2019 IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC)
Development of a Technology Solution for Cooling
of Milk by Biogas in Farms
Alvaro Vicente Leiva Norman Andres Reyes Susano
Professor Vicecanchellor of Academic Affairs
Universidad Tecnologica La Salle Universidad Tecnologica La Salle
Leon, Nicaragua Leon, Nicaragua
alvaro.leiva@ulsa.edu.ni vra@ulsa.edu.ni
Abstract— This article describes the adaptation process
from milk cooling machines powered by electricity to cooling
machines powered by biogas. Modifications to manufacturer`s
cooling machines included the combustion engine ignition
system, the replacement of electric compressors by mechanical
ones, and the electrical and control systems. Once the changes
were implemented, a series of laboratory tests were performed.
The tests covered the following parameters: speed (ºC/h),
cooling time (hours), biogas consumption (m3/hour) and cooling
system efficiency. Minimum differences were obtained when the
manufacturer ́s parameters were compared to the laboratory
tests results. The field validation was done from May to October
2018. Two machines were installed in one farm in Jinotega and
the other one in a farm in Matagalpa. Currently, two of them
are fully operating. Average values of the final results
(combining laboratory and field results) were: Cooling Time
2.59 hours, Cooling Speed of 11.62 °C/h, Biogas Consumption
rate of 1.6 m3/h, and an efficiency of 33%. These results allow
to conclude that the use of adapted cooling machines fueled with
biogas in farms is a feasible technical solution. It is estimated
that the investment recovery for this project is two years.
Index Terms: Milk, biogas, machine, temperature, adaptation,
cooling.
I. INTRODUCTION
In Nicaragua the dairy sector produced around 769 million
gallons of milk in 2014 [1]. These results show a 37.3%
growth, taking year 2000 production as the baseline.
According to the same source, in 2015 Nicaragua has exported
202 million dollars. It is estimated that almost 70% [2] of
producers are part of the informal dairy market in Nicaragua.
These producers do not have a cold chain that ensures them to
comply with the quality standards demanded by the industry
and formal markets. The quality of milk decreases
exponentially if it is not cooled down to 4º C at the milking
farm [3]. Additionally, the combination of distant locations of
farms and the lack of proper maintenance of roads, mainly in
winter, does not allow the producers a timely delivery of their
milk production to collection points or cooling centers.
In this context, La Salle Technological University (ULSA
acronyms in Spanish) along with the Netherlands
Development Organizations (SNV) carried out a project to
adjust milk cooling electric machines to be fueled with biogas.
The main objective was to provide a technological option for
cooling using local biofuels, in this case biogas, from the start
of the cold chain at the farm site.
This modification allows: To increase the use of coolers at
farms without the use of electricity; to reduce energy costs,
rejection or fines due to the low quality of the milk delivered;
978-1-7281-1780-5/19/$31.00 ©2019 IEEE
Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Brighton. Downloaded on June 07,2020 at 11:33:33 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Alden Jose Jiron Zavala
Coordinator of CENRENER
Universidad Tecnologica La Salle
Leon, Nicaragua
alden.jiron@ulsa.edu.ni
to improve the producers ́ milk trading capacities, facilitating
them to trade in the formal market and; to increase farms ́
productivity with the possibility of a second milking session.
These kinds of technological improvements empower small
producers in rural areas who face difficult access or mobility,
with weak or no electricity services, to meet the requirements
of national dairy industries, and improve their competitiveness
simultaneously [4].
II. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROJECT
A. Backgrounds
The electric energy required to cool down 500 liters of milk
ranges between 6.5 and 8 kWh, which is difficult to obtain
from small electric generators powered with biogas due to the
loss of efficiency of some components like the combustion
engine, the electric generator, the compressor electric engine,
and the compressor itself. Also, it is important to note that
there are efficiency limiting factors of the cooling machines
like the low heating power of biogas (combustion), the blend
composition (methane and other gases), and the input-time
pressure changes of biogas. All these factors severely affect
the performance and the energy supply of cooling machines
[4].
B. Development Method
Former attempts to use biogas in cooling machines had a
significant efficiency loss caused by the following
components: the Otto engine, the electricity power generator,
the compressor electric engine, and finally the cooler
compressor itself, all these weaknesses lead to a non-viable
system for the milk´s cooling. [4]. ULSA ́s proposal
simplifies and improves the efficiency of this chain by
reducing it into two components: the Otto engine, and a
mechanical compressor. This reduction of components leads
to a significant increase of the overall system performance.
This approach allowed a direct drive of the refrigeration
compressor by the Otto engine running on biogas.
The replacement of the electric compressor by a mechanical
one generated the necessity to do thermodynamic
calculations, in order to measure entirely the cooling system
[5] and to determine the capacity of the open-compressor to
be used. Three volumes of liquids to be cooled off were
considered (150, 250, 500 liters), the operating temperature
range was established between 36°C to 4°C and the operating
time ranged from 1 to 3 hours. The resulting open-
compressors have a volumetric displacement of 2.38 m3/hour
(IY) and 3.32 m3/hour (IIY) [6], both with capacities to work
with 300 and 500 liters respectively.
 2019 IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC)

Three different brands of Otto engines (gasoline) were compressor, which is powered through an internal
selected to operate the mechanical compressor. The Otto combustion engine that uses biogas energy for its operation.
engines were firstly fueled with gasoline and then with
A. Technical Adaptation
biogas, the one that enabled the compressor to operate more
efficiently was selected. All of them share the same feature. In general, the components of the adapted (CM1 and CM3)
Their (adapted) carburetors are capable to work with cooling machines (CM) are: a) Cooling tank, b) Control
gasoline, liquefied gas (LPG) and biogas. When the change Panel, c) Fans, d) Agitator, e) Battery 12 V, f) Alternator, g)
from gasoline fuel to biogas was made in the first Otto engine, Compressor-Opened, h) Pulley System, i) Motor, j)
the operating conditions of the engine varied, reducing its Condenser, k) Expansion Valve, l) Bronze Tubes, m) Support
power by 41.8%, the operating temperature of the cylinder Structure, n) Coolant Tank (See Figure 2 ).
head 1 increased 28ºC, and the consumption of biogas The main changes of system components consisted of: the
increased to 480 Liters/hour. This problem was solved by substitution of the electric compressor by a mechanical one,
modifying the angle of progress of the engine 2 [7] by 25º, the electrical system changed from 220V AC to 12V DC, the
obtaining remarkable improvements in its operation. control system, the condenser fans, the stirrer’s electric
C. Design Requirements for Cooling Machines motor changed from 220V AC to 12V DC, the capillary tube
was substituted by an expansion valve, the electric
Based on the producers ́ needs, the design requirements
compressor engine by an Otto engine, the coolant tank, the
are:
condenser, and a 12V DC generator (alternator) were added
a) Two daily processes of milking and 12 hours of along with an 80 Ah battery to store energy during the
storage-time until delivery. cooling process.
b) Three hours maximum time to cool down the milk
from 36º to 4ºC.
c) Storage tanks must keep stable temperatures (4°C)
until delivery.
d) In order to maintain the emulsion and milk
temperature stable in the storage tanks, they must have
stirrers.
e) The energy used in the stirring process must come
from batteries charged by a 12V alternator along the
cooling process.
f) When the cooling temperature reaches 4º C, the
system must stop and stir it automatically.
g) The system must be electrically autonomous, using
only the energy from biogas.

III. PROJECT METHODOLOGY Fig. 2. CM3 Component for 500 litters

A synthesis of the methodology used in the Project, is
shown in Figure 1 CM1 (see Figure 3) and CM3 (see Figure 2) were adapted and
adjusted in ULSA ́s laboratory. CM2 (see Figure 4) was
Technical study and adjustment of Otto engine.
1 adapted by the manufacturer taking as reference adjustments
made by ULSA in CM1 and CM3. The CM2 equipment was
Pre-design of machine for milk fueled by biogas.
2 received ready to be connected to the internal combustion
Development and adjustment of prototype´s cooling machine
engine and the cooling system.
3

Test of cooling machines at ULSA´s laboratories.

4
Analysis and assessment of cooling machines under real
5 conditions (farms).

Development of financial schemes.

6
Validation and technology transfer to participants of the biogas
7 chain value.

Fig. 1. Implemented methodology

IV. RESULTS
Fig. 3. CM1 Design Representation for 300 litters.
In order to use the biogas energy, the cooling machine´s
electric compressor was replaced by a mechanical open-

1 2
Cylinder head: upper part of the cylinders that seals the combustion Angle of progress: Turning angle of crankshaft where combustion starts.
chamber.

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Brighton. Downloaded on June 07,2020 at 11:33:33 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 2019 IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC)

Test 1.1: Gasoline was used as fuel to define the engine

operating baseline under manufacturer operating conditions
(without adjustments).

Test 1.2: Consisted of determining the engine operating

parameters when it was fueled with biogas, but without
modification of the engine ignition angle.

Test 1.3: The engine fueled with biogas was tested with a
displacement of 25 degrees in the angle of the modified
ignition system.

Fig. 4. Representation of CM2 factory design for 500 litters. C.2 Cooling Tests

For the adjustment of cooling machines, the following

B. Operation of the Refrigeration System by Biogas operating parameters were considered: Cooling speed (ºC/h),
Cooling time (Hours), Biogas consumption rate (m3/h) and
B.1 Cooling cycle: When the milk is introduced into tank "a" overall system efficiency.
(see figure 2) at a temperature of approximately 35ºC, the
Otto engine starts running on biogas and the temperature Test description for the adjustment of the cooling machine:
control system is started. Meanwhile, the alternator generates Test 2.1: Test of the machine in factory conditions using
electricity to supply the electrical system and to charge the commercial energy (220V AC) to define the operational
battery. When a temperature of 4ºC is reached, the control baseline.
system switches off the Otto engine finishing the cooling Test 2.2: Test of cooling down water with the adapted
process machines fueled with biogas at ULSA ́s Laboratories.
B.2 Stirring Cycle: When the optimum temperature has been Test 2.3: Test of cooling down milk with the adapted
reached, the Otto engine stops and the system also stops machines fueled with biogas at the selected farms.
cooling down the milk and the temperature control starts an
automatic stirring cycle of 5 minutes; then it stops for 45 The biogas used in the Otto engine to carry out the different
minutes and then stir again for 5 more minutes, repeating the tests had a 53% of methane concentration (CH4). The raw
cycle until the operator stops the temperature control system material used for biogas production was bovine excrement.
and the milk is delivered.
Laboratory and in-farm test results were quite similar;
C. Testing Methodology therefore, average numbers, obtained in laboratory and field
The testing methodology of the adapted machines is tests when water and milk were the liquids to cool down, will
described below in Figure 5: be presented.
Technological Development A. Test Results
D.1 Otto Engine Test Results:
1. Engine 2. Adaptations of Cooling
adjusment Machines Otto engine test results are shown in Table 1, which shows
Test 1.1: Engine using Test 2.1 with the average values of the Electric Power generated,
Gasoline (baseline) commercial electricity Temperature measured in the engine cylinder head, and Fuel
(baseline)
consumption. Figures 6, 7 and 8 show the performance of
Test 1.2: Engine using these parameters versus the engine rotation speeds (rpm):
Biogas (without Test 2.2 Biogas used in
modification) laboratory (with water)

Test 1.3: Engine using Test 2.3Biogas used in Parameter Tests

Biogas (adjusted) farms (with milk) (Average value) 1.1 1.2 1.3
Electric Power
2625 1527 1804
Generated (W).
Fig. 5. Testing Method of Adapted Machines Temperature of
Engine´s cylinder 191 219 169
C.1 Engine Tests head (ºC).
Fuel
The main operating parameters assessed at ULSA ́s Consumption N/A 3.06 2.58
laboratory after engine adjustments were: Power (watt),
(m3/h).
Cylinder head temperature (ºC) and Biogas consumption rate
(m3/h) Table 1. Otto Engine Test Results
Test description for engine adjustment:

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Brighton. Downloaded on June 07,2020 at 11:33:33 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 2019 IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC)

TEMPERATURE OF ENGINE´S CYLINDER HEAD

230
219
210
Temperature (°C)

190 191

170 169

150

130

110
1400 1900 2400 2900 3400
Engine Spinning Speed (RPM)
Gasolina a 0° Biogás a 0° Biogás a 25°
Fig. 8. Variation of Biogas Consumption vs Engine spinning

Fig. 6. Variation of Engine temperature vs Engine spinning speed After the modification of the engine ignition system, the
biogas consumption rate was reduced by 480 liters/h (15.7%)
When the type of fuel was changed from gasoline to biogas in comparison with the consumption obtained without
(0º progress angle), the temperature of the Otto engine modification (see red line of the graph in Figure 8).
increased by 28ºC, which represented a rise of 14.6% in D.2 Test Results of the Cooling Machines
relation to the gasoline operating temperature; see red color Test results of cooling machines are shown in Table 2
line of the graph in Figure 6. This represented a high risk of
engine overheating when running with biogas. In order to Base Average
Parameters CM1 CM2 CM3
solve this problem, the ignition system was modified by Line (Biogas)
moving forward the ignition advance angle from 0° to 25° of Cooling time
2.42 2.74 2.75 2.45 2.59
crankshaft rotation 3 . After the modification of the ignition (h)
system (progress angle at 25º), the engine reduced its Cooling Speed
12.45 10.95 10.91 12.16 11.62
(ºC/h)
temperature to 22º C (11.5%) compared to the temperature
Biogas Cons.
obtained with gasoline. See green line of the graph in Figure 0.97 1.81 2.02 N/A 1.6
(m3/h)
6. Gral. Efficiency
0.39 0.31 0.28 N/A 0.33
of the System
ELECTRICITY POWER Table 2. Test results of Cooling Machines with 50% load capacity and using
biogas
2650 2625
Figures 9, 10, 11 and 12 show the Table 2 results in a
ELECTRICITY POWER (W)

2150 comparative way:

1804
1650
1527
1150

650

150
1400 1900 2400 2900 3400
Engine Spinning Speed (RPM)
Gasolina a 0° Biogás a 0° Biogás a 25°

Fig. 7. Variation of the Power Generated by the Otto engine vs engine

spinning speed

When changing fuel from gasoline to biogas, the engine

reduced its power by 1098 W (41.8%). See blue line in the Fig. 9. Cooling Time Results of different machines
graphic of Figure 7. After the modification of the engine
CM1 succeeded to overcome the cooling time of the electric
ignition system, it was possible to recover 277 W (10.5%) of
machine in 0.03 hours. CM2 and CM3 delayed 0.3 and 0.29
the initial power (gasoline). See green line in the graph of
hours respectively compared to the electric machine (see
Figure 7.
Figure 9).

3
Crankshaft: main shaft of the internal combustion engine that receives
the movement of the connecting rods and transmits them to the steering
wheel.

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Brighton. Downloaded on June 07,2020 at 11:33:33 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 2019 IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC)

Fig. 10. Cooling Speed Results for different machines

CM1 succeeded to overcome the cooling speed of the electric

machine by 0.29 ºC/h; CM2 and CM3 decreased their speed
by 1.25 and 1.21 ºC/h, respectively, compared to the electric Fig. 13. CM1 Cooling Machine installed at the Laboratory.
machine (See Figure 10). Table 3 shows a summary of main results of cooling tests:

Summary Results
CM1-150 l CM2-250 l CM3-250 l
per Load
Cooling Time (h) 2.417 2.750 2.740
Cooling Time per
0.967 0.660 0.658
Milk´s Liter (min/l)
Cooling Speed (˚C/h) 12.447 10.913 10.95
System Efficiency
39.27% 28.17% 31.67%
(%)
Biogas Consumption
0.972 2.018 1.805
(m3/h)
Biogas Consumption
per Milk´s Liter 6.479 8.073 7.220
Fig. 11. Biogas Consumption Results for different machines. (lg/lm*h)
h = hour; min/l = minutes per liter; ˚C/ h = Celsius Degrees per Hour;
CM1 succeeded to reduce biogas consumption rate by 1.05
Efficiency is the amount of energy used to extract heat from milk; m3/h =
and 1.11 m3/h compared to CM2 and CM3 machines cubic meter per hour; lg/lm*h = Liters of Biogas per liter of milk per hour.
respectively (See Figure 11). Table 3. Summary of CM1, CM2 and CM3 Cooling Tests
V. FINANCIAL SCENARIO OF COOLING MILK USING
BIOGAS
The financial scenario carried out by SNV, consisted in the
estimation of investment costs, operational expenses and
estimated income produced by cold milk sales, energy
savings, and current maintenance. With this data, a cash flow
for a four-year period was calculated in order to determine
the return on investment of a cooling system powered by
biogas.
Financial results are positive. Data shows that to install, adapt
Fig. 12. General Results of the System Efficiency. and run a milk cooling system fueled with biogas (i.e. 300
liters cooling machine) gives an investment recovery period
The efficiency was calculated by dividing the amount of of two years, because it will generate US$ 2,810.25 [4] as
energy extracted from the milk in the form of heat [8], accumulated income.
between the amount of energy entered with biogas. CM1
exceeded the CM2 and CM3 machines by 0.11 and 0.08, (see VI. CONCLUSIONS
Figure 12).
Adapting a milk cooling system, that uses biogas as the main
Figure 13 shows an image of CM1 after adaptations in the fuel, contributes to increasing the competitiveness of the
Laboratory dairy sector, and improves the quality of dairy products
produced by small and medium farmers living in areas where
there is no access to the national electricity grid or the
electricity service is inefficient.
The biogas consumption of milk cooling machines, with load
capacities ranging from 300 liters to 500 liters, oscillates

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Brighton. Downloaded on June 07,2020 at 11:33:33 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 2019 IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC)
between 0.97 to 2.02 m3 per hour, with an average of 1.60 m3.
From these numbers, it can be concluded that, based on these
capacities, small-scale biodigesters4 are required in order to
run a milk cooling system fueled with biogas, which would
have an organic waste demand of 150 kg to 300 kg of manure
per day5 [9].
The use of open-compressors driven by biogas fueled engines
has comparative advantages over electric compressors
running on energy provided by the national electricity grid.
The use of dual-type Otto engines (Gasoline/Biogas) reduces
the costs of electricity bills and mitigates the risks of
commercial electricity power cuts. The inclusion of a 12V
electrical system, with storage capacity and, powered by the
same energy generated with the internal combustion engine
provides total autonomy to the cooling system and
independence from the power coming from the national
electricity grid.
Thermodynamic calculations initially performed, where it
was established that the coolant volumetric displacement
necessary for milk cooling is in the average of 1.968 m3/h,
were validated by the cooling equipment adaptation. It can
be concluded that open-type compressors IY and IIY driven
by combustion engines of 9 HP and 13 HP respectively 6
fueled with biogas, are totally functional, and they can cool
down the raw milk on times established by international
regulations.
The solution of moving the angle of advance of the crankshaft
forward by 25° resulted in the improvement of two critical
indicators which was very important for a successful
implementation of cooling systems powered by engines
fueled with biogas. On the one hand, the solution reduced
power losses when the engine was fueled with biogas instead
of gasoline. On the other hand, the engine, when fueled with
biogas, increases its efficiency reducing fuel consumption by
15.7%.
The adaptation of a milk cooling system, covering the
modification of its manufacturer ́s condition permits to work
with biogas as the main fuel option as it is profitable.
Financial data show positive numbers by the end of the
second year. The numbers increase from the savings
originated from the substitution of either payments--the
consumption of electricity through the national electricity
grid or the procurement of gasoline at higher prices-- for the
use of biogas as fuel produced in the same farm. This data is
very important for small and medium farmers located in
regions with or without access to services coming from the
national electricity grid.
VII. REFERENCES
[1] NACIONES UNIDAS, "Repositorio CEPAL.org,"
División de Publicaciones y Servicios Web CEPAL,
4 6
Fixed dome from 13 m3 to 30 m3, and/or tubular systems from 20m3 to
50m3
5
This demand would be generated in a partially stabled cattle system of
15 to 30 cows respectively
Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Brighton. Downloaded on June 07,2020 at 11:33:33 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Enero 2018. [Online]. Available:
https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/4
3236/1/S1800075_es.pdf. [Accessed 24 Junio 2019].
[2] Guía Agropecuaria, "guíagronicaragua.com," Guía
Agropecuaria, 2013. [Online]. Available:
http://guiagronicaragua.com/wp-
content/uploads/2016/11/Una-mirada-alsector-.
[Accessed 24 Junio 2019].
[3] G. Bylund, The Dairy Processing Handbook, Lund:
Tetra Pak Processing System AB, 1995.
[4] C. Bueso, G. Largaespada, E. Valle, P. Úbeda, B.
Núñez and Á. Leiva, "Estudio Desarrollo y Validación
del Enfriamiento de Leche a Partir de Biogás,"
Programa de Desarrollo del Mercado de Biogás en
Nicaragua, Managua, Nicaragua, 2018.
[5] C. Y and B. M, Termodinámica, México: McGRAW-
HILL/INTERAMERICANA EDITORES, S.A. DE
C.V., 2009.
[6] BITZER, "bitzer@bitzer.de//www.bitzer.de," BITZER
Kuhlmaschinenbau GmbH, Abril 2010. [Online].
Available:
https://www.bitzer.de/shared_media/documentation/kp
-510-3.pdf. [Accessed 6 Junio 2019].
[7] G. D, Tecnología del Automóvil, Barcelona:
REVERTÉ, 1980.
[8] K. Rolle, Termodinámica, Mexico: PEARSON
EDUCACIÓN, 2006.
[9] J. Martí Herrero, Biodigestores Familiaries: Guía de
Diseño y Manual de Instalación, La Paz, Bolivia: GTZ,
2008.
VIII. AUTHORS
Alvaro Leiva, First Author
Mr. Álvaro Leiva holds a Bachelor´s Degree
in Industrial Engineering issued by the
National University of Engineering and a
Bachelor´s Degree in Educational
Psychology issued by the National University of Nicaragua.
Currently, he is the Coordinator of the Center for Research
and Innovation with Alternative Energies (CIDTEA) of La
Salle Technological University (ULSA), at Leon, Nicaragua.
As CIDTEA ś Coordinator, he develops and coordinates the
implementation of Scientific Projects for ULSA, and/or with
the contribution of external entities, he also coordinates all
projects related to alternative energies. Since 2004, Mr.
Leiva has had academic responsibilities. He started as
Coordinator of the Automotive Mechanics Department of La
Salle Polytechnical Institute where he taught the course on
Automotive Mechanics until 2015. He has wide experience
in education, mechanics, electricity, and automotive
electronics and related subjects. Since 2016, he is a member
Recommended for 300- and 500-liters tanks
 2019 IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC)

of the faculty of ULSA and has taught several courses for

Industrial Engineering and Educational Psychology.

Norman Reyes, Author

Mr. Norman Reyes holds a Master's degree in
Renewable Energy and Environment
Protection from the National Autonomous
University of Nicaragua (UNAN-León) and a
Post-Graduate Degree in Project Management
of Renewable Energies Projects from the Central American
Institute of Business Administration (INCAE). He currently
serves as Vice-Chancellor of La Salle Technological
University. He has lectured on topics of Solar Energy
Management, Energy Saving Systems, Project Management,
among others.

Alden Jiron, Author

Mr. Alden Jiron holds an MBA from the
University of New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
He is currently the Coordinator of the Business
Center of Natural Resources and Renewable
Energies (CENRENER), at the Technological
University La Salle (ULSA). In his position, he assists the
design and development of Projects, evaluation of business
opportunities, modeling of integrated work processes
(operational, financial, academic), development of guidelines
and management policies, among others. His professional
experience includes the design, development,
implementation and evaluation of rural and urban projects,
both, locally and regionally, for multilateral organizations,
international donors, non-governmental organizations,
governmental sector and private sector. In 2017 and 2018,
Mr. Jiron, as Coordinator of CENRENER, designed, directed
and assisted in the execution of the four projects that ULSA
developed under the CEFF-CAA initiative with the Agency
for International Development of the Government of the
United States of America (USAID).

Authorized licensed use limited to: University of Brighton. Downloaded on June 07,2020 at 11:33:33 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.