TechHub Journal Vol. 1, No. 1 pp.

28-38 (2021)
ISSN: 2810-2800
www.techhubresearch.com

Determination of Important Contact Parameters for

Spur Gear Design
Getachew Admassie Ambaye

Faculty of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Bahir Dar Institute of Technology (BiT),
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
gecheadmassie@gmail.com

Abstract. This study focused on the determination of the important contact pa-
rameters of spur gear design for the investigation of different parametric studies
such as the maximum pressure, contact width, contact film thickness, sliding
velocities, and others. The single and double tooth contact region has been de-
termined for the given gear parameters along with their contact lengths. The
contact width and pressure can be determined by considering the engaged spur
tooth as a cylindrical object. The film thickness will vary from the mesh ap-
proach (minimum) to the mesh recesses (maximum). The film thickness is de-
creased in a single tooth contact region a maximum value at the mesh termina-
tion.

Keywords: Sliding velocity, contact width, contact pressure, film thickness

1 Introduction

The motion and power are transmitted through a successive contact of gear tooth sur-
faces. The gear mates have a maximum of two teeth in contact this is called contact
ratio, and the distance from one contact pair of gear to the other contact gear tooth
pair is called contact length. In simple expression, the contact length is an imaginary
line that passes through pitch point from the mesh initiation to mesh termination
points.
The load is distributed through the contact length of the gear, which has a strong
influence on the performance of the gear. The gear with a longest contact length has
less chance to fail early than the gear with the shortest contact length unless manufac-
turing and other situations affect the system. To illustrate this, the spur gear has the
shortest contact length than helical gear, therefore, the spur gear can fail early than
helical gear if both gears subjected to same load and operating conditions. In this
section the length of mesh initiation and termination, contact ratio, surface and sliding
velocity of the gear will be determined. Figure 1 shows the length of contact, recess
and approach angles for a mesh. The length from point A to C and from C to E is
called the length of mesh initiation (approach) and length of mesh termination (re-
cess) respectively [1]. A single gear tooth contact will show between a point B to D,
while in a length between A to B and D to E double tooth contact will occur. The full
mesh cycle can be acquired by summing up the roll angle approach and termination

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angles. In other wards point, B and D are called the Lowest point of single tooth con-
tact (LPSTC) and the highest point of single tooth contact (HPSTC) respectively.

Fig. 1. 2D Model of spur gear [1].

Wang et al. [2] investigated a novel numerical model with high computational ac-
curacy for rough surface contact is developed and applied to the wear prediction of
spur gears. There are a number of researches have been studied to in investigate and
compare the numerical contact patterns with the existing and novel model [3-5].
Getachew and Hirpa [6] investigated the transmission error and mesh time varying
stress of the spur gear by determining the contact parameters of the same specification
that have been used for this study. The effect of backlash on the flash and contact
temperature of the spur gear is studied [1]. Nordin and Gutman investigated the conrolo
mechanism of backlash [7]. The performance of the gear can be determined by the
amount of transmission error, time varying mesh stiffens and other [ 8-10]. Numerical
methods are commonly used to determine the transmission error and other perfor-
mance parameters of the dynamic system [11, 12].
The gear fails due to an excessive deformation and continuous wear due to fatigue
by depleting the gear tooth thickness and the contact width [13, 14]. This paper will
have revealed how the contact parameters of the spur gear is determined for different
parametric studies by taking a specific gear design as a case study.

2 Contact length and rolling angles

The length of meshing initiation is the distance from the beginning of contact until
the point of contact arrives at the pitch point, While the length of mesh termination is
the distance from the pitch point to the end of contact arrives at the point and it is
calculated as -9.327 mm and 8.638 mm respectively using Equation 1 (a) and (b).
2 2 )
𝑆𝑖 = −√(𝑟𝑎𝐺 − 𝑟𝑏𝐺 − 𝑟𝐺 sin 𝛼 (1𝑎)

2 2 )
𝑆𝑡 = −√(𝑟𝑎𝑃 − 𝑟𝑏𝑃 − 𝑟𝑃 sin 𝛼 (1𝑏)
The other important parameter is the rolling approach angle and angle of termination.
Roll approach angle is the angle between the horizontal line and the line that begin
from center of rotation and passes through the mesh initiation point. While, recess roll

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angle is the angle between the horizontal line and the line that begin form center of
rotation and pass through the mesh termination point. These both parameters can be
determined from the Equations 2 (a) and (b) as 12.93o and 18.81o.
𝑆𝑖
𝜑𝑖 = − (2𝑎)
𝑟𝑏𝐺
𝑆𝑡
𝜑𝑡 = − (2𝑏)
𝑟𝑏𝑃
Length of line of action is the sum of length of mesh initiation and termination and is
given by Equation 3, and it is calculated as 17.965 mm.
𝑙 = 𝑆𝑖 + 𝑆𝑡 (3)
The contact ratio is given by Equation 4. A contact ratio of 1 means that only one
tooth pair is engaged at all times during the course of action. The gear tooth may not
carry the load as good as the gear tooth that there are more than one pair of tooth con-
tact, this is undesirable because slight errors in the tooth spacing will cause oscilla-
tions in the velocity, vibration, and noise. For the satisfactory performance of power
transmitting gears, a value of 1.4 is used as a practical minimum. A lower contact
ratio also necessitates a higher degree of accuracy in meshing to ensure quiet running
of the gear set, but from Equation 4 the contact ratio is 1.52 and this indicates that one
pair of teeth are always in contact, and the second pair of teeth are in contact 52% of
the time Norton et al. [15].
Low-contact-ratio spur gears suffer from abrupt changes in the transmitted load
because of the continuous engagement and disengagement of teeth in a meshing cy-
cle. These changes generate noise and vibrations, resulting in poor lubrication and
increased tooth wear, and can even cause tooth breakage.
𝑙
𝑀𝑐 = 𝐶𝑅 = (4)
𝑃𝑏
From Figure 1, it is shown that a single tooth contact is occurred between points B
and D. This indicates that the single tooth contact starts at length AB (S1) and ends at
length AD (S2) from mesh initiation (point A). The pitch point (C) can be taken as a
reference and then the length along the right side of this can be considered as a posi-
tive and along the left side negative. These distances, S1 and S2 can be calculated by:
𝑆𝑖 + (𝑀𝑐 − 1)𝑆𝑡
𝑆1 = (5𝑎)
𝑀𝑐
𝑆𝑖 (𝑀𝑐 − 1) + 𝑆𝑡
𝑆2 = (5𝑏)
𝑀𝑐
From the above equation S1 = -3.18 mm and S2 = 2.49 mm. In other word, there is a
single meshing pair when -3.18 mm < S < 2.49 mm, and there are a two meshing pairs
when the meshing position is in the range of Si ≤ S ≤ S1 or S2 ≤ S ≤ St.
Point S1 and S2 along the line of action are called the lowest point of single tooth
contact and the highest point of single tooth contact respectively.

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3 Surface velocity and sliding velocity

The center of the gear is constrained and subjected to a constant rotational load. The
surface velocity will vary from the beginning of mesh to mesh termination due to the
length from the center of the rotational axis along line of action. Radii of the two
equivalent cylinders at a given meshing position are given by
𝑅𝑃,𝐺 = 𝑟𝑃,𝐺 sin 𝛼 ± 𝑆 (6)
The equivalent radius of the elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) contact is given
by:
(𝑅𝑃 𝑅𝐺 ) (𝑟𝑃 sin 𝛼 + 𝑆)(𝑟𝐺 sin 𝛼 − 𝑆)
𝑅′ (𝑆) = = (7)
(𝑅𝑃 + 𝑅𝐺 ) 𝑐 sin 𝛼

The surface velocities of the two cylinders are given by

𝑈𝑃,𝐺 (𝑆) = 𝜔𝑃,𝐺 𝑅𝑃,𝐺 (8)
The entraining velocity of the EHL contact
𝑈𝑃 + 𝑈𝐺 (𝜔𝑃 − 𝜔𝐺 )𝑆
𝑈(𝑆) = = 𝜔𝑃 𝑟𝑃 sin 𝛼 + (9)
2 2

Sliding velocity is the relative velocity in a transverse plane of a common contact

point between mating gear teeth and is given by Equation 10.
𝑈𝑆 (𝑆) = 𝑈𝑃 − 𝑈𝐺 = (𝜔𝑃 + 𝜔𝐺 )𝑆 (10)
The geometric parameters and operational conditions of spur gears used for this study
are based on parameters used in Taburdagitan and Akkok [16]. These parameters and
the related operational conditions are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Geometric parameters and operational conditions of the meshing gear pair
Parameter (symbol) Value
Module (m) 4 mm
Pressure angle (𝜶) 20o
Number of teeth, pinion (𝒁𝑷 ) 14
Number of teeth, gear (𝒁𝑮 ) 22
Face width (B) 6 mm
Load per unit face width (w) 75.5 N/mm
Angular velocity of pinion (𝝎𝑷 ) 2090 rpm

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Fig. 2. Gear (a) radius of curvature and (b) velocities of gear.

The radius of the curvature of the involute of gear tooth for both pinion and gear is
shown in Figure 2 (a). The figure illustrates that the radius of curvature of pinion gear
tooth is minimum at the mesh initiation and increased to the maximum value as it is
shown in the figure, on the other hand, the radius of curvature of the gear involute
tooth is maximum at the mesh initiation and decrease to the minimum value at the
mesh termination. The pinion and gear radius of curvature is equal at 2.85 mm mesh
position along the line of action. The equivalent radius of curvature also shown in the
figure and it increases gently from mesh initiation till it reaches to the point where the
pinion and gear have the same radius of curvature and then it starts to decrease gently,
it has a downward parabolic shape. These radii of curvatures are used to determine the
surface and sliding velocities of the gear. The contact of the gear tooth shows a rolling
and sliding velocities. Both surface velocities for pinion and gear and sliding veloci-
ties are shown in Figure 2 (b). The surface velocity of the pinion is increased from 0.2
m/s to a maximum value of 4 m/s, this indicates that the radius of involute at the mesh
initiation is very small and as it goes from this point it increases [1]. The surface ve-
locity of the gear is maximum as mesh initiation and decrease to 0.8 m/s at the mesh
termination point. In addition, at the pitch point the surface velocities of pinion and
gear are the same, in other words there is a pure rolling at the pitch circle.

4 Contact width and contact stress

In mechanical engineering and tribology, Hertzian contact stress is a description of

the stress between mating parts. Theoretically, the contact area of two spheres is a
point, and it is a line for two parallel cylinders. As a result, the contact pressure be-
tween two curved surfaces should be infinite for both of these two cases, which will
cause immediate yielding of both surfaces.
However, a small contact area is being created through elastic deformation in reality
due to deformation at the contact surfaces. Figure 3 shows the Hertz contact compo-
nents of sectional two elastic objects for general cases. When the contacting compo-
nents are subjected to a load there is a point contact and then as the load increases the
stress induced in the contacting bodies increases and as a result, the contacting area

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will grow as an elliptical shape. The maximum contact pressure, Pmax is found at the
center and it decreases as it goes away from the center. The contact width, b is meas-
ured from the semi-minor axis of the elliptical geometry as shown in the graph.
The gear tooth has a cylindrical shape and the Hertz contact theory can be applied.
Conjugate action of gear teeth in mesh consists primarily of sliding and rolling mo-
tions. At the pitch line, sliding velocity is zero; however, sliding velocity increases
when the conjugated tooth contact line travels away from the pitch line in both direc-
tions. The contact pressure of gear teeth in mesh also changes along the line of action.
In this study cylindrical contact object is considered for the analysis of spur gear con-
tact width and pressure.

Fig. 3. Contact between two sectioned cylinders, general case

4.1 Contact width

Contact width is used to determine the contact pressure of mating pairs. Contact width
is given by Equation 11, and it shows that it is directly proportional to the equivalent
radius of curvature and inversely proportional to the equivalent elastic of module.
Equivalent radius is calculated in the previous Section, Equation 7, it varies along the
line of action. The equivalent modulus is given by Equation 12, in this thesis report
the both mating components of gear have the same modulus of elasticity as given in
Table 2. Both gear and pinion are made from steel SAE-AISI 1045 at 20 oC.
8𝑊𝑅′
𝑏=√ (11)
𝜋𝐸 ′
1 1 1 − 𝜈𝑃2 1 − 𝜈𝐺2
= [ + ] (12)
𝐸 ′ 2 𝐸𝑃 𝐸𝐺

Table 2. Material properties of the steel SAE-AISI 1045 at 20oC [14].

Parameter Value
Mass density,𝝆 7.86 × 10−6 𝐾𝑔/𝑚𝑚3
Modulus of Elasticity, 𝑬𝑷 & 𝑬𝑮 207 × 103 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Poisson ratio,𝝂 0.3

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Specific heat, 𝑪𝑷 485 × 103 (𝑁𝑚𝑚)/𝐾𝑔℃

Thermal conductivity, 𝜿 42.3 (𝑁𝑚𝑚)/𝑚𝑚℃

Fig. 4. Contact width.

Figure 4 shows that the contact width increased from the point where the meshing of
gear sets start to the LPSTC, and the maximum contact width has occurred at HPSTC
0.073 mm, and at mesh termination point the contact width is around 0.0375 mm. The
contact width is maximum under single tooth contact, i.e between - 3.18 to 2.49 mm.
This shows that the contact width is maximum under the single tooth contact region.
The gear width is proportional to the load that applied on the gear, the load is
shared into two teeth in the double tooth contact region. Near to the pitch point, the
width is maximum. This is because the gear load is carried by a single tooth only, this
indicates that, the more the load subjected the more the deformed width will be pro-
duced. Once the gear width is determined the maximum contact pressure can be de-
termined, and this show in the next section.

4.2 Contact pressure

The contact stresses on the gear surfaces can be estimated by analytical equations
based on the frictionless elastic theory developed by Hertz in 1881 [17]. The gear
contact is analyzed with the assumption that the contact is between two cylinders with
radii equal to the radius of the curvature of the teeth. The contact geometry between
the two elastic contact bodies in general cases is as shown in Figure 4.3. The Hertz
equations can be utilized to calculate the contact pressure at the tooth surfaces of two
mating spur gears.
The contact pressure is the ratio of the normal load to the true contact area. Contact
stress is generally the deciding factor for the determination of the required dimensions
of gears. The maximum and average contact pressure of the two cylindrical contact
bodies is given by Equation 13 (a) and (b). In this thesis the maximum pressure is
calculated as shown in Figure 5.

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2𝑊
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (13𝑎)
𝜋𝑏
𝑊
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = (13𝑏)
4𝑏

Fig. 5. Maximum contact pressure.

As shown in Figure 5, the maximum contact pressure (2.4 GP a) is obtained around

the tip of the gear tooth, and it decreases gently to 610 MP and at the LPSTC region,
and then it increases to 780 MP a without change of mesh position, and then it de-
creases gently to a point HPSTC region which is almost 680 MP a. and then the min-
imum contact pressure is occurred at the mesh termination which is almost 500 MP a.
If the gear tooth profile is modified the maximum contact pressure will occur on a
single tooth, contact region. Maximum contact pressure is occurred at the LPSTC and
then decreases gently to the point of HPSTC.
In this paper the important contact parameters have been determined. The radius of
involute is used to determine the sliding velocity of the gear, and the equivalent radius
of curvature is maximum at above pitch point. The sliding velocity of the spur gear is
maximum at the mesh initiation and decreases and eventually it gets zero at the pitch
point and it increases again. The other main point of this paper is it’s about the contact
width and pressure, the cylindrical contact bodies have been considered to analyzed
the gear contact width and maximum pressure. Maximum contact width is found on
the single tooth contact region. The maximum contact pressure is maximum at the
mesh initiation and it decreases gently until it reaches on the LPSTC region. The max-
imum contact pressure can be found on the single tooth contact region if the tip of the
gear tooth is modified.

5 Minimum film thickness

The oil plays a significant role on the performance of the rotating mechanical compo-
nents. The temperature of the oil will greatly influence the failure and performance of
the gear [18]. Lubrication regimes are basic contact conditions that predict the way

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the load is carried from one surface to another of contacting bodies. There are four
main lubrication regimes that are commonly known.
Hydrodynamic lubrication: the contacting bodies are separated by a liquid lubricant
which is thick enough to avoid any direct contact between their surfaces. The load is
then carried by the pressurized lubricant and it is shown in Figure 6 (a). The thickness
of the film (h) can lead in to another division, if h ≥ 0.25 µm is called a hydrodynamic
lubrication (HDL) regime, while if 0.025 ≥ h ≤ 5 µm we call it elasto hydrodynamic
lubrication (EHL) regime.
Mixed lubrication (ML): the average lubricant film thickness between contacting
bodies is lower than the mean roughness of their surfaces. Direct contacts occur be-
tween asperities. The load is then carried partly by the lubricant, partly there is a di-
rect contact between mating pairs as shown in Figure 6 (b).
Boundary lubrication (BL): No liquid lubricant is used: the load is carried by direct
contact between bodies at the level of the asperities, this is shown in Figure 6 (c), the
thickness of the film is between 1 and 3 nm.
Solid-film lubrication: the contacting bodies are separated by a solid lubricant thick
enough to avoid any contact between the tool and the work piece. Figure 6 (d) shows
that the load is fully carried by the solid lubricant.

Fig. 6. Lubrication regimes (a) HDL, (b) ML, (c) BL and (d) Solid-film lubrication.

There are a number of studies that focuses on the determination of the film thickness
and related gear parameters such as the stiffens and others [19-21].
The exact analysis of elastohydrodynamic lubrication by Hamrock and Dowson, pro-
vided the most important information about EHDL [22]. Film thickness at each mesh-
ing position is expressed in Equation 14:
ℎ𝑜 = 3.068𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝑇 𝑅′ 𝑈 0.69 𝑔0.56 𝑊𝐹−0.1 (14)
Compressibility reduction factor CP and inlet shear heating reduction factor re-
spectively CT can be calculated by the equations that given in the nomenclature.
The lubricant pressure viscosity (ψ) and temperature viscosity (β) factors respec-
tively. These and other parameter values are given in the Table 3.

Table 3. Lubricant parameter [22]

Independent parameters Value
Lubricant ambient temperature,𝑻𝒐 100℃
Lubricant ambient viscosity, 𝜼𝒐 0.01 𝑃𝑎 𝑠
Pressure viscosity coefficient, 𝝍 1.2 × 10−8 𝑃𝑎−1

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Temperature viscosity coefficient, 𝜷 0.04℃−1

Lubricant thermal conductivity,𝑲𝒇 0.14 𝑊/(𝑚℃)
Lubricant density, 𝝆𝒇 800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Lubricant specific heat, 𝑪𝒇 2290 𝐽/(𝑘𝑔℃)

Fig. 7. Film thickness.

Figure 7 shows that the film thickness increases from mesh initiation to LPSTC expo-
nentially, then minimum film thickness is found at the mesh initiation and which is
around 0.2 µm. The film thickness is decreased in a single tooth contact region and
increases smoothly up to HPSTC region, and then it increases exponentially to 0.62
µm at the mesh termination. The minimum film thickness at mesh initiation can be
altered by modifying the gear tooth profile, this will make the minimum film thick-
ness lay between LPSTC and HPSTC region. In general, the minimum film thickness
is found in single tooth contact region.

Conclusion

This paper summarized the contact parameters of the spur gear for some specific gear
specifications. Determinations of these parameters will pave the way to investigate
different parametric studies of the spur gear. The sliding velocity at the pitch point is
zero, it indicates that the gear is taking a pure rolling motion at the pitch points. How-
ever, a slight movement from this point will yield both the rolling and sliding mo-
tions. To study the contact width and pressure of the gear tooth, it’s essential to con-
sider the gear tooth as a cylindrical object coming in contact. Therefore, the contact
shape will give an elliptical deformed shape and the maximum contact width is ob-
tained between the single tooth contact region. The film thickness is increased para-
bolic from the mesh initiation to the single tooth contact point and it reduces and it
again increases parabolic after the last point of the single contact point. This paper has
been wide up to the determination of the contact parameters of the spur gear.

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Nomenclature
−1
0.58 × 10−9 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝑃 = (1 + )
1 + 1.68 × 10−9 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜂𝑜 𝑢2
𝐶𝑇 = exp (−0.75𝛽 )
4𝑘𝑓
𝑈𝑃 + 𝑈𝐺
𝑢=
2
𝜂𝑜 𝑢
𝑈= ′ ′
𝐸𝑅
𝑔 = 𝜓𝐸 ′
𝜔
𝑊𝐹 = ′ ′
𝐸𝑅