Chapter02 Glyn James

2
Laplace Transforms
Exercises 2.2.6
1 1 1 1 s
1(a) L{cosh 2t} = L{ (e2t + e−2t ) = + = 2 , Re(s) > 2
2 2 s−2 s+2 s −4
2
1(b) L{t2 } = , Re(s) > 0
s3
3 1 3s + 1
1(c) L{3 + t} = + 2 = , Re(s) > 0
s s s2
1
1(d) L{te−t } = , Re(s) > −1
(s + 1)2
2(a) 5 (b) -3 (c) 0 (d) 3 (e) 2 (f ) 0

(g) 0 (h) 0 (i) 2 (j) 3
5 3 5s − 3
3(a) L{5 − 3t} = − 2 = , Re(s) > 0
s s s2
6 3 42 6
3(b) L{7t3 − 2 sin 3t} = 7. 4
− 2. 2 = 4 − 2 , Re(s) > 0
s s +9 s s +9
3 2 s 3s − 2 4s
3(c) L{3 − 2t + 4 cos 2t} = − 2 + 4. 2 = 2
+ 2 , Re(s) > 0
s s s +4 s s +4
s
3(d) L{cosh 3t} = , Re(s) > 3
s2 − 9
2
3(e) L{sinh 2t} = , Re(s) > 2
s2 −4

c Pearson Education Limited 2004
78 Glyn James: Advanced Modern Engineering Mathematics, Third edition
5 3 s
3(f ) L{5e−2t + 3 − 2 cos 2t} = + − 2. 2 , Re(s) > 0
s+2 s s +4
4
3(g) L{4te−2t } = , Re(s) > −2
(s + 2)2
4 4
3(h) L{2e−3t sin 2t} = = , Re(s) > −3
(s + 3)2 + 4 s2 + 6s + 13
2
3(i) L{t2 e−4t } = , Re(s) > −4
(s + 4)3
3(j)
36 6 4 2
L{6t3 − 3t2 + 4t − 2} = 4
− 3+ 2−
s s s s
36 − 6s + 4s2 − 2s3
= , Re(s) > 0
s4
s 3 2s + 15
3(k) L{2 cos 3t + 5 sin 3t} = 2. + 5. 2 = 2 , Re(s) > 0
s2 +9 s +9 s +9
3(l)
s
L{cos 2t} =
s2
+4
d s s2 − 4
L{t cos 2t} = − =
ds s2 + 4 (s2 + 4)2
3(m)
d 3 6s
L{t sin 3t} = − 2
= 2
ds s + 9 (s + 9)2
d 6s (s2 + 9)2 6 − 6s(s2 + 9)2 4s
L{t2 sin 3t} = − = −
ds (s2 + 9)2 (s2 + 9)4
18s2 − 54
= 2 , Re(s) > 0
(s + 9)3
2 3s
3(n) L{t2 − 3 cos 4t} = 3
− 2 , Re(s) > 0
s s + 16

Glyn James: Advanced Modern Engineering Mathematics, Third edition 79
3(o)
2 (s + 1) 3
L{t2 e−2t − e−t cos 2t + 3} = 3
+ 2
+
(s + 2) (s + 1) + 4 s
2 s+1 3
= 3
+ 2 + , Re(s) > 0
(s + 2) s + 2s + 5 s
Exercises 2.2.10
1 14 1
1
4(a) L−1 = L−1 − 4 = [e−3t − e−7t ]
(s + 3)(s + 7) s+3 s+7 4
s+5 −1 2
4(b) L−1 = L−1 + = −e−t + 2e3t
(s + 1)(s − 3) s+1 s−3
s−1 4
−1 9
1
3
4
9 4 1 4
4(c) L−1 2
= L − 2
− = − t − e−3t
s (s + 3) s s s+3 9 3 9
2s + 6 s 2
4(d) L−1 2
= L−1 2. 2 2
+ 3. 2 = 2 cos 2t + 3 sin 2t
s +4 s +2 s + 22
4(e)
1 1
−1 1 −1 0 16 16
L = L + −
s2 (s2 + 16) s s2 s2 + 16
1 1 1
= t− sin 4t = [4t − sin 4t]
16 64 64
s+8
−1 (s + 2) + 6

4(f ) L−1 = L = e−2t [cos t + 6 sin t]
s2 + 4s + 5 (s + 2)2 + 1
4(g)
s+1 1 − 18 s + 12
L−1 = L −1 8
+
s2 (s2 + 4s + 8) s (s + 2)2 + 22
1 1 1 (s + 2) − 3(2)
= L−1 . −
8 s 8 (s + 2)2 + 22
1
= [1 − e−2t cos 2t + 3e−2t sin 2t]
8

4(h)
4s 1 1 2
L−1 = L −1
− +
(s − 1)(s + 1)2 s − 1 (s + 1) (s + 1)2
= et − e−t + 2tet
s+7
−1 (s + 1) + 3(2)

4(i) L−1 = L = e−t [cos 2t + 3 sin 2t]
s2 + 2s + 5 (s + 1)2 + 22
4(j)
−1
s2 − 7s + 5 −1
12 3 1
L =L − + 2
(s − 1)(s − 2)(s − 3) s−1 s−2 s−3
1 11
= et − 3e2t + e3t
2 2
4(k)
5s − 7 −2 2s − 1
L−1 = L−1
+
(s + 3)(s2 + 2) s + 3 s2 + 2
√ 1 √
= −2e−3t + 2 cos 2t − √ sin 2t
2
4(l)
−1
s −1
15 1 s−2
L = L −
(s − 1)(s2 + 2s + 2) s − 1 5 s2 + 2s + 2
15 1 (s + 1) − 3
= L−1 −
s − 1 5 (s + 1)2 + 1
1 1
= et − e−t (cos t − 3 sin t)
5 5
s−1 (s + 1) − 2
4(m) L−1 = L−1
= e−t (cos 2t − sin 2t)
s2 + 2s + 5 (s + 1)2 + 22
4(n)
s−1 12 2 3
L−1 = L−1 − + 2
(s − 2)(s − 3)(s − 4) s−2 s−3 s−4
1 3
= e2t − 2e3t + e−4t
2 2

4(o)
3s 3s
L−1 = L−1
(s − 1)(s2 − 4) (s − 1)(s − 2)(s + 2)
−1 3 1
= L−1 + 2 − 2
s−1 s−2 s+2
3 1
= −et + e2t − e−2t
2 2
4(p)
9 1
36 −1 4 2s 2s
L−1 2 2
= L − 2
+ 2
s(s + 1)(s + 9) s s +1 s +9
9 1
= 4 − cos t + cos 3t
2 2
4(q)
2s2 + 4s + 9 9 7s + 9
L−1 2
= L−1 − 3 2
(s + 2)(s + 3s + 3) s + 2 (s + 2 ) + 3/4
√ √
−1
9 7(s + 32 ) − 3. 3/2
=L − √
s+2 (s + 32 )2 + ( 3/2)2
√ √
3 3 √ 3
= 9e−2t − e− 2 t 7 cos e2t − 3 sin t
2 2
4(r)
1 19 1 1 1
90 s + 9

L−1 2
= L −1
− 10
− 2
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 2s + 10) s + 1 s + 2 s + 2s + 10
1 1
−1 9 10 1 s + 10
=L − −
s + 1 s + 2 90 (s + 1)2 + 32
1 1
−1 9 10 1 (s + 1) + 3(3)
=L − −
s + 1 s + 2 90 (s + 1)2 + 32
1 1 1
= e−t − e−2t − e−t (cos 3t + 3 sin 3t)
9 10 90

Exercises 2.3.5
5(a)
1 2s + 5
(s + 3)X(s) = 2 + =
s+2 s+2
2s + 5 1 1
X(s) = = +
(s + 2)(s + 3) s+2 s+3
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e−2t + e−3t
5(b)
2 s2 + 6
(3s − 4)X(s) = 1 + =
s2 + 4 s2 + 4
35 3 4
s2 + 6 26 26 s + 26
X(s) = = −
(3s − 4)(s2 + 4) 3s − 4 s2 + 4
35 4 t 3 2
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e 3 − (cos 2t + sin 2t)
78 26 3
5(c)
1
(s2 + 2s + 5)X(s) =
s
1
1 5 1 s+2
X(s) = = − ·
s(s2 + 2s + 5) s 5 s2 + 2s + 5
1
1 (s + 1) + 12 (2)
= 5 −
s 5 (s + 1)2 + 22
1 1
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = (1 − e−t cos 2t − e−t sin 2t)
5 2
5(d)
4s 2s2 + 4s + 8
(s2 + 2s + 1)X(s) = 2 + =
s2 + 4 s2 + 4
2s2 + 4s + 8
X(s) =
(s + 1)2 (s2 + 4)
12 6
25 5 1 12s − 32
= + −
(s + 1) (s + 1)2 25 s2 + 4
12 −t 6 −t 12 16
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e + te − cos 2t + sin 2t
25 5 25 25

5(e)
2 s+6
(s2 − 3s + 2)X(s) = 1 + =
s+4 s+4
1 7 4
s+6
X(s) = = 15 − 5 + 3
(s + 4)(s − 1)(s − 2) s+4 s−1 s−2
1 −4t 7 t 4 2t
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e − e + e
15 5 3
5(f )
3
(s2 + 4s + 5)X(s) = (4s − 7) + 16 +
s+2
4s2 + 17s + 21 3 (s + 2) + 1
X(s) = 2
= +
(s + 2)(s + 4s + 5) s + 2 (s + 2)2 + 1
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = 3e−2t + e−2t cos t + e−2t sin t
5(g)
5(2)
(s2 + s − 2)X(s) = s + 1 +
(s + 1)2 + 4
s3 + 3s2 + 7s + 15
X(s) =
(s + 2)(s − 1)(s2 + 2s + 5)
− 13 13
12
1 5
4s − 4
= + +
s + 2 s − 1 s2 + 2s + 5
− 13 13
12 1 (s + 1) − 3(2)
= + +
s + 2 s − 1 4 (s + 1)2 + 22
1 13 1 3
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = − e−2t + et + e−t cos 2t − e−t sin 2t
3 12 4 4

5(h)
3
(s2 + 2s + 3)Y (s) = 1 +
s2
s2 + 3 − 23 1 2 4
3s + 3
Y (s) = 2 2 = + 2+ 2
s (s + 2s + 3) s s s + 2s + 3
1
√
− 23 1 2 (s + 1) − √2 ( 2)
= + 2+ √
s s 3 (s + 1)2 + ( 2)2
2 2 √ 1 √
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = − + t + e−t (cos 2t + √ sin 2t)
3 3 2
5(i)
1 2 1
(s2 + 4s + 4)X(s) = s+2+ 3 +
2 s s+2
s5 + 6s4 + 10s3 + 4s + 8
X(s) =
2s3 (s + 2)3
3 1 1 1 3
8 2 2 8 4 1
= − + + + +
s s2 s3 s+2 (s + 2)2 (s + 2)3
3 1 1 1 3 1
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = − t + t2 + e−2t + te−2t + t2 e−2t
8 2 4 8 4 2
5(j)
1
(9s2 + 12s + 5)X(s) =
s
1 1 4
1 5 5 s + 15
X(s) = = −
9s(s2 + 43 s + 59 ) s (s + 23 )2 + 1
9
1
5 1 [(s + 23 ) + 23 ]
= −
s 5 (s + 23 )2 + ( 13 )2
1 1 −2t 1 1
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = − e 3 (cos t + 2 sin t)
5 5 3 3

5(k)
1 4 −s3 − 6s2 − 16s + 32

(s2 + 8s + 16)X(s) = − s + 1 − 4 + 16· 2 =
2 s + 16 2(s2 + 16)
−s3 − 6s2 − 16s + 32
X(s) =
2(s + 4)2 (s2 + 16)
1
0 1 2s
= + 2
− 2
s + 4 (s + 4) s + 16
1
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = te−4t − cos 4t
2
5(l)
1
(9s2 + 12s + 4)Y (s) = 9(s + 1) + 12 +
s+1
9s2 + 30s + 22
Y (s) =
(3s + 2)2 (s + 1)
1 0 18
= + +
s + 1 3s + 2 (3s + 2)2
2
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = e−t + 2te− 3 t
5(m)
2 1
(s3 − 2s2 − s + 2)X(s) = s − 2 + + 2
s s
s − 2s2 + 2s + 1
3
X(s) = 2
s (s − 1)(s − 2)(s + 1)
5 1 5 2
4 21 12
= + − + − 3
s s2
s−1 s−2 s+1
5 1 5 2
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = + t − et + e2t − e−t
4 2 12 3
5(n)
s
(s3 + s2 + s + 1) = (s + 1) + 1 +
+9s2
3 2 9
s + 2s + 10s + 18 20 1 7s − 25 1 s+9
X(s) = 2 = − −
(s + 9)(s + 1)(s2 + 1) s + 1 16 s2 + 1 80 s2 + 9
9 −t 7 25 1 3
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e − cos t + sin t − cos 3t − sin 3t
20 16 16 80 80

6(a)
1 1
2sX(s) − (2s + 9)Y (s) = − +
2 s+2
(2s + 4)X(s) + (4s − 37)Y (s) = 1
Eliminating X(s)
1 1
[−(2s + 9)(2s + 4) − 2s(4s − 37)]Y (s) = (− + )(2s + 4) − 2s = −3s
2 s+2
3s 1 s
Y (s) = = ·
12s2 − 48s + 36 4 (s − 3)(s − 1)
3 1
1 2
= − 2
4 s−3 s−1
1 3 3t 1 t 3 3t 1 t
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = e − e = e − e
4 2 2 8 8
dx
Eliminating from the two equations
dt
dy
6 + 4x − 28y = −e−2t
dt
1 dy 1 −2t 21 3t 7 t 27 3t 3 t
x(t) = −e−2t + 28y − 6 = −e + e − e − e + e
4 dt 4 4 2 3 4
1 15 3t 11 t 1
i.e. x(t) = e − e − e−2t , y(t) = (3e3t − et )
4 4 4 8
6(b)
5
(s + 1)X(s) + (2s − 1)Y (s) =
+1 s2
1
(2s + 1)X(s) + (3s − 1)Y (s) =
s−1
Eliminating X(s)
5 s+1
[(2s − 1)(2s + 1) − (3s − 1)(s + 1)]Y (s) = (2s + 1) −
+1 s2 s−1
10s + 5 s+1
Y (s) = 2
−
s(s + 1)(s − 2) s(s − 1)(s − 2)
− 52 5
5 12 2 3
= + 2 − 2 − − + 2
s s−2 s +1 s s−1 s−2
5 5 1 3
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = − + e2t − 5 sin t − + 2et − e2t
2 2 2 2
2t
= −3 + e + 2e − 5 sin t
t

dx
Eliminating dt from the original equations
dy
+ x − y = 10 sin t − et
dt
x(t) = 10 sin t − et − 3 + e2t + 2et − 5 sin t − 2e2t − 2et + 5 cos t
= 5 sin t + 5 cos t − 3 − et − e2t
6(c)
1 3s + 10
(s + 2)X(s) + (s + 1)Y (s) = 3 + =
s+3 s+3
5 4s + 13
5X(s) + (s + 3)Y (s) = 4 + =
s+2 s+2
Eliminating X(s)
15s + 50 −4s2 − 10s + 11

[5(s + 1) − (s + 2)(s + 3)]Y (s) = − (4s + 13) =
s+3 s+3
4s2 + 10s − 11 − 12 9 7
2s − 2
Y (s) = = + 2
(s + 3)(s2 + 1) s+3 s +1
1 9 7
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = − e−3t + cos t − sin t
2 2 2
From the second differential equation
3 27 21 3
5x = 5e−2t + e−3t − cos t + sin t − e−3t
2 2 2 2
9 7
+ sin t + cos t
2 2
x(t) = 3 sin t − 2 cos t + e−2t
6(d)
1 6s − 5
(3s − 2)X(s) + 3sY (s) = 6 + =
s−1 s−1
1 3s + 1
sX(s) + (2s − 1)Y (s) = 3 + =
s s

Eliminating X(s)
s(6s − 5) (3s − 2)(3s + 1)

[3s2 − (3s − 2)(2s − 1)]Y (s) = −
s−1 s
9s2 − 3s − 2 6s2 − 5s
Y (s) = −
s(3s − 1)(s − 2) (s − 1)(3s − 1)(s − 2)
1 18 14
5
= − + + 5
s 3s − 1 s − 2
− 12 9
10
14
− − + 5
s − 1 3s − 1 s − 2
1 9
1
=− + 2 + 2
s s−1 3s − 1
1 3 t
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = −1 + et + e3
2 2
dx
Eliminating from the original equations
dt
1 3 9 t 3 3 t
x(t) = 3 − et − 3 + et + e 3 − et − e 3
2 2 2 2 2
3 t 1
= e 3 − et
2 2
6(e)
3 5s −s2 + 5s + 2
(3s − 2)X(s) + sY (s) = −1 + + =
s2 + 1 s2 + 1 s2 + 1
1 s −s2 + s
2sX(s) + (s + 1)Y (s) = −1 + + =
s2 + 1 s2 + 1 s2 + 1
Eliminating Y (s)
1
[(3s − 2)(s + 1) − 2s2 ]X(s) = [(−s2 + 5s + 2)(s + 1) − (−s2 + s)s]
s2 +1
3s2 + 7s + 2 3s + 1
X(s) = 2
=
(s + 2)(s − 1)(s + 1) (s − 1)(s2 + 1)
2 2s − 1
= − 2
s−1 s +1
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = 2et − 2 cos t + sin t

dy
Eliminating from the original equation
dt
dx
y(t) = −2 sin t − 4 cos t − 2x +
dt
= −2 sin t − 4 cos t − 4et + 4 cos t − 2 sin t + 2et + 2 sin t + cos t
i.e. y(t) = −2et − 2 sin t + cos t, x(t) = 2et − 2 cos t + sin t
6(f )
1 s2 + 1
sX(s) + (s + 1)Y (s) = 1 + =
s2 s2
1 s+1
(s + 1)X(s) + 4sY (s) = 1 + =
s s
Eliminating Y (s)
s2 + 1 (s + 1)2 3s2 − 2s + 3
[4s2 − (s + 1)2 ]X(s) = 4s − =
s2 s s
2
3s − 2s + 3 −3 1 9
X(s) = = − +
s(s − 1)(3s + 1) s s − 1 3s + 1
t
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = −3 + et + 3e− 3
dy
Eliminating from the original equation
dt
1 dx
y= 4t − 1 + x + 3
4 dt
1 t t
= 4t − 1 − 3 + et + 3e− 3 − 3et + 3e− 3
4
1 3 t t
i.e. y(t) = t − 1 − et + e− 3 , x(t) = −3 + et + 3e− 3
2 2
6(g)
12 7 14 + 7s
(2s + 7)X(s) + 3sY (s) = + =
s2 s s2
14 14 14 − 14s
(5s + 4)X(s) − (3s − 6)Y (s) = 2 − =
s s s2

Eliminating Y (s)
1
[(2s + 7)(3s − 6) + (5s + 4)(3s)]X(s) = [(3s − 6)(14 + 7s) + 3s(14 − 14s)]
s2
21
21(s2 + s − 2)X(s) = 21(s + 2)(s − 1)X(s) = 2 (−s2 + 2s − 4)
s
2
−s + 2s − 4
X(s) = 2
s (s + 2)(s − 1)
−1 1 0 2
= + + + 2
s−1 s+2 s s
x(t) = L {X(s)} = −et + e−2t + 2t
−1
dy
dt
dx
6y = 28t − 7 − 11x − 7
dt
= 28t − 7 + 7e + 14e−2t − 14 + 11et − 11e−2t − 22t
t
7 1
giving y(t) = t − + 3et + e−2t , x(t) = −et + e−2t + 2t.
2 2
6(h)
(s2 + 2)X(s) − Y (s) = 4s
−X(s) + (s2 + 2)Y (s) = 2s
Eliminating Y (s)
[(s2 + 2)2 − 1]X(s) = 4s(s2 + 2) + 2s

(s4 + 4s2 + 3)X(s) = 4s3 + 10s
4s3 + 10s 3s s
X(s) =
2 2
= 2 + 2
(s + 1)(s + 3) s +1 s +3
−1
√
x(t) = L {X(s)} = 3 cos t + cos 3t
From the first of the given equations
d2 x √ √
y(t) = 2x + 2
= 6 cos t + 2 cos 3t − 3 cos t − 3 cos 3t
dt √ √
i.e. y(t) = 3 cos t − cos 3t, x(t) = 3 cos t − cos 3t

6(i)
35 83
(5s2 + 6)X(s) + 12s2 Y = s + 12 = s
4 4
2 2
35 99
5s X(s) + (16s + 6)Y (s) = s + 16 = s
4 4
Eliminating X(s)
s
[60s4 − (5s2 + 6)(16s2 + 6)]Y (s) =
[83(5s2 ) − 99(5s2 + 6)]
4
s
4
[−20s − 126s − 36]Y (s) = [−80s2 − 594]
2
4
s(40s2 + 297)
Y (s) =
4(s2 + 6)(10s2 + 3)
− 14 s 25
2 s
= 2 +
s + 6 10s2 + 3

1 √ 5 3
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = − cos 6t + cos t
4 4 10
d2 x
dt2

d2 y 15 3 3 3 √
3x = 3y + 3 2 = − cos t + − + 3 cos 6t
dt 4 4 10 4

3 3 √ 5 3 1 √
i.e. x(t) = cos t + cos 6t, x(t) = cos t − cos 6t.
10 4 4 10 4
6(j)
(2s2 − s + 9)X(s) − (s2 + s + 3)Y (s) = 2(s + 1) − 1 = 2s + 1
(2s2 + s + 7)X(s) − (s2 − s + 5)Y (s) = 2(s + 1) + 1 = 2s + 3
Subtract
1
(−2s + 2)X(s) − (2s − 2)Y (s) = −2 ⇒ X(s) + Y (s) =
s−1
⇒ x(t) + y(t) = et (i)
Add
(4s2 + 16)X(s) − (2s + 8)Y (s) = 4(s + 1)

2(s + 1)
2X(s) − Y (s) = 2 ⇒ 2x(t) − y(t)
s +4
= 2 cos 2t + sin 2t (ii)

Then from (i) and (ii)
1 t 2 1 2 2 1
x(t) = e + cos 2t + sin 2t, y(t) = et − cos 2t − sin 2t
3 3 3 3 3 3
Exercises 2.4.3
7 1µF = 10−6 F so 50µ = 5.105 F

Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the left hand loop

1 di1 di2
i1 dt + 2 − = E. sin 100t
5.105 dt dt
Taking Laplace transforms
2.104 100
I1 (s) + 2s[I1 (s) − I2 (s)] = E. 2
s s + 104
50s
(104 + s2 )I1 (s) − s2 I2 (s) = E. 2 (i)
s + 104
Applying Kirchhoff’s law to the right hand loop
di1 di2
100i2 (t) − 2 − =0
dt dt
which on taking Laplace transforms gives
sI1 (s) = (50 + s)I2 (s) (ii)
Substituting in (i)
50s2
(104 + s2 )(50 + s)I2 (s) − s2 I2 (s) = E.
s2 + 104
2 4 Es2
(s + 200s + 10 )I2 (s) = 2
s + 104
s2
I2 (s) = E 2
(s + 104 )(s + 100)2
s(50 + s)
then from (ii) I1 (s) = E 2
(s + 104 )(s + 100)2

Expanding in partial functions
1
− 200 1 1
2 200 s
I2 (s) = E + +
s + 100 (s + 100)2 s2 + 104
1 −100t 1 −100t 1
i2 (t) = L−1 {I2 (s)} = E − e + te + cos 100t
200 2 200
8 Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the primary and secondary circuits

respectively gives
di1 di2
2i1 + +1 = 10 sin t
dt dt
di2 di1
2i2 + 2 + =0
dt dt
10
(s + 2)I1 (s) + sI2 (s) =
s2 +1
sI1 (s) + 2(s + 1)I2 (s) = 0
Eliminating I1 (s)
10s
[s2 − 2(s + 1)(s + 2)]I2 (s) =
s2 + 1
10s 10s
I2 (s) = − =− 2
(s2 2
+ 1)(s + 7s + 6) (s + 1)(s + 6)(s + 1)
12 25
−1 s + 35
=− + 37 + 37 2 37
s+1 s+6 s +1
12 −6t 25 35
i2 (t) = L−1 {I2 (s)} = e−t − e − cos t − sin t
37 37 37
9 Applying Kirchhoff’s law to the left and right hand loops gives

d
(i1 + i2 ) + (i1 + i2 ) + 1 i1 dt = E0 = 10
dt

di2
i2 + − 1 i1 dt = 0
dt

Applying Laplace transforms
1 10
(s + 1)I1 (s) + (s + 1)I2 (s) + I1 (s) =
s s
1
(s + 1)I2 (s) − I1 (s) = 0 ⇒ I1 (s) = s(s + 1)I2 (s) (i)
s
Substituting back in the first equation
10
s(s + 1)2 I2 (s) + (s + 1)I2 (s) + (s + 1)I2 (s) =
s
10
(s2 + s + 2)I2 (s) =
s(s + 1)
10
I2 (s) =
s(s + 1)(s2 + s + 2)
Then from (i)
10 10
I1 (s) = = 1 7
s2
+s+2 (s + 2 )2 + 4
√
20 1 7
i1 (t) = L−1 {I1 (s)} = √ e− 2 t sin t
7 2
10 Applying Newton’s law to the motion of each mass
ẍ1 = 3(x2 − x1 ) − x1 = 3x2 − 4x1

ẍ2 = −9x2 − 3(x2 − x1 ) = −12x2 + 3x1
giving
ẍ1 + 4x1 − 3x2 = 0, x1 (0) = −1, x2 (0) = 2
ẍ2 + 12x2 − 3x1 = 0
(s2 + 4)X1 (s) − 3X2 (s) = −s

−3X1 (s) + (s2 + 12)X2 (s) = 2s

Eliminating X2 (s)
[(s2 + 4)(s2 + 12) − 9]X1 (s) = −s(s2 + 12) + 6s

(s2 + 13)(s2 + 3)X1 (s) = −s3 − 6s
3 7
−s3 − 6s − 10 s 10 s
X1 (s) = = −
(s2 + 13)(s2 + 3) s2 + 3 s2 + 13
3 √ 7 √
x1 (t) = L−1 {X1 (s)} = − cos 3t − cos 13t
10 10
From the first differential equation
3x2 = 4x1 + ẍ1

6 √ 14 √ 9 √ 91 √
= − cos 3t − cos 13t + cos 3t + cos 13t
5 5 10 10
1 √ √
x2 (t) = [21 cos 13t − cos 3t]
10
1 √ √ 1 √ √
Thus x1 (t) = − (3 cos 3t + 7 cos 13t), x2 (t) = [21 cos 13t − cos 3t]
10 √ √ 10
Natural frequencies are 13 and 3.
11 The equation of motion is

M ẍ + bẋ + Kx = M g ; x(0) = 0 , ẋ(0) = 2gh
The problem is then an investigative one where students are required to investigate
for different h values either analytically or by simulation.
12 By Newton’s second law of motion
M2 ẍ2 = −K2 x2 − B1 (ẋ2 − ẋ1 ) + u2

M1 ẍ1 = B1 (ẋ2 − ẋ1 ) − K1 x1 + u1
Taking Laplace transforms and assuming quiescent initial state
(M2 s2 + B1 s + K2 )X2 (s) − B1 sX1 (s) = U2 (s)

−B1 sX2 (s) + (M1 s2 + B1 s + K1 )X1 (s) = U1 (s)

Eliminating X1 (s)
[(M1 s2 + B1 s + K1 )(M2 s2 + B1 s + K2 ) − B12 s2 ]X2 (s)

= (M1 s2 + B1 s + K1 )U2 (s) + B1 sU1 (s)
B1 s (M1 s2 + B1 s + K1 )
i.e. X2 (s) = U1 (s) + U2 (s)
∆ ∆
B1 s (M1 s2 + B1 s + K1 )
and x2 (t) = L−1 {X2 (s)} = L−1 U1 (s) + U2 (s)
∆ ∆
Likewise eliminating X2 (t) from the original equation gives
(M1 s + B1 s + K2 ) B1 s
x1 (t) = L−1 {X1 (s)} = L−1 U1 (s) + U2 (s)
∆ ∆
Exercises 2.5.7
13
f (t) = tH(t) − tH(t − 1)
= tH(t) − (t − 1)H(t − 1) − 1H(t − 1)
Thus, using theorem 2.4
1 −s 1 −s 1 −s 1 −s
L{f (t)} = − e − e = (1 − e ) − e
s2 s2 s2 s
14(a)
f (t) = 3t2 H(t) − (3t2 − 2t + 3)H(t − 4) − (2t − 8)H(t − 6)

= 3t2 H(t) − [3(t − 4)2 + 22(t − 4) + 43]H(t − 4) − [2(t − 6) + 4]H(t − 6)
Thus
6
L{f (t)} = − e−4s L[3t2 + 22t + 43] − e−6s L[2t + 4]
s3
6 6 22 43 −4s 2 4
= 3− 3+ 2 + e − 2 + e−6s
s s s 5 s s

14(b)
f (t) = tH(t) + (2 − 2t)H(t − 1) − (2 − t)H(t − 2)
= tH(t) − 2(t − 1)H(t − 1) − (t − 2)H(t − 2)
Thus
1
L{f (t)} = 2
− 2e−s L{t} + e−2s L{t}
s
1
= 2 [1 − 2e−s + e−2s ]
s
e−5s 1
15(a) L−1 4
= L−1 {e−5s F (s)} where F (s) = and by the first
(s − 2) (s − 2)4
1
shift theorem f (t) = L−1 {F (s)} = t3 e2t .
6
Thus by the second shift theorem
e−5s
L−1 = f (t − 5)H(t − 5)
(s − 2)4
1
= (t − 5)3 e2(t−5) H(t − 5)
6
3e−2s
15(b) L−1 = L−1 {e−2s F (s)} where
(s + 3)(s + 1)
3 − 23 3
F (s) = = + 2
(s + 3)(s + 1) s+3 s+1
3 3
f (t) = L−1 {F (s)} = e−t − e−3t
2 2
3e−2s
so L−1 = f (t − 2)H(t − 2)
(s + 3)(s + 1)
3
= [e−(t−2) − e−3(t−2) ]H(t − 2)
2
s+1
15(c) L−1 e−s
= L−1 {e−s F (s)} where
s2 (s2 + 1)
s+1 1 1 s+1
F (s) = = + 2− 2
s2 (s2
+ 1) s s s +1
f (t) = L−1 {F (s)} = 1 + t − cos t − sin t

so
s+1
L−1 e−s = f (t − 1)H(t − 1)
s2 (s2 + 1)
= [1 + (t − 1) − cos(t − 1) − sin(t − 1)]H(t − 1)
= [t − cos(t − 1) − sin(t − 1)]H(t − 1)
s+1
15(d) L−1 e−πs
= L−1 {e−πs F (s)} where
s2 + s + 1
√
s+1 (s + 12 ) + √1 ( 3 )
3 2
F (s) = = √
(s2
+ s + 1) (s + 1 2
) + ( 3 2
2 2 )
√ √
1 3 1 3
f (t) = e− 2 t cos t + √ sin t
2 3 2
so
√ √
s+1 1 −
1
(t−π)
√ 3 3
L−1 e−πs
= √ e 2 3 cos (t − π) + sin (t − π) .H(t − π)
s2 + s + 1 3 2 2
s
15(e) L−1 e−4πs/5
= L−1 {e−4πs/5 F (s)} where
s2 + 25
s
F (s) = ⇒ f (t) = L−1 {F (s)} = cos 5t
s2 + 25
so
s 4π 4π
L−1 e−4πs/5 = f t − H t−
s2 + 25 5 5
4π
= cos(5t − 4π)H t −
5
4π
= cos 5t H t −
5
e−s (1 − e−s )
15(f ) L−1 = L−1 {(e−s − e−2s )F (s)} where
s2 (s2 + 1)
1 1 1
F (s) = = − 2
s2 (s2 + 1) s2 s +1
−1
f (t) = L {F (s)} = t − sin t

so
L−1 {(e−s − e−2s )F (s)} =f (t − 1)H(t − 1) − f (t − 2)H(t − 2)
=[(t − 1) − sin(t − 1)]H(t − 1)
− [(t − 2) − sin(t − 2)]H(t − 2)
dx 1
16 + x = f (t), L{f (t)} = 2 (1 − e−s − se−s )
dt s
Taking Laplace transforms with x(0) = 0
1 (1 + s)
(s + 1)X(s) = 2
− e−s
s s2
1 1
X(s) = 2 − e−s 2
s (s + 1) s
1 1 1
=− + 2 + − e−s L{t}
s s s+1
Taking inverse transforms
x(t) = −1 + e−t + t − (t − 1)H(t − 1)

= e−t + (t − 1)[1 − H(t − 1)]
or x(t) = e−t + (t − 1) for t ≤ 1
x(t) = e−t for t ≥ 1
Sketch of response is

d2 x dx
17 + + x = g(t), x(0) = 1, ẋ(0) = 0
dt2 dt
1
with L{g(t)} = (1 − 2e−s + e−2s )
s2
1
(s2 + s + 1)X(s) = s + 1 + (1 − 2e−s + e−2s )
s2
s+1 1
X(s) = + 2 2 (1 − 2e−s + e−2s )
(s2
+ s + 1) s (s + s + 1)
(s + 1) 1 1 s
= 2 + − + 2+ 2 [1 − 2e−s + e−2s ]
(s + s + 1) s s s +s+1
√ √
(s + 12 ) + √13 ( 23 ) 1 1 (s + 1
2 ) − √1 ( 3 )
3 2

= √ + − + 2+ √ [1 − 2e−s + e−2s ]
3 s s 3
(s + 12 )2 + ( )2 (s + 12 )2 + ( )2
2 2
√ √
1 3 1 3
−1 −2t
x(t) = L {X(s)} = e cos t + √ sin t
2 3 2
√ √
1 3 1 3
+ t − 1 + e− 2 t cos t − √ sin t
2 3 2
√
1
− 2 (t−1)
3
− 2H(t − 1) t − 2 + e cos (t − 1)
2
√
1 3
− √ sin (t − 1)
3 2
√
1
− 2 (t−2)
3
+ H(t − 2) t − 3 + e cos (t − 2)
2
√
1 3
− √ sin (t − 2)
3 2
i.e.
1 √
x(t) = 2e− 2 t cos 3
+t−1
2 t
√ √
1
− 2 (t−1)
3 1 3
− 2H(t − 1) t − 2 + e cos (t − 1) − √ sin (t − 1)
2 3 2
√ √
1
− 2 (t−2)
3 1 3
+ H(t − 2) t − 3 + e cos (t − 2) − √ sin (t − 2)
2 3 2

18
π π π
f (t) = sin tH t − = cos t − H t−
2 2 2
π
since cos t − = sin t.
2
Taking Laplace transforms with x(0) = 1, ẋ(0) = −1
π π
(s2 + 3s + 2)X(s) = s + 2 + L cos t − H t−
2 2
π
= s + 2 + e− 2 s L{cos t}
π s
= s + 2 + e− 2 s · 2
s +1
1 π s
X(s) = + e− 2 s
s+1 (s + 1)(s + 2)(s2 + 1)
1 π −1 2
1 s+3
= + e− 2 s 2
+ 5 + · 2
s+1 s + 1 s + 2 10 s + 1
1 π 1 2 1
= + e− 2 s L − e−t + e−2t + (cos t + 3 sin t)
s+1 2 5 10

1 π 2 π 1 π
so x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e−t + − e−(t− 2 ) + e−2(t− 2 ) + (cos t −
2 5 10 2

π π
+ 3 sin t − ) H t−
2 2
1 π π
= e−t + sin t − 3 cos t + 4eπ e−2t − 5e 2 e−t H t −
10 2
19
f (t) = 3H(t) − (8 − 2t)H(t − 4)
= 3H(t) + 2(t − 4)H(t − 4)
3 3 2
L{f (t)} = + 2e−4s L{t} = + 2 e−4s
s s s
Taking Laplace transforms with x(0) = 1, ẋ(0) = 0
3 2
(s2 + 1)X(s) = s + + 2 e−4s
s s
s 3 2
X(s) = 2 + 2
+ 2 2 e−4s
s + 1 s(s + 1) s (s + 1)
s 3 3 1 1 −4s
= 2 + − 2 +2 2 − 2 e
s +1 5 s +1 s s +1
3 2
= − 2 + 2e−4s L{t − sin t}
5 s +1

Thus taking inverse transforms
x(t) = 3 − 2 cos t + 2(t − 4 − sin(t − 4))H(t − 4)
20
θ̈0 + 6θ̇0 + 10θ0 = θi (1)
θi (t) = 3H(t) − 3H(t − a)
3 3 3
so L{θi } = − e−as = (1 − e−as )
s s s
Taking Laplace transforms in (1) with θ0 = θ̇0 = 0 at t = 0
3
(s2 + 6s + 10)Φ0 (s) = (1 − e−as )
s
1
Φ0 (s) = 3(1 − e−as )
s(s2 + 6s + 10)
3 1 (s + 3) + 3
= (1 − e−as ) −
10 s (s + 3)2 + 1
3
= (1 − e−as )L 1 − e−3t cos t − 3e−3t sin t
10
Thus taking inverse transforms
3
θ0 (t) = [1 − e−3t cos t − 3e−3t sin t]H(t)
10
3
− [1 − e−3(t−a) cos(t − a) − 3e−3(t−a) sin(t − a)]H(t − a)
10
If T > a then H(T ) = 1, H(T − a) = 1 giving
3 −3T
θ0 (T ) = − [e cos T − e−3(T −a) cos(T − a)]
10
3
− [3e−3T sin T − 3e−3(T −a) sin(T − a)]
10
3 −3T
=− e {cos T + 3 sin T − e3a [cos(T − a) + 3 sin(T − a)]}
10
21
θi (t) = f (t) = (1 − t)H(t) − (1 − t)H(t − 1)
= (1 − t)H(t) + (t − 1)H(t − 1)

so
1 1
L{θi (t)} = − 2 + e−s L{t}
s s
1 1 1 s−1 1
= − 2 + 2 e−s = 2
+ 2 e−s
s s s s s
Then taking Laplace transforms, using θ0 (0) = θ̇0 (0) = 0
s−1 1 −s
(s2 + 8s + 16)Φ0 (s) = + e
s2 s2
s−1 −s
1
Φ0 (s) = + e
s2 (s + 4)2 s2 (s + 4)2
1 3 2 3 10 e−s 3 2 1 2
= 2 − 2− − + + + +
s s s s + 4 (s + 4)2 32 s s2 s + 4 (s + 4)2
which on taking inverse transforms gives
1
θ0 (t) = L−1 {Φ0 (s)} = [3 − 2t − 3e−4t − 10te−4t ]
32
1
+ [−1 + 2(t − 1) + e−4(t−1) + 2(t − 1)e−4(t−1) ]H(t − 1)
32
1
= [3 − 2t − 3e−4t − 10te−4t ]
32
1
+ [2t − 3 + (2t − 1)e−4(t−1) ]H(t − 1)
32
22
e(t) = e0 H(t − t1 ) − e0 H(t − t2 )

e0
L{e(t)} = (e−st1 − e−st2 )
s

By Kirchhoff’s second law current in the circuit is given by

1
Ri + idt = e
C
which on taking Laplace transforms
1 e0
RI(s) + I(s) = (e−st1 − e−st2 )
Cs s
e0 C
I(s) = (e−st1 − e−st2 )
RCs + 1
e0 /R −st1
= 1 (e − e−st2 )
s + RC
e0 /R −st1 e0 /R −st2
= 1 e − 1 e
s + RC s + RC
then
i(t) = L−1 {I(s)}
e0 −(t−t1 )/RC
= e H(t − t1 ) − e−(t−t2 )/RC H(t − t2 )
R
23
Sketch over one period as shown and

readily extended to 0 ≤ t < 12 .

f1 (t) = 3tH(t) − (3t − 6)H(t − 2) − 6H(t − 4)

= 3tH(t) − 3(t − 2)H(t − 2) − 6H(t − 4)
3 3 6
L{f1 (t)} = F1 (s) = 2 − 2 e−2s − e−4s
s s s
Then by theorem 2.5
1
L{f (t)} = F (s) = F1 (s)
1 − e−4s
1
= 2 (3 − 3e−2s − 6se−4s )
s (1 − e−4s )
24 Take
K
f1 (t) = t, 0<t<T
T
= 0, t>T
K Kt K K
then f1 (t) = tH(t) − H(t − T ) = tH(t) − (t − T )H(t − T ) − KH(t − T )
T T T T
K K K K K
L{f1 (t)} = F1 (s) = 2
− e−sT 2 − e−sT = 2
(1 − e−sT ) − e−sT
Ts Ts s Ts s
Then by theorem 2.5
1 K K e−sT
L{f (t)} = F (s) = F 1 (s) = −
1 − e−sT T s2 s 1 − e−sT
Exercises 2.5.12
25(a)
2s2 + 1 10s + 11 9 19
=2− =2+ −
(s + 2)(s + 3) (s + 2)(s + 3) s+2 s+3
2
2s + 1
L−1 = 2δ(t) + 9e−2t − 19e−3t
(s + 2)(s + 3)

25(b)
s2 − 1 5
2
=1− 2
s +4 s +4
s − 1
2
5
L−1 2 = δ(t) − sin 2t
s +4 2
25(c)
s2 + 2 2s + 3
2
=1− 2
s + 2s + 5 s + 2s + 5
2(s + 1) + 12 (2)
=1−
(s + 1)2 + s2
s2 + 2 1
L−1 2 = δ(t) − e−t 2 cos 2t + sin 2t
s + 2s + 5 2
2
26(a) (s2 + 7s + 12)X(s) = + e−2s
s
2 1 −2s
X(s) = + e
s(s + 4)(s + 3) (s + 4)(s + 3)
1 2 1 1
6 3 1 −2s
= − + 2 + − e
s s+3 s+4 s+3 s+4
1 2 −3t 1 −4t −3(t−2)
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = − e + e + e − e−4(t−2) H(t − 2)
6 3 2
26(b)
(s2 + 6s + 13)X(s) = e−2πs
1
X(s) = e−2πs
(s + 3)2 + 22
1
= e−2πs L e−3t sin 2t
2
1
so x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e−3(t−2π) sin 2(t − 2π).H(t − 2π)
2
1
= e6π e−3t sin 2t.H(t − 2π)
2

26(c)
(s2 + 7s + 12)X(s) = s + 8 + e−3s
s+8 1 −3s
X(s) = + e
(s + 4)(s + 3) (s + 4)(s + 3)
5 4 1 1 −3s
= − + − e
s+3 s+4 s+3 s+4
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = 5e−3t − 4e−4t + [e−3(t−3) − e−4(t−3) ]H(t − 3)
27(a)
Generalised derivative is
f (t) = g (t) − 43δ(t − 4) − 4δ(t − 6)
where

 6t, 0 ≤ t < 4

g (t) = 2, 4 ≤ t < 6


0, t≥6

27(b)

 1, 0 ≤ t < 1

f (t) = g (t) = −1, 1 ≤ t < 2

0, t≥2
27(c)
f (t) = g (t) + 5δ(t) − 6δ(t − 2) + 15δ(t − 4)
where 
 2, 0≤t<2

g (t) = −3, 2≤t<4

2t − 1, t≥4

28
(s2 + 7s + 10)X(s) = 2 + (3s + 2)U (s)
1 5s + 6
= 2 + (3s + 2) =
s+2 s+2
5s + 6
X(s) =
(s + 2)2 (s + 5)
19 4 19
9 3 9
= − −
s+2 (s + 2)2 (s + 5)
19 −2t 4 −2t 19 −5t

x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e − te − e
9 3 9

∞
29 f (t) = δ(t − nT )
n=0
Thus
∞
∞

F (s) = L{f (t)} = L{δ(t − nT )} = e−snT
n=0 n=0
This is an infinite GP with first term 1 and common ratio e−sT and therefore
having sum (1 − e−sT )−1 . Hence
1
F (s) =
1 − e−sT
Assuming zero initial conditions and taking Laplace transforms the response of the
harmonic oscillator is given by
1
(s2 + w2 )X(s) = F (s) =
1 − e−sT
∞
−snT 1
X(s) = e
n=0
s2 + w2
1
= [1 + e−sT + e−2sT + . . .]L sin wt
w
1
giving x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = [sin wt + H(t − T ). sin w(t − T ) + H(t − 2T ).
w
sin w(t − 2T ) + . . .]
1 ∞
or x(t) = H(t − nT ) sin w(t − nT ) .
w n=0

29(a)
∞
π 1 nπ
T = ; x(t) = H t− sin(wt − nπ)
w w n=0 w

1 π 2π
= sin wt − sin wt. H t − + sin wt. H t − + ...
w w w
and a sketch of the response is as follows
29(b)
∞
2π 1 2πn
T = ; x(t) = H t− sin(wt − 2πn)
w w n=0 w

1 2π 4π
= sin wt + sin wt.H t − + sin wt.H t − + ...
w w w
and the sketch of the response is as follows

30 The charge q on the LCR circuit is determined by
d2 q dq 1
L 2 + R + q = e(t)
dt dt C
where e(t) = Eδ(t), q(0) = q̇(0) = 0 .

1
Ls2 + Rs + Q(s) = L{Eδ(t)} = E
C
E/L E/L
Q(s) = 1
= 2
s2 +R
Ls + LC (s + R 21
2L )
+ ( LC − 4L
R
2)

E/L R 1 R2
= , µ = , η = −
(s + µ)2 + η 2 2L LC 4L2
E −µt
Thus q(t) = e sin ηt
Lη
E −µt
and current i(t) = q̇(t) = e (η cos ηt − µ sin ηt)
Lη
Exercises 2.5.14
31
M 1
Load W (x) = H(x) + W δ x − − R1 δ(x) , where R1 = (M + W )
2 2
so the force function is
M M + W
W (x) = H(x) + W δ x − − δ(x)
2 2
having Laplace transform
M (M + W )
W (s) = + W e−s/2 −
s 2

Since the beam is freely supported at both ends
y(0) = y2 (0) = y() = y2 () = 0
and the transformed equation (2.64) of the text becomes

1 M W −s/2 M + W 1 y1 (0) y3 (0)
Y (s) = + e − + + 4
EI s5 s4 2 s4 s2 s
Taking inverse transforms gives

1 1 M 4 1 3 1 3
y(x) = x + W (x − ) · H x − − (M + W )x
EI 24 6 2 2 12
1
+ y1 (0)x + y3 (0)x3
6

for x > 2

1 1 M 4 1 3 1 1
y(x) = x + W x− − (M + W )x + y1 (0)x + y3 (0)x3
3
EI 24 6 2 12 6

1 1M 2 1
y2 (x) = x +W x− − (M + W )x + y3 (0)x
EI 2 2 2
y2 () = 0 then gives y3 (0) = 0 and y() = 0 gives

1 M 3 W 3 1 3 1 3
0= + − M − W + y1 (0)
EI 24 24 12 2

1 1 2 1 2
y1 (0) = M + W
EI 24 16

1 2 4 3 3 2
so y(x) = M x + 8W (x − ) H x − − 4(M + W )x + (2M + 3W ) x
48EI 2 2

32
Load W (x) = w(H(x − x1 ) − H(x − x2 )) − R1 δ(x), R1 = w(x2 − x1 )

so the force function is
W (x) = w(H(x − x1 ) − H(x − x2 )) − w(x2 − x1 )δ(x)

1 −x1 s 1 −x2 s
W (s) = w e − e − w(x2 − x1 )
s s
with corresponding boundary conditions
y(0) = y1 (0) = 0, y2 () = y3 () = 0
The transformed equation (2.64) of the text becomes

w 1 −x1 s 1 −x2 s (x2 − x1 ) y2 (0) y3 (0)
Y (s) = 5
e − 5e − 4
+ 3 + 4
EI s s s s s
w 1 1
y(x) = (x − x1 )4 H(x − x1 ) − (x − x2 )4 H(x − x2 )
EI 24 24
1 3
x2 x3
− (x2 − x1 )x + y2 (0) + y3 (0)
6 2 6
For x > x2
w 1 1 1 x2 x3
y(x) = (x − x1 )4 − (x − x2 )4 − (x2 − x1 )x3 + y2 (0) + y3 (0)
EI 24 24 6 2 6
w 1 1
y2 (x) = (x − x1 )2 − (x − x2 )2 − (x2 − x1 )x + y2 (0) + y3 (0)x
EI 24 2
w
y3 (x) = (x − x1 ) − (x − x2 ) − (x2 − x1 ) + y3 (0) ⇒ y3 (0) = 0
EI

The boundary condition y2 () = 0 then gives
w 1 2 1
0= ( − 2x1 + x21 ) − (2 − 2x2 + x22 ) − x2 + x1 + y2 (0)
EI 2 2
w 2 2
⇒ y2 (0) = (x − x1 )
2EI 2
w
y(x) = (x − x1 )4 H(x − x1 ) − (x − x2 )4 H(x − x2 ) − 4(x2 − x1 )x3
24EI
+ 6(x22 − x21 )x2
When x1 = 0, x2 = , max deflection at x =
w 4 4 4 w4
ymax = { − 4 + 6 } =
24EI 8EI
33
Load W (x) = W δ(x − b) − R1 δ(x), R1 = W so the force function is
W (x) = W δ(x − b) − W δ(x)

W (s) = W e−bs − W
with corresponding boundary conditions
y(0) = y1 (0) = 0, y2 () = y3 () = 0
The transformed equation (2.64) of the text becomes
1 W −bs W y2 (0) y3 (0)

Y (s) = − e − 4 + 3 + 4
EI s4 s s s
W 1 3 1 3 x2 x3
y(x) = − (x − b) H(x − b) − x + y2 (0) + y3 (0)
EI 6 6 2 6

For x > b
W 1 1 x2 x3
y(x) = − (x − b)3 − x3 + y2 (0) + y3 (0)
EI 6 6 2 6
W
y2 (x) = − (x − b) − x + y2 (0) + y3 (0)x
EI
W
y3 (x) = − 1 − 1 + y3 (0) ⇒ y3 (0) = 0
EI
Using the boundary condition y2 () = 0
W Wb
0=− (−h) + y2 (0) ⇒ y2 (0) = −
EI EI
giving
W x3 (x − b)3 bx2
y(x) = − H(x − b) −
EI 6 6 2

 W x2
− (3b − x), 0 < x ≤ b
= 6EI
2

 − W b (3x − b), b < x ≤
6EI
Exercises 2.6.5
34(a) Assuming all the initial conditions are zero taking Laplace transforms
gives
(s2 + 2s + 5)X(s) = (3s + 2)U (s)
so that the system transfer function is given by
X(s) 3s + 2
G(s) = = 2
U (s) s + 2s + 5

34(b) The characteristic equation of the system is
s2 + 2s + 5 = 0
and the system is of order 2.
34(c) The transfer function poles are the roots of the characteristic equation
s2 + 2s + 5 = 0
which are s = −1 ± j . That is, the transfer function has single poles at s = −1 + j
and s = −1 − j .
The transfer function zeros are determined by equating the numerator polynomial
2
to zero; that is, a single zero at s = − .
3
35 Following the same procedure as for Exercise 34
35(a) The transfer function characterising the system is
s3 + 5s + 6
G(s) =
s3 + 5s2 + 17s + 13

35(b) The characteristic equation of the system is
s3 + 5s2 + 17s + 13 = 0
and the system is of order 3.
35(c) The transfer function poles are given by
s3 + 5s2 + 17s + 13 = 0
i.e. (s + 1)(s2 + 4s + 13) = 0
That is, the transfer function has simple poles at
s = −1, s = −2 + j3, s = −2 − j3
The transfer function zeros are given by
s2 + 5s + 6 = 0
(s + 3)(s + 2) = 0
i.e. zeros at s = −3 and s = −2 .

36(a) Poles at (s + 2)(s2 + 4) = 0 ; i.e. s = −2, s = +2j, s = −j.

Since we have poles on the imaginary axis in the s-plane, system is marginally
stable.
36(b) Poles at (s + 1)(s − 1)(s + 4) = 0 ; i.e. s = −1, s = 1, s = −4 .

Since we have the pole s = 1 in the right hand half of the s-plane, the system is
unstable.
36(c) Poles at (s + 2)(s + 4) = 0 ; i.e. s = −2, s = −4 .

Both the poles are in the left hand half of the plane so the system is stable.
√
2 2 1 3
36(d) Poles at (s + s + 1)(s + 1) = 0 ; i.e. s = −1 (repeated), s = − ± j .
2 2
Since all the poles are in the left hand half of the s-plane the system is stable.
√
1 39
36(e) Poles at (s + 5)(s2 − s + 10) = 0 ; i.e. s = −5, s = ± j .
2 2
Since both the complex poles are in the right hand half of the s-plane the system
is unstable.
37(a) s2 − 4s + 13 = 0 ⇒ s = 2 ± j3 .
Thus the poles are in the right hand half s-plane and the system is unstable.
37(b)
5s3 + 13s2 + 31s + 15 = 0
a3 a2 a1 a0
Routh–Hurwitz (R-H) determinants are:

13 5

∆1 = 13 > 0, ∆2 = > 0, ∆3 = 15∆2 > 0
15 31
so the system is stable.

37(c) s3 + s2 + s + 1 = 0
R-H determinants are

1 1
∆1 = 1 > 0, ∆2 = = 0, ∆3 = 1∆2 = 0
1 1
Thus system is marginally stable. This is readily confirmed since the poles are at
s = −1, s = ±j
37(d) 24s4 + 11s3 + 26s2 + 45s + 36 = 0


11 24
∆1 = 11 > 0, ∆2 = <0
45 26
so the system is unstable.
37(e) s3 + 2s2 + 2s + 1 = 0

2 3
∆1 = 2 > 0, ∆2 = = 1 > 0, ∆3 = 1∆2 > 0
1 2
√
1 3
and the system is stable. The poles are at s = −1, s = − ± j confirming the
2 2
result.
d3 x d2 x dx
38 m 3
+ c 2
+K + Krx = 0; m, K, r, c > 0
dt dt dt
∆1 = c > 0

c
∆2 =
m = cK − mKr > 0 provided r < c
Kr K m
∆3 = Kr∆2 > 0 provided ∆2 > 0
c
Thus system stable provided r <
m

39
s4 + 2s2 + (K + 2)s2 + 7s + K = 0
a3 a2 a1 a0
∆1 =| a3 |= 9 > 0

a3 a4 1 3
∆2 = = 2 = 2K − 3 > 0 provided K >
a1 a2 7 K + 2 2

a3 a4 0 2 1
0

∆3 = a1 a2 a3 = 7 K + 2 2 = 10K − 21 > 0 provided K > 2

0 a0 a1 0 K 7
∆4 = K∆3 > 0 provided ∆3 > 0
Thus the system is stable provided K > 2.1 .
40 s2 + 15Ks2 + (2K − 1)s + 5K = 0, K > 0

∆1 = 15K > 0

15K 1
∆2 = = 30K 2 − 20K
5K (2K − 1)
∆3 = 5K∆2 > 0 provided ∆2 > 0
2
Thus system stable provided K(3K − 2) > 0 that is K > , since K > 0 .
3
41(a) Impulse response h(t) is given by the solution of
d2 h dh
2
+ 15 + 56h = 3δ(t)
dt dt
with zero initial conditions. Taking Laplace transforms
(s2 + 15s + 56)H(s) = 3

3 3 3
H(s) = = −
(s + 7)(s + 8) s+7 s+8
so h(t) = L−1 {H(s)} = 3e−7t − 3e−8t
Since h(t) → 0 as t → ∞ the system is stable.

41(b) Following (a) impulse response is given by
(s2 + 8s + 25)H(s) = 1
1
H(s) =
(s + 4)2 + 32
1
so h(t) = L−1 {H(s)} = e−4t sin 3t
3
Since h(t) → 0 as t → ∞ the system is stable.
41(c) Following (a) impulse response is given by
(s2 − 2s − 8)H(s) = 4
4 2 1 2 1
H(s) = = −
(s − 4)(s + 2) 3s−4 3s+2
2
so h(t) = L−1 {H(s)} = (e4t − e−2t )
3
Since h(t) → ∞ as t → ∞ system is unstable.
41(d) Following (a) impulse response is given by
(s2 − 4s + 13)H(s) = 1
1 1
H(s) = =
s2 − 4s + 13 (s − 2)2 + 32
1 2t
so h(t) = L−1 {H(s)} = e sin 3t
3
Since h(t) → ∞ as t → ∞ system is unstable.
dx 7 2
42 Impulse response h(t) = = e−t − 3e−2t + e−4t
dt 3 3
System transfer function G(s) = L{h(t)} ; that is
7 3 2
G(s) = − +
3(s + 1) s + 2 3(s + 4)
s+8
=
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 4)
Note The original unit step response can be reconstructed by evaluating

1
L−1 G(s) .
s

2 3s
43(a) f (t) = 2 − 3 cos t , F (s) = − 2
s s +1
3s2 3
sF (s) = 2 − =2−
2
s +1 1 + s12
Thus lim (2 − 3 cos t) = 2 − 3 = −1

t→0+
3
and lim sF (s) = 2 − = −1 so confirming the i.v. theorem.
s→∞ 1
43(b)
f (t) = (3t − 1)2 = 9t2 − 6t + 1, lim f (t) = 1

t→0+
18 6 1 18 6
F (s) = 3 − 2 + so lim sF (s) = lim − + 1 =1
s s s s→∞ s→∞ s2 s
thus confirming the i.v. theorem.
43(c)
f (t) = t + 3 sin 2t , lim = 0
t→0+
1 6 1 6
F (s) = − 2 so lim sF (s) = lim + =0
s2 s +4 s→∞ s→∞ s s + 4s
thus confirming the i.v. theorem.
44(a)
f (t) = 1 + 3e−t sin 2t , lim f (t) = 1

t→∞
1 6 6s
F (s) = + 2
and lim sF (s) = lim 1 + 2
=1
s (s + 1) + 4 s→0 s→0 (s + 1) + 4
thus confirming the f.v. theorem. Note that sF (s) has its poles in the left half of
the s-plane so the theorem is applicable.

44(b)
f (t) = t2 3e−2t , lim f (t) = 0
t→∞
2 2s
F (s) = and lim sF (s) = lim =0
(s + 2)3 s→0 s→0 (s + 2)3
thus confirming the f.v. theorem. Again note that sF (s) has its poles in the left
half of the s-plane.
44(c)
f (t) = 3 − 2e−3t + e−t cos 2t , lim f (t) = 3
t→∞
3 2 (s + 1)
F (s) = − +
s s + 3 (s + 1)2 + 4
2s s(s + 1)
lim sF (s) = lim 3 − + =3
s→0 s→0 s + 3 (s + 1)2 + 4
confirming the f.v. theorem. Again sF (s) has its poles in the left half of the
s-plane.
45 For the circuit of Example 2.28
3.64 1.22 4.86

I2 (s) = + −
s s + 59.1 s + 14.9
Then by the f.v. theorem
1.22s 4.86s
lim i2 (t) = lim sI2 (s) = lim 3.64 + −
t→∞ s→0 s→0 s + 59.1 s + 14.9
= 3.64
which confirms the answer obtained in Example 2.28. Note that sI2 (s) has all its
poles in the left half of the s-plane.
46 For the circuit of Example 2.29
28s2
sI2 (s) =
(3s + 10)(s + 1)(s2 + 4)
and since it has poles at s = ±j2 not in the left hand half of the s-plane the
f.v. theorem is not applicable.

47 Assuming quiescent initial state taking Laplace transforms gives
4 1
(7s + 5)Y (s) = + +2
s s+3
4 1 2
Y (s) = + +
s(7s + 5) (s + 3)(7s + 5) 7s + 5
4 s 2s
sY (s) = + +
7s + 5 (s + 3)(7s + 5) 7s + 5
By the f.v. theorem
4 s 2s
lim y(t) = lim sF (s) = lim + +
t→∞ s→0 s→0 7s + 5 (s + 3)(7s + 5) 7s + 5
4
=
5
By the i.v. theorem
4 s 2
lim+ y(t) = y(0+) = lim sF (s) = lim + +
t→0 s→∞ s→∞ 7s + 5 (1 + 3s )(7s + 5) 7 + 5s
2
=
7
2
Thus jump at t = 0 = y(0+) − y(0−) = 1 .
7
Exercises 2.6.8
48(a)

t
f ∗ g(t) = τ cos(3t − 3τ )dτ
0
1 1 t
= − τ sin(3t − 3τ ) + cos(3t − 3τ )
3 9 0
1
= (1 − cos 3t)
9

t
g ∗ f (t) = (t − τ ) cos 3τ dτ
0
t τ 1 t 1
= sin 3τ − sin 3τ − cos 3τ = (1 − cos 3t)
3 3 9 0 9

48(b)

t
f ∗ g(t) = (τ + 1)e−2(t−τ ) dτ
0
1 1 t
= (τ + 1)e−2(t−τ ) − e−2(t−τ )
2 4 0
1 1 1
= t + − e−2t
2 4 4

t
g ∗ f (t) = (t − τ + 1)e−2τ dτ
0
1 1 t
= − (t − τ + 1)e−2τ + e−2τ
2 4 0
1 1 1 −2t
= t+ − e
2 4 4
48(c) Integration by parts gives

t
t
2
τ sin 2(t − τ )dτ = (t − τ )2 sin 2τ dτ
0 0
1 1 1
= cos 2t + t2 −
4 2 4
48(d) Integration by parts gives

t
t
−τ
e sin(t − τ )dτ = e−(t−τ ) sin τ dτ
0 0
1
= (sin t − cos t + e−t )
2
1 1 1 2 −3t
49(a) Since L−1 = 1 = f (t) and L−1 = t e
s (s + 3)3 2

−1
1 1 t
L · 3
= f (t − τ )g(τ )dτ
s (s + 3) 0

t
1
= 1. τ 2 e−3τ dτ
0 2
1 2 2 t
= −τ 2 e−3τ − τ e−3τ − e−3τ
4 3 9 0
1
= [2 − e−3t (9t2 + 6t + 2)]
54

Directly
1 1 −1 1
2 18 6 2
L−1 · = L − − −
s (s + 3)3 54 s (s + 3)3 (s + 3)2 (s + 3)
1
= [2 − e−3t (9t2 + 6t + 2)]
54
1 1
49(b) L−1 2
= te2t = f (t), L−1 2
= te−3t = g(t)
(s − 2) (s + 3)

−1
1 1 t
L 2
· 2
= (t − τ )e2(t−τ ) .τ e−3τ dτ
(s − 2) (s + 3) 0

t
−2t
=e (tτ − τ 2 )e−5τ dτ
0
1 1 2 −5τ t
= e2t − (tτ − τ 2 )e−5τ − (t − 2τ )e−5τ + e
5 25 125 0
t 2 t 2
= e2t e−5t + e−5t + −
25 125 25 125
1 2t
= e (5t − 2) + e−3t (5t + 2)
125
Directly
−2 1 2 1
1 125 25 125 25
= + + +
(s − 2)2 (s + 3)2 s − 2 (s − 2)2 (s + 3) (s + 3)2
1 −2 2t 1 2 −3t 1
∴ L−1 2 2
= e + te2t + e + te−3t
(s − 2) (s + 3) 125 25 125 25
1 2t
= [e (5t − 2) + e−3t (5t + 2)]
125
1 1
49(c) L−1 2
= t = f (t), L−1 = e−4t = g(t)
s (s + 4)

−1
1 1 t
L · = (t − τ )e−4t dτ
s2 s + 4 0
1 1 t
= − (t − τ )e−4τ + e−4τ
4 16 0
1 −4t 1 1
= e + t−
16 4 16

Directly
1
−1 1 1 1 1 1 1
L−1 = L · − · + ·
s2 (s + 4) 16 s + 4 16 s 4 s2
1 −4t 1 1
= e − + t
16 16 4
50 Let f (λ) = λ and g(λ) = e−λ so
1 1
F (s) = and G(s) =
s2 s+1
Considering the integral equation

t
y(t) = λe−(t−λ) dλ
0
By (2.80) in the text

t
−1
L {F (s)G(s)} = f (λ)g(t − λ)dλ
0

t
= λe−(t−λ) dλ = y(t)
0
so
1
y(t) = L−1 {F (s)G(s)} = L−1
+ 1) s2 (s
1 1 1
= L−1 − + 2 +
s s s+1
−t
= (t − 1) + e
51 Impulse response h(t) is given by the solution of
d2 h 7dh
+ + 12h = δ(t)
dt2 dt
subject to zero initial conditions. Taking Laplace transforms
(s2 + 7s + 12)H(s) = 1
1 1 1
H(s) = = −
(s + 3)(s + 4) s+3 s+4
giving h(t) = L−1 {H(s)} = e−3t − e−4t

Response to pulse input is
t
x(t) = A [e−3(t−τ ) − e−4(t−τ ) ]dτ H(t)
0

t −3(t−τ )
−A [e − e−4(t−τ ) ]dτ H(t − T )
T
1 1 1 −3t 1 −4t
=A − − e + e H(t)
3 4 3 4

1 1 1 −3(t−T ) 1 −4(t−T )
− − − e − e H(t − T )
3 4 3 4
1
= A 1 − 4e−3t + 3e−4t − (1 − 4e−3(t−T ) + 3e−4(t−T ) )H(t − T )
12
or directly
A
u(t) = A[H(t) − H(t − T )] so U (s) = L{u(t)} = [1 − e−sT ]
s
Thus taking Laplace transforms with initial quiescent state
A
(s2 + 7s + 12)X(s) = [1 − e−sT ]
s
1 1 1 1 1 1
X(s) = A · − · + · (1 − e−sT )
12 s 3 s + 3 4 s + 4
A
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = [1 − 4e−3t + 3e−4t − (1 − 4e−3(t−T ) + 3e−4(t−T ) )H(t − T )]
12
52 Impulse response h(t) is the solution of
d2 h dh
2
+4 + 5h = δ(t), h(0) = ḣ(0) = 0
dt dt
(s2 + 4s + 5)H(s) = 1
1 1
H(s) = =
s2 + 4s + 5 (s + 2)2 + 1
so h(t) = L−1 {H(s)} = e−2t sin t.

By the convolution integral response to unit step is

t
θ0 (t) = e−2(t−τ ) sin(t − τ ).1dτ
0

t
−2t
=e e2τ sin(t − τ )dτ
0
which using integration by parts gives
e−2t 2τ t
θ0 (t) = e [2 sin(t − τ ) + cos(t − τ )] 0
5
1 1 −2t
= − e (2 sin t + cos t)
5 5
Check
Solving
d2 θ0 dθ0
+ 4 + 5θ0 = 1 , θ̇0 (0) = θ0 (0) = 0
dt2 dt
gives
1
(s2 + 4s + 5)Φ0 (s) =
s
1 1 1 s+4
Φ0 (s) = 2
= − ·
s(s + 4s + 5) 5s 5 (s + 2)2 + 1
1 1
so θ0 (t) = L−1 {Φ0 (s)} = − [cos t + 2 sin t]e−2t .
5 5
Review Exercises 2.8

d2 x dx
1(a) 2
+4 + 5x = 8 cos t, x(0) = ẋ(0) = 0 Taking Laplace transforms
dt dt
8s
(s2 + 4s + 5)X(s) =
s2 +1
8s
X(s) =
(s2
+ 1)(s2 + 4s + 5)
s+1 s+5
= 2 − 2
s + 1 s + 4s + 5
s 1 (s + 2) + 3
= 2 + 2 −
s + 1 s + 1 (s + 2)2 + 1
giving x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = cos t + sin t − e−2t [cos t + 3 sin t]

d2 x dx
1(b) 5 2 − 3 − 2x = 6, x(0) = ẋ(0) = 1
dt dt
2 6 5s2 + 2s + 6
(5s − 3s − 2)X(s) = 5(s + 1) − 3(1) + =
s s
5s2 + 2s + 6
X(s) =
5s(s + 25 )(s + 1)
13 15
3
=− + 7 + 7 2
5 s−1 s+ 5
13 t 15 − 2 t
giving x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = −3 + e + e 5
7 7
2(a)
1 1 1 1 1 s+2
2
= − · − · 2
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 2s + 2) s + 1 2 s + 2 2 s + 2s + 2
1 1 1 1 (s + 1) + 1
= − · − ·
s + 1 2 s + 2 2 (s + 1)2 + 1
1 1 1
Thus L−1 2
= e−t − e−2t − e−t (cos t + sin t)
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 2s + 2) 2 2
2(b) From equation (2.26) in the text the equation is readily deduced.
1
(s2 + 3s + 2)I(s) = s + 2 + 3 + V.
(s + 1)2 + 1
s+5 1
I(s) = +V 2
(s + 2)(s + 1) (s + 2)(s + 1)(s + 2s + 2)
4 3
= − + V extended as in (a)
s+1 s+2

Thus using the result of (a) above
1 1
i(t) = L−1 {I(s)} = 4e−t − 3e−2t + V e−t − e−2t − e−t (cos t + sin t)
2 2
3 Taking Laplace transforms
1
(s2 − 1)X(s) + 5sY (s) =
s2
2
−2sX(s) + (s2 − 4)Y (s) = −
s
Eliminating Y (s)
s2 − 4 11s2 − 4
[(s2 − 1)(s2 − 4) + 2s(5s)]X(s) = + 10 =
s2 s2
11s2 − 4
X(s) =
s2 (s2 + 1)(s2 + 4)
1 5 4
=− 2 + 2 − 2
s s +1 s +4
giving x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = −t + 5 sin t − 2 sin 2t
dy 1 d2 x
= t+x− 2
dt 5 dt
1
= [t − t + 5 sin t − 2 sin 2t + 5 sin t − 8 sin 2t]
5
= (2 sin t − 2 sin 2t)
then y = −2 cos t + cos 2t + const.
and since y(0) = 0 , const. = 1 giving
y(t) = 1 − 2 cos t + cos 2t

x(t) = −t + 5 sin t − 2 sin 2t
s
(s2 + 2s + 2)X(s) = sx0 + x1 + 2x0 +
s2 +1

sx0 + x1 + 2x0 s
X(s) = +
s2 + 2s + 2 (s2 + 1)(s2 + 2s + 2)
x0 (s + 1) + (x1 + x0 ) 1 s + 2 1 s+4
= 2
+ · 2 − ·
(s + 1) + 1 5 s + 1 5 (s + 1)2 + 1
giving
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)}
1
= e−t (x0 cos t + (x1 + x0 ) sin t) + (cos t + 2 sin t)
5
1 −t
− e (cos t + 3 sin t)
5
i.e.
1 1 3
x(t) = (cos t + 2 sin t) + e−t (x0 − ) cos t + (x1 + x0 − ) sin t
5 5 5
↑ ↑
steady state transient
1 2
Steady state solution is xs (t) = cos t + sin t ≡ A cos(t − α)
5 5
1 2 2 2 1
having amplitude A = ( 5 ) + ( 5 ) = √
5
and phase lag α = tan−1 2 = 63.4◦ .
5 Denoting the currents in the primary and secondary circuits by i1 (t) and i2 (t)
respectively Kirchoff’s second law gives
di1 di2
5i1 + 2 + = 100
dt dt
di2 di1
20i2 + 3 + =0
dt dt
100
(5 + 2s)I1 (s) + sI2 (s) =
s
sI1 (s) + (3s + 20)I2 (s) = 0
Eliminating I1 (s)
[s2 − (3s + 20)(2s + 5)]I2 (s) = 100
−100 20
I2 (s) = = −
5s2 + 55s + 100 s2 + 11s + 20
20 20 1 1
=− 11 2 41 = − √ √ − √
(s + 2 ) − 4 11
41 (s + 2 − 41 11 41
2 ) (s + 2 + 2 )

giving the current i2 (t) in the secondary loop as
20 −(11+√41)t/2 √
i2 (t) = L−1 {I2 (s)} = √ e − e−(11− 41)t/2
41
6(a)
(i)
L{cos(wt + φ)} = L{cos φ cos wt − sin φ sin wt}
s w
= cos φ 2 − sin φ
s + w2 s2 + w2
= (s cos φ − w sin φ)/(s + w2 )
2
(ii)
L{e−wt sin(wt + φ)} = L{e−wt sin wt cos φ + e−wt cos wt sin φ}

w s+w
= cos φ 2 2
+ sin φ
(s + w) + w (s + w)2 + w2
= [sin φ + w(cos φ + sin φ)]/(s2 + 2sw + 2w2 )
6(b) Taking Laplace transforms
s
(s2 + 4s + 8)X(s) = (2s + 1) + 8 +
s2
+4
3 2
2s + 9s + 9s + 36
= 2
(s + 4)(s2 + 4s + 8)
1 s+4 1 39s + 172
= · 2 + · 2
20 s + 4 20 s + 4s + 8
1 s+4 1 39(s + 2) + 47(2)
= · 2 + ·
20 s + 4 20 (s + 2)2 + (2)2
1 1
giving x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = (cos 2t + 2 sin 2t) + e−2t (39 cos 2t + 47 sin 2t).
20 20
7(a)
s−4
−1 (s + 2) − 2(3)

L−1 = L
s2 + 4s + 13 (s + 2)2 + 32
= e−2t [cos 3t − 2 sin 3t]

4 2s 4
(s + 2)Y (s) = −3 + + 2 + 2
s s +1 s +1
−3s3 + 6s2 + s + 4
Y (s) =
s(s + 2)(s2 + 1)
2 5 2
= − + 2
s s+2 s +1
∴ y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = 2 − 5e−2t + 2 sin t
5 2s s2 − 2s + 6
(s + 5)X(s) + 3Y (s) = 1 + − =
s2 + 1 s2 + 1 s2 + 1
6 3s 6 − 3s
5X(s) + (s + 3)Y (s) = − =
s2 + 1 s2 + 1 s2 + 1
Eliminating Y (s)
(s + 3)(s2 − 2s + 6) 3(6 − 3s)

[(s + 5)(s + 3) − 15]X(s) = − 2
s2 + 1 s +1
s3 + s2 + 9s
(s2 + 8s)X(s) =
s2 + 1
s2 + s + 9 1 1
X(s) = = +
(s + 8)(s2 + 1) s + 8 s2 + 1
so x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e−8t + sin t
dx
3y = 5 sin t − 2 cos t − 5x − = 3e−8t − 3 cos t
dt
Thus x(t) = e−8t + sin t, y(t) = e−8t − cos t .

100
(s2 + 300s + 2 × 104 )Q(s) = 200·
s2
+ 104
2
(s + 100)(s + 200)Q(s) = 104 · 2
s + 104
2.104
Q(s) =
(s + 100)(s + 200)(s2 + 104 )
1 1 2 1 1 3s − 100
= · − · − ·
100 s + 100 500 s + 200 500 s2 + 104
1 −100t 2 −200t 1
giving q(t) = L−1 {Q(s)} = e − e − (3 cos 100t − sin 100t)
100 500 500
i.e.
1 1
q(t) = [5e−100t − 2e−200t ] − [3 cos 100t − sin 100t]
500 500
↑ ↑
transient steady state
3 1
Steady state current = sin 100t + cos 100t ≡ A sin(100t + α)
5o 5
where α = tan−1 51 18 12 .
o
Hence the current leads the applied emf by about 18 12 .
10
dx
4 + 6x + y = 2 sin 2t (i)
dt
d2 x dy
2
+x− = 3e−2t (ii)
dt dt
dx
Given x = 2 and = −2 when t = 0 so from (i) y = −4 when t = 0 .
dt
4 8s2 + 36
(4s + 6)X(s) + Y (s) = 8 + =
s2 + 4 s2 + 4
3 2s2 + 6s + 7
(s2 + 1)X(s) − sY (s) = 2s − 2 + 4 + =
s+2 s+2
Eliminating Y (s)
8s2 + 36 2s2 + 6s + 7
[s(4s + 6) + (s2 + 1)]X(s) = +
s2 + 4 s+2

8s2 + 36 2s2 + 6s + 7
X(s) = +
s(s2 + 4)(s + 1)(s + 15 ) 5(s + 2)(s + 1)(s + 15 )
11 227 1 3 49
5 505 1 76s − 96 3 4
= − 1 − · 2 + − + 60 1
s+1 s+ 5
505 s + 4 s+2 s+1 s+ 5
29 1 445
20 3 1212 1 76s − 96
= + + −
s+1 s+2 s + 15 505 s2 + 4
giving
29 −t 1 −2t 445 − 1 t 1
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e + e + e 5 − (76 cos 2t − 48 sin 2t)
20 3 1212 505
11(a) Taking Laplace transforms
2
(s2 + 8s + 16)Φ(s) =
s2 +4
2
Φ(s) =
(s + 4)2 (s2
+ 4)
1 1 1 1 1 2s − 3
= · + · 2
− · 2
25 s + 4 10 (s + 4) 50 s + 4
1 −4t 1 1
so θ(t) = L−1 {Φ(s)} = e + · te−4t − (4 cos 2t − 3 sin 2t)
25 10 100
1
i.e. θ(t) = (4e−4t + 10te−4t − 4 cos 2t + 3 sin 2t)
100
(s + 2)I1 (s) + 6I2 (s) = 1

I1 (s) + (s − 3)I2 (s) = 0
Eliminating I2 (s)
[(s + 2)(s − 3) − 6]I1 (s) = s − 3

1 6
s−3
I1 (s) = = 7 + 7
(s − 4)(s + 3) s−4 s+3
1 4t
giving i1 (t) = L−1 {I1 (s)} = (e + 6e−3t )
7

Then from the first differential equation
di1 6 6
6i2 = −2i1 − = − e4t + e−3t
dt 7 7
1 −3t 1
giving i2 (t) = (e − e4t ), i1 (t) = (e4t + 6e−3t ).
7 7
12 The differential equation
d2 i di
LCR 2
+ L + Ri = V
dt dt
follows using Kirchhoff’s second law.

Substituting V = E and L = 2R2 C gives
2
3 2d i di
2R C + 2R2 C + Ri = E
dt2 dt
1
which on substituting CR = leads to
2n
1 d2 i 1 di E
2 2
+ +i=
2n dt n dt R
and it follows that

d2 i di E
2
+ 2n + 2n2 i = 2n2
dt dt R
2n2 E 1
(s2 + 2ns + 2n2 )I(s) = ·
R s
E 2n2
I(s) = 2 2
R s(s + 2ns + 2n )
E 1 s + 2n
= − 2 2
R s (s + n) + n
so that
E
i(t) = [1 − e−nt (cos nt + n sin nt)]
R

13 The equations are readily deduced by applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the
left and right hand circuits.
Note that from the given initial conditions we deduce that i2 (0) = 0 .
Taking Laplace transforms then gives
E
(sL + 2R)I1 (s) − RI2 (s) =
s
−RI1 (s) + (sL + 2R)I2 (s) = 0
Eliminating I2 (s)
E
[(sL + 2R)2 − R2 ]I1 (s) =(sL + 2R)
s
E
(sL + 3R)(sL + R)I1 (s) = (sL + 2R)
s
E s + 2R
L

I1 (s) = 3R
L s(s + R
L )(s + L )
E 23 1 1

= − 2R − 6
R s s+ L s + 3R
L
1 E R 3R
giving i1 (t) = L−1 {I1 (s)} = 4 − 3e− L t − e− L t
6R
For large t the exponential terms are approximately zero and
2E
i1 (t)
3R
di1
Ri2 = 2Ri1 + L −E
dt
Ignoring the exