as
a form of economic development.
 Biological resources have economic values,
investments in conservation should be judged in
economic terms.
 Valuation is easiest for Direct-use values, quite
difficult for Indirect-use values, and very
difficult for Non-use values
 The tree that lives for 50 years generates
Rs 5.3 lakhs worth of oxygen , recycles Rs
6.4 lakhs worth of fertility , facilitates
Rs.6.4 lakhs worth of soil erosion control ,
creates Rs 10.5 lakhs worth of air
pollution control , and provides Rs 5.3
lakhs worth of shelter for birds and
animals . Besides , it provides flowers ,
fruits and timber .So when one tree falls
or is felled something worth more than
Rs.33.9 lakhs is lost
 The TEV is the sum of all of these values
but in the case of biodiversity, much of
the value may lie in the Indirect Use or
Non-use portion
Includes both Use Values and Non-Use
Values
 Use values include direct use (both
consumptive and non-consumptive),
indirect use, and option values
 Non-use values include bequest values
and existence values
 Remember, there are few or no economic
values that are NOT directly linked to
human uses or desires, and
 People often do not understand what the
real question is.
 Therefore, market-values may be poor
reflections of ecosystem values or pure
biological uniqueness!
 But…
 Markets and prices often drive
government and private actions!
 Some uses or values associated with biodiversity
are impossible to measure. These may include
the following:
• Unknown genetic material
• Global life support services (an infinite
value)
• Cultural or religious values (e.g. in Hawaii,
the native Hawaiians “value” the sea and
the “aina”, the land, very highly)
Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is defined as excess discharge of any substance into the soil which affects quality of
environment and causing damage to humans, plants and animals.

Pollution is explained as any substance introduced into the environment that adversely affects the usefulness of
resources.

Ecologically pollutants can be divided into three types

Degradable or non – persistent pollutants. - The pollutants that can be rapidly decomposed by natural
processes is called degradable or nonpersistent pollutants.

Slowly degradable pollutants -Some pollutants remain in environment for longer time because they decompose
very slowly by the natural processes. Example: plastics, pesticides, etc.

Non-degradable pollutants- Some pollutants can not be decomposed by natural processes are called
nondegradable pollutants. Example – Lead, mercury, nuclear wastes etc.

Soil ecosystem includes inorganic and organic constituents, and the microbial groups. Soil
microorganisms are the active agents in the decomposition of plant and animal solid wastes and said to be
nature’s garbage disposal system. The soil microbes keep our planet earth free of unwanted waste materials
and recycle the elements (C, N, and P) through mineralization. Soil microbes decompose a variety of
compounds, cellulose, lignin, hemi cellulose, proteins, lipids, hydrocarbons etc. The soil microbial community
has little or no action on many man made synthetic polymers. The persistent molecules that fail to be
metabolized or mineralized have been termed as recalcitrants.

Causes of soil pollution

1 Industrial wastes from chemical industries, fertiliser and pharmaceutical companies

2.Urban wastes

3.Plastics

4.Agro chemicals and pesticides

5.Excess use of Fertilizers

6.Heavy metals

1.Plastics pollution
• Major part of global domestic and industrial waste
 • Not easily biodegraded

• Waste plastic accumulates much thus adds to severe pollution problem

• Takes several years to disintegrate – 400 years to degrade mineral water bottles

• The most obvious toxic product of combustion of plastic is Dioxins which is very dangerous
2.Agrochemical pollution
In modern agriculture the use of various agrochemicals is a common practice. These include
pesticides, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides and others. Pesticides applied on seed or foliage ultimately reach
the soil. Accumulation of pesticide residues in the biosphere creates ecological stress causing contamination of
soil, water, and food. Persisting chemicals may also be hazardous to human health and should be eliminated.
Persistent pesticides may accumulate in the bodies of animals and over a period of time increase in
concentration if the animal is unable to flush leading to bioaccumulation. When an affected animal is eaten by a
carnivore, the pesticide is further concentrated in the carnivore. This phenomenon ie. Increasing in the
concentration of a nondegradable substance along the food chain is called Biomagnification.

Exposure to small quantities for longer time causes mutations leads to cancer. Pesticides or their metabolites
affect many soil microbes and their activities. Seed treatment with mercuric fungicides are found to be
inhibitory to Rhizobium (nodulation and nitrogen fixation), Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter (nitrification).

2.Fertilizer pollution
1.Continuous / indiscriminate application of fertilizer cause deterioration in soil structure,

2.Application of Amm. sulphate, Amm. chloride & Urea reduce soil pH

• Crops – potato, grapes, citrus, beans – sensitive to chloride toxicity

3. Excess N fertiliser- Denitrification to produce N2O which is potent GHG, reduce O3 in stratosphere

Nitrate pollution- Excessive nitrate concentrations in surface waters encourage the rapid growth of algae which
degrades water quality

Blue baby symdrome or methemoglobinemia-

Occurs in Infants of below 3 month . Nitrate ions react with blood haemoglobin, reducing the blood’s ability to
carry oxygen

4. Long term applicn of Rock Phosphate cause build up of heavy metal like Cd

5. continues use of sewage and sludge in Agricultural fields cause building up of heavy metal in soil which
ultimately enter to food chain- risk in human and and animal health
 • Limit of Nitrate in drinking water <50 ppm as per WHO

3. Soil contamination by irrigation water

• Irrigation water contains dissolved salts during dry season,

• Evaporates leaving its salts such as NaCl in the top soil.

saline soil causes stunted plant growth, lower yield.

Controlled by Flushing out salts reduces the salinity

Control of plastics/ plastic pollution

1.Use of photo degradable or biodegradable plastic

Photodegradable or biodegradable plastic contains elements sensitive to UV rays.

In the presence of solar rays, the element is activated and breaks polymeric chain into small fragments that are
easily digested

Photodegradable plastic is usually made of oil-based polymers, just like ordinary plastic. It either has bonds in its
structure that can be weakened and broken by sunlight, or it contains a chemical additive which absorbs light
and then attacks the polymer and breaks some of the bonds.

-During the manufacture processes of plastic 6% starch and Oxidizing agent (vegetable oil) added to polymers

Metallic salt in the soil interact with oxidizing agents to form ferric oxide which attack polymer bonds

• soil microbes break starch grains which results in an increased surface area of attack

• Finally accelerates auto oxidation of the plastic in the soil

• Starch in plastic reduces water resistance of plastic

2.Systematic collection of plastic by local authorities and recycle

3. Use of plastic in road construction

Reduce need of bitumen by 10%

• For I km road 1 ton plastic will be using

• There by one ton bitumen can be saved

 • Strength is increased by 100%

• Water resistance of road increased

Control of fertiliser pollution

• 1.Application of organic manures and biofertilizers

• 2.Adoption of INM, biofertiliser

• 3.Soil test based fertiliser recommendation

4. Heavy metal pollution

Metals with atomic number greater than 23 or more than 5 g / mL

(eg. Hg – 70g/ml)

They are hazardous, not acceptable to biological system. They are toxic to man & other life forms

Most are slow poison, accumulate in the body and cause serious disorders

Common toxic metals- Hg, Pb, As, Cr, Cd

Heavy metal (forms) Source Effect of heavy metal pollution

Mercury – Hg++ Methyl mercury fungicides, Irreversible neurological damage

electrical and electronic industries, in man, Minamoto disease
PVC, plastics, paints

Lead - Pb2+ , Pb4+ Automobile exhaust of leaded Mutation in algae and bacteria,
petrol, batteries, pipes, soldering blackening in fish, gradual paralysis
in man
Arsenic – As++, Arsenic trioxide, Herbicide, fungicide, wood Accumulate in hair, nail, skin
Sodium arsenate preservative – Agrochemicals lesions, damage to kidney,
(70%), paints, glass wares (5%) respiratory and nervous disorders

Chromium – Cr+6 & CrO3 Tanneries, electroplating and Toxic to aquatic organisms,
metal finishing processes, Khaki absorbed through intestinal tract
dyeing textiles in man

Cadmium - Cd tyres, rechargeable cells, Bones become brittle – Itai Itai

electroplating, coal oil, phosphate disease in Japan, gastro enteric
rocks distress and pain

Control measures for heavy metal pollutions

1.Biomobilization is possible

Eukaryotic organisms detoxify heavy metals

They carry the genes controlling metal resistance in chromosome

2.Biological Transformation of metals

• Detoxification mechanism by the action of microorganisms

• As a result metals undergo changes in valency and or conversion into organo metallic compounds

Changes in valency and resulting in the production of volatile or less toxic compounds

❖ Ex. Oxidation of As (III) to As (V)

❖ Hg ion to metallic mercury

❖ Formation of organo metallic compounds by methylation

 ❖ Ex. Pb & Hg

3.Bioremediation Treatment Technologies for soil contamination

• Biostimulation – Stimulation of indigenous microbial populations in soils or groundwater;

• Bioaugmentation - Addition of bacterial cultures to contaminated medium;

4.Phytoremediation

• Phytoremediation is a bioremediation process that uses various types of plants to remove, transfer,
stabilize, and/or destroy contaminants in the soil and groundwater.

• Eg Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.).

Rhizosphere biodegradation. In this process, the plant releases natural substances through its roots,
supplying nutrients to microorganisms in the soil.
Bio venting /Air sparging,
This is an in situ remedial technology that reduces concentrations of volatile constituents in petroleum
products that are adsorbed to soils and dissolved in groundwater. This technology, which is also known as
"in situ air stripping" and "in situ volatilization," involves the injection of contaminant free air into the
subsurface saturated zone, enabling a phase transfer of hydrocarbons from a dissolved state to a vapor
phase. The air is then vented through the unsaturated zone. Air sparging is most often used together with
soil vapor extraction (SVE), but it can also be used with other remedial technologies.

Soil vapour Extraction (SVE)

This involves the use of multiple air injection points and multiple soil vapour extraction points that can be
installed in contaminated soils to extract vapour phase.

Contamination must be at least 3 feet deep beneath the ground surface in order for the system to be effective.

A blower is attached to wells, usually through a manifold, below the water table creating pressure.
 • The bubbles of air volatilize contaminants and carry them to the unsaturated soils above.

• The vacuum points extract the vapors through to a Soil Vapor Extraction system.

Effects of soil pollution

• 1. Toxic compounds affect plant growth and human life also.

• 2. Water logging and salinity makes soil infertile.

• 3. Hazardous chemicals enter into food chain from soil disturbing the biochemical process.

• 4. Nervous disorders, gastrointestinal disorder, joint pain, respiratory problems are the effects seen on
human beings

DDT as soil pollutant

➢ DDT – Organic chemical – Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

➢ Is a Chlorinated Hydrocarbon

➢ Takes long time to break down in the environment

➢ Half Life – 15 years

➢ Toxic to insects but not very toxic to human

➢ Used much during the World War II to protect US troops from mosquito – borne malaria and to prevent
the spread of lice and lice borne disease among civilian population in Europe

➢ Thereafter used as pesticides to protect crops and people from insect borne disease

➢ Since it was the first of its kind, it was overused and by the year 1960s, the problem related to bio
magnification of DDT became apparent

• Invented by Paul Muller

Got Noble prize in 1939

• Banned in US -1972

• Banned for agri use In India 1989

Air pollution

The various principal pollutants which pollute air

1) Deposited matter – soot, smoke, tar, dust etc.

(2) Gases – Oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO2), sulphur (SO2), carbon monoxide, halogens,
(chlorine, bromine, iodine),

(3) Acids droplets – sulphruric, acid nitric acid etc.

(4) Fluorides

(5) Metals – Mercury, lead, iron, zinc, nickel, tin, cadmium, chromium etc.

(6) Agrochemicals – Biocides (pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, nematicides, bactericides,

weedicides etc), and fertilizers.

(7) Complex organic substances – Benzene, ether, acetic acid, benzopyrenes etc.

(8) Photochemical oxidants – Photochemical smog, ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN),

peroxybenzoil nitrate (PBzN), nitrogen oxides, aldehydes, ethylene etc

(9) Solid wastes

10) Radioactive waste

(11) Noise

Air pollution episodes

Bhopal gas tragedy: The poisonous gas, methyl isocyanate (MTC) leakage in the pesticide
manufacturing plant of Union Carbide of India Ltd., (UCIL), Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh on
December 3, 1984. 46 tons of MIC was released spreading to 40 km.

Effects : About 65,000 people suffered from various disorders in eyes, lungs, stomach, heart,
etc. Nearly 3000 people died within a short span of time, 1600 domestic animals died and
crop yields were reduced

Darkening effect of Taj Mahal Taj Mahal is a white marble stone mausoleum. Recently it
was observed that the walls of Taj Mahal has become darkened and disfigured due to air
pollution from nearby Mathura Oil refinery.

H2O + SO2 H2SO3 ,

SO2 + O2 SO3;

SO3 + H2O . H2SO4.

The acid rain reacts with marble stone (CaCO3) to produce calcium sulphate, causing
darkening and disfigurement.
TCDD accident at seveso, Italy (July, 1976). (2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin)

This is contaminant in Agent orange

Types, sources and effects of air pollution

Air pollution may be defined as the presence of certain substances in the air in high enough
concentrations and for long enough duration to cause undesirable effects. “Certain
substances” may be any gas, liquid or solid

Air pollution results from gaseous emission from mainly industry, thermal power stations,
automobiles, domestic combustion etc.

1. Industrial chimney wastes:

There are a number of industries which are source of air pollution. Petroleum refineries are
the major source of gaseous pollutants. The chief gases are SO 2 and NOx. Cement factories
emit plenty of dust, which is potential health hazard. Stone crushers and hot mix plants also
create a menace. Food and fertilizers industries which emit gaseous pollutants. Chemical
manufacturing industries which emit acid vapours in air.

2. Thermal power stations: The chief pollutants are fly ash, SO2 and other gases and
hydrocarbons.

3. Automobiles: The toxic vehicular exhausts are a source of considerable air pollution, next
only to thermal power plants. The exhaust produces many air pollutants including unburnt
hydrocarbons, CO, NOx and lead oxides. There are also traces of aldehydes, esters, ethers,
peroxides and ketones which are chemically active and combine to form smog in presence of
light.

The five primary pollutants include the gases- Carbon Monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx)
, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and solid or liquid particulates (smaller than 10 µm), and particulate
lead.

a) Carbon Monoxide

• CO is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. Incomplete combustion, yielding CO instead

of CO2,

• CO interferes with the blood's ability to carry oxygen to the cells of the body. When inhaled,
it readily binds to haemoglobin in the blood stream to form carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb). •

b). Oxides Of Nitrogen

• 7 oxides of nitrogen are known to occur – NO, NO2, NO3, N2O, N2O3, N2O4 and N2O5. •
Photochemical smog and ozone

• When oxides of nitrogen, various hydrocarbons and sunlight come together, they initiate a
complex set of reactions that produce a number of secondary pollutants known as
photochemical oxidants.

Ozone (O3) is the most abundant photochemical oxidant responsible for chest constriction
and irritation of the mucous membrane in people

• Other components of the photochemical smog viz., formaldehyde, peroxy benzoyl nitrate
(PBzN), peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN) and acrolein

The formation of photochemical smog can be expressed in the simples terms as :

Hydrocarbons + NOx + sunlight ……………… To give…. photochemical smog.

C). Oxides of sulfur •

Over 80% of anthropogenic sulfur oxide emissions are the result of fossil fuel combustion and
about 2% comes from highway vehicles.

• Sulfur trioxide reacts very quickly with H2O to form sulfuric acid, which is the principal cause
of acid rain. SO3 + H2O … to give…. H2SO4

Prolonged exposure to sulfates causes serious damage to building marble, lime stone (CaCO3)
and mortar

d).Lead • Most lead emissions in the past have been from motor vehicles burning gasoline
containing the antiknock additive, tetraethyl lead, (C2 H5 )4 Pb.

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)

 polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDD)

 formed as a side product in organic synthesis and burning of organic materials.

 contaminant in Agent Orange

e).Particulate Matter

Atmospheric particulate matter is defined to be any dispersed matter, solid or liquid, in

which the individual aggregates are larger than single small molecules (about 0.0002µm in
diameter), but smaller than 500µm.

• Smaller particles that make it into the tracheobronchial system. Some particles are toxic.
Many carbonaceous particles, especially those containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) are suspected carcinogens
Sources of indoor air pollution
Combustion can produce elevated levels of CO and NOX.

• Certain photocopying machines emit ozone. •

Formaldehyde emissions from particle board, plywood, urea – formaldehyde foam insulation.

• Asbestos used for fireproofing and insulation.

• Various volatile organics emitted from household cleaning products.

• Many pollutants, such as cigarette smoke and radon

• Tobacco smoke contains numerous known or suspected carcinogens, including benzene,

hydrazine, benzo - α-pyrene (BaP) and Nickel.

• Smoke particles are small, averaging about 0.2 µm, so they are easily carried into the
deepest regions of the lungs.

Other indoor air pollutants arising from tobacco smoke include carbon monoxide, nicotine,
nitrosamines, acrolein and other aldehydes.

•Air pollution is caused by wood-burning stoves which produces CO, NOX, hydrocarbons and
respirable particles and some emissions that are suspected carcinogens like benzo - α-pyrene.

Effects of air pollution

Air pollution is known to have many adverse effects, including those on human health,
building facades and other exposed materials, vegetation, agricultural crops, animals, aquatic
and terrestrial ecosystems, and the climate of earth as a whole.

a)Health effects

Typical effects of sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, and ozone include eye and throat
irritation, coughing and chest pain.

Nitrogen dioxide is known to cause pulmonary oedema, an accumulation of excessive fluids

in the lungs.

Ozone, a highly irritating gas, produces pulmonary congestion; symptoms of ozone exposure
may include dry throat, headache, disorientation, and altered breathing patterns.

b)Effect on Materials

Every year , air pollutants cause damage worth billions of rupees. Air pollutants breakdown
the exterior paint in cars and houses. Air pollutants have discolored monuments, historic
buildings, marble statues and other heritage and natural beauty sites.
C) Effect on plants.

Some gaseous pollutants enter leaf pores and damage the crop plants. Chronic exposure of
leaves to air pollutants damages waxy coating, leads to damage from diseases, pests, drought
and frost. Such exposure interferes with photosysthesis and plant growth, reduces nutrient
uptake and causes leaves to turn yellow, brown or drop off.

At higher concentrations of SO2 leads to flower buds become stiff and hard and fall off.
Prolonged exposure to higher levels of air pollutants from Iron smelters, coal burning power
plants and industries and vehicles can damage trees and plants.

d) On Stratosphere

Ozone is continuously being created in the stratosphere by the absorption of short-

wavelength UV radiation, while at the same time it is continuously being removed by various
chemical reactions that convert it back to molecular oxygen. The balance between creation
and removal is being affected by increasing stratospheric concentrations of chlorine,
nitrogen and bromine, which acts as catalysts, speeding up the removal process. CFCs are
predominant.

Management of Air Pollution

1. Source Correction: The most effective control would be to prevent the pollution from
occurring in the first place. Complete source shutdown will not be possible. Nevertheless,
state public health officials can force industries to stop operations and can curtain highway
traffic if an air pollution episode is occurring.

An important approach for air pollution control is to encourage industries to make fuel
substitutions or process changes. For example, making more use of solar, hydroelectric, and
geothermal energy would eliminate much of the pollution caused by fossil fuel combustion
at power generating plants. For example, the use of gasoline or alternative fuels such as
liquefied petroleum gas, compressed natural gas, or methanol for highway vehicles would
help to clear the air. The use of correct operation and maintenance practices is important for
minimizing air pollution.

2. Cooling:

The cooling coils are perhaps the most widely used

4. Treatment

(a) Setting chambers are similar to settling tanks in water treatment. These chambers remove
only the large particulates.

(b) Cyclones are widely used for removing large particulars.

The dirty air is blasted into a conical cylinder to the centerline. This creates violent swirl
within the cone, and the heavy solids migrate to the wall of the cylinder where they slow
down due to friction and exit at the bottom of the cone. The clean air is in the middle of the
cylinder exits thro the top. Cyclones are widely used as pre-cleaners to remove the heavy
material before further treatment.
(c) Bag filters operate like the common vacuum cleaner. Fabric bags are used to collect the
dust which must be periodically shaken out of the bags. The fabric removes nearly all
particulates. Bag filters are widely used in many industries.

d) Wet scrubbers are a special device used to remove a variety of pollutants from
exhaust gas from furnaces or other devices. These devices use a scrubbing liquid to
remove the pollutants. The exhaust gas is moved through the scrubbing liquid (usually
through a chamber) and the liquid is misted through the gas

. (e) Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a filtration device that removes fine particles,
like dust and smoke, from a flowing gas using the force of an
induced electrostatic charge minimally impeding the flow of gases through the unit.
They are expensive.

(f) Absorption is the use of the material such as activated carbon to capture pollutants.

(g) Incineration is a method for removing gaseous pollutants by burning them to CO2, H2O
and inerts. This works only for combustible vapours.

Integrated approach for air pollution Control

• Putting greater emphasis on pollution prevention rather than Control • Reducing the use of
Fossil fuels • Improving quality of vehicular fuel • Increasing the use of renewable energy

Water Pollution
 Water pollutant can be classified according to the nature of its origin as

Point source pollutants – 36% and Non point source (dispersed source) pollutant -64%

Point source pollutant

 Water pollutant originated from a pipe, channel or any other confined and localized
source. Eg Water pollutant from sewage entering to a stream, Discharges from
treatment plant effluents.

Non point source pollutant or dispersed

 Pollutant entering into water from broad area or an unconfined area

 Eg Surface runoff from agricultural areas , Acidic runoff from mining areas, water
drainage systems in towns and cities

 Surface runoff from agricultural areas carries silt, fertilizers, pesticides, and animal
wastes into streams
Types of water pollutants

 1.Disease causing agents, 2.Oxygen demanding wastes, 3.Organic pollutants,

4.Inorganics, 5.Plant nutrients, 6.Oil, Sediments, Radioactive substances, Heat

1. Disease causing agents

 Bacteria –cholera- cause bacillary dysentery, typhoid

 Viruses responsible for infectious Hepatitis and Poliomyelitis;

 Protozoa- cause Amoebic dysentery

 Parasitic worms- schistosomiasis

2.Oxygen – Demanding Wastes . This includes -Biodegradable organic substance

Examples are Municipal waste waters, -Effluents from industries like food processing and
paper production. These biodegradable substances get oxidized in the receiving body of
water. There by reduce the Dissolved Oxygen level in the receiving water bodies.

 Minimum DO required-fish populn 5-8 mg/L for active species or 3 mg/L for less
desirable species, such as carp.

3.Salts Cations like- sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Anions- like chloride,
sulphate, and bicarbonate.

Measured by - Total dissolved solids (TDS).

 TDS (ppm) = EC *640 Unit of EC (dS/m)

TDS limit

 Fresh water <1500 mg/L

 Brackish waters and Saline water- 5000-8000 mg/L;

 Seawater - 30000 – 34 000 mg/L

Drinking water,- maximum TDS of 500 mg/L.

unsuitable for irrigation

 above 2100 mg/L

Thermal Pollution
 Water from river and lake will utilised by the different factories for cooling purpose
especially in electric power plan or nuclear power plants etc

Hot water will be returned back to water bodies, which results in rise in water
temperature. This will reduce the DO of water.
  A nuclear plant warms about 40m3/s of cooling water by 100C

Heavy Metals

 toxic metals includes aluminium, arsenic, beryllium, bismuth, cadmium, chromium,

cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium, strontium, thallium,
tin, titanium, and zinc.

 Nephrotoxic metals Cadmium, lead, and mercury

 Affect nervous system and kidney, induce mutations and induction of tumours.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

 most commonly found contaminants in groundwater.

 1. solvents from industries . Includes Vinyl chloride (chloroethylene),

Tetrachloroethylene (TCE), Trichloroethylene, Carbon tetrachloride

Pesticide

 insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides, and fungicides.

 Organochlorines (also known as chlorinated hydrocarbons), Methoxychlor,

chlordane,

Heptachlor, Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Endosulfan

 They have impact on food chains

Two properties that cause them to be particularly disruptive to food chains.

1. very persistent,

2. solubility in lipids,- easily accumulate in fatty tissue.

 Organophosphates- Parathion, Malathion, Diazinon, TEPP (tetraethyl

pyrophosphate), Dimethoate.

They are not persistent and much more toxic than the organochlorines

They are rapidly absorbed through the skin, lungs,

 Carbamates- Propoxur, carbaryl, Aldicarb.

Acute exposure to carbamates-symptoms like vomiting, blurred vision

 Herbicides,

 2,4,5-T -contains the impurity dioxin

 2,4-D
 Biomagnification Or Bioconcentration

 Phenomenon in which the concentration of chemicals increasing in higher levels in

the food chain.

Nutrients

 nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, sulfur, calcium, potassium, iron, manganese, boron,

and cobalt. They allow growth of aquatic plants, particularly algae.

 Blooms of algae will be produced which eventually die and decompose and ultimately
cause the DO to reduce

Sources of N and P

 Municipal wastewater discharges,

 Runoff from animal feedlots,

 Chemical fertilizers.

Source of phosphorus are Detergents.

Blue baby syndrome

 Contaminated water will have nitrate (NO3). This will be reaching human body.
Certain bacteria commonly found in the intestinal tract of infants can convert nitrates
to highly toxic nitrites (NO2).

Nitrites have a greater affinity for haemoglobin in the blood than oxygen. This condition
known as methaemoglobinemia

Effects of Water Pollution

1. Physicochemical effects

A. colour, tastes and odours of the receiving waters,

B. changes in oxygen, temperature and pH -affect chemistry of waters

C. Addition of organic matter results in depletion of oxygen with increase in carbon dioxide
owing to bacterial degradation.

4. Toxic secretions from algae causing Allelopathic effects (e.g., Microcystis sp.)

C. Toxic effects by heavy metals, biocides, cyanide and other organic and inorganic
compounds. They accumulate in the body of the organism and biomagnify along the tropic
levels causing long term effects.

B. Biological effects 1.shift in flora and fauna 2.Most of the freshwater algae are highly
sensitive to pollutants 3.Prey-predatory relationships affected by breaking down the food
chains. 3. Increased algal growth
4. Pathogenic effects

A. sewage contain several pathogenic and nonpathogenic microorganism and viruses.

B.Clostridium perfringens and Streptococcus faecalis - food poisoning.

C water borne diseases like cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, colitis, and hepatitis (jaundice)

5. Eutrophication

One of the most severe and common water pollution problems. Due to enrichment of water
bodies by plant nutrients results in increase of biological growth. Ultimately the water bodies
unfit for the diverse uses.

This will ultimately cause increase in the nutrients of water and resultant spurt in algal
productivity

Control of Eutrophication

1. Prevention of the entry of nutrients

2. In situ water treatment procedures to reduce the nutrient availability to algae.

3. Diversion of Nutrients from a Lake

Wastes water to be diverted to downstream/ /oceans which have comparatively

greater self-purification capacities

b. Removal of Nutrients from Waste Waters

4 Watershed Management

Reduce deforestation and soil erosion will help for reducing the nutrient load of the
water resources.

5 There should be suitable sites for industries, agriculture, urban development and so
on which will help in controlling the water quality.

Other problem of water pollution is the nutrients enrichment in sea which can stimulate
algal growth on the coral reaf. This will have following adverse effect

1.lose of habitat and biodiversity in coral life

2. lose of economic benefits in tourism sector

Control of water pollution

Waste water treatment strategies

This include following treatments

 Primary treatment, Secondary treatment and Tertiary treatment

 1. Primary Treatment

 Untreated or raw wastewater usually flows by gravity to the primary treatment plant
or pumped by force. Preliminary treatment systems typically include screens,
comminutors, and grit chambers. The first treatment process for raw wastewater is
coarse screening. They retain floating debris, such as wood rags, or other bulky
objects.

Comminutor - shreds and chops solid waste in to small peices

Primary treatment processes remove only those pollutants that will either float or
settle out by gravity

Secondary treatment

It is basically biological treatment- Here microorganisms are being utilised- bacteria

and protozoa,

 The microorganism will consume the organic pollutants as food and they metabolize
the biodegradable materials. They convert the pollutants to CO2, H2O and energy for
their growth and reproduction.

 The secondary treatment normally carried out in controlled, artificial environment of

steel or concrete tank

 By secondary treatment the BOD will reduced by 85% and TSS will be reduced by 95
%

Tertiary treatment

This involves the removal nutreints

Phosphorus Removal - Chemical precipitation of the p

 This involves chemical precipitation of the phosphate ions and coagulation. The
organic phosphorous compounds are entrapped in the coagulant flocs of waste
materials that are formed and settle out in a clarifier. One chemical frequently used
in this process is aluminium sulfate ( Al2SO4). This is called alum, the same coagulant
chemical used to purify drinking water. The aluminium ions in the alum react with the
phosphate ions in the sewage to form the insoluble precipitate called aluminium
phosphate. Other coagulant chemicals that may be used to precipitate the
phosphorous include ferric chloride (FeCl3), and lime( CaO).

Nitrogen Removal

 One of the methods used to remove nitrogen is called biological nitrification –

denitrification. It consists of two basic steps. First, the secondary effluent is
introduced into another aeration tank. Since most of the carbonaceous BOD has
 already been removed, the microorganisms that will now thrive in this tertiary step
are the nitrifying bacteria (Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter). In this first step the
ammonia nitrogen is converted to nitrate nitrogen (This step is nitrification) to
produce a nitrified effluent. At this point, the nitrogen has not actually been removed
but only converted to a form that is not toxic to fish and that does not cause an
additional oxygen demand.

 A second biological treatment step is necessary to actually remove the nitrogen from
the wastewater. This is called denitrification. It is anaerobic process in which the
organic chemical methanol is added to the nitrified effluent to serve as a source of
carbon. The denitrifying bacteria Pseudomonas and other groups use the carbon
from the methanol and the oxygen from the nitrates in their metabolic processes. One
product of this biochemical reaction is molecular nitrogen (N2), which escapes into
the atmosphere as a gas.

Marine pollution
Marine oil spills
1.Oil spills pollute groundwater

2. Oil spills seep into streams, lakes, and reservoirs, which are drinking water sources
as well as habitat where fish, birds, and other wildlife can be harmed or killed.

3. Vapors from oil spills enter indoor environments which affect people

4.serious economic impact on coastal activities and on those who exploit the
resources of the sea.

 5. The impact on marine life is compounded by toxicity and tainting effects resulting
from the chemical composition of oil, as well as by the diversity and variability of
biological systems and their sensitivity to oil pollution.
 RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of rays by an unstable nucleus. such substances are
called Radioactive Substances

• eg. Radium, Uranium, Thorium.

Radioactive pollution - The release of radioactive substances into the air water, or earth as a result
of human activity, either by accident or by design.

The sources of such waste include :

1) nuclear weapon testing ; 2) the nuclear fuel cycle, including the mining
of nuclear materials for use in nuclear power plants or nuclear bombs;

(3) accidental release of radioactive material from nuclear power plants.

Sometimes natural sources of radioactivity, such as radon gas emitted from beneath the ground, are
considered pollutants when they become a threat to human health.

Causes of radioactive pollution

1.Natural Cosmic rays and Underground radiation

2. Man made cause includes -Testing nuclear weapons, Production of nuclear materials, ,
Accidents in nuclear power plants
3. Miscellaneous causes – TV, radium watch dials

Types of nuclear wastes

Low Level Waste

• Material used to handle the highly radioactive parts of nuclear reactors (i.e. cooling water
pipes and radiation suits) and

• Waste from medical procedures

The level of radioactivity and the half life of the radioactive isotopes in low level waste is relatively
small.

High level nuclear wastes is produced by nuclear reactors. It contains fission products and
transuranic elements generated in the reactor core.

• This waste includes uranium, plutonium, and other highly radioactive elements made during
fission.

• This emits large amount of radiation and have extremely long half-lives (some longer than
100,000 years)

• Contains higher amounts of radioactivity

Intermediate level
 • It includes resins, chemical sludge and metal reactor fuel cladding, as well as contaminated
materials from reactor decommissioning

Radioactive Fallout

• Deposition on the surface of the earth and into the atmosphere as a result of nuclear
explosions and by discharge from nuclear-power and atomic installations

Effects of Radio active Pollution

1.Somatic effect -

As Immediate effect-

• anemia

• Haemorrhage

• Reduced immune response

As delayed effect

• Eye cataract

• Leukemia

• Cardiovascular disease

• Premature aging

• Reduced life span

2. Genetic effect

Mutation

• Radiation affects the genes of the gamete cells.

• The effects are exhibited by offspring and in the subsequent generations.

• They affect the DNA, RNA replication and chromosome.

• • Mutation • Chromosomal aberration • Chromosomal fragmentation • Inhibition of

RNA,DNA synthesis

Radioactive pollution Incidents

• Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan

1945 Aug 6th &9th

Death toll -2,25,000

• Chernobyl disaster, Russia 1986 - ignored warning from sensors

• Death toll- 2,00,000

• Control of Radioactive pollution
1 .Isolating or diluting the waste so that the rate or concentration of any radionuclides
returned to the biosphere is harmless.

• 2. Nuclear devices should never be exploded in air.

• If these activities are extremely necessary they should be exploded underground.

• 3. In nuclear reactions, closed-cycle coolant system with gaseous coolants of very high purity
may be used.

• 4. Nuclear reactors must be enclosed in broad concrete walls to prevent the radiations that
emerge out.

• 5. Workers should wear protective garments and glass spectacles should be screened from
radiation.

• 6. Extreme care should be exercised in the disposal of industrial waste contaminated with
radionuclides.

• Disposal methods

• 1.Reprocessing

• 3.Vitrification -Solidifying in the form of glass

• 4.Deep geological disposal

• 5.Space disposal

• 6.Ocean bed disposal

• 7.Remote island disposal

• 8.Ice sheet disposal

Reprocessing--The chemical process – separates useful fuel from waste products.

• Reprocessing -involves a chemical process to separate out plutonium and fissionable

uranium from spent fuel rods.This process can reduce the volume of waste material.

Deep geological disposal

The most appropriate means for isolating Hgh level wastes permanently from man's
environment.

Vitrification

• Is a process of converting a material into a glass-like amorphous solid - either by

• quick removal or addition of heat, or by mixing with an additive.

Space disposal

• Space disposal offers the attraction of permanent separation of waste from the human
environment.
• Constraints -Possibility of accidents during launch,Should be carried out as per the norms
laid out in the International agreements

Ocean bed disposal

• Expensive The idea is to bury the waste in the floor of deep oceans in vast mud flats in the
middle of inactive oceanic tectonic plates.

• This option could be viable because deep within the ocean floor, the radiation from the
waste would not harm people or the environment.

Ice sheet Disposal

• Disposing of nuclear wastes in the ice at Antarctica or Greenland.

• This would involve placing waste containers on the surface or in a shallow hole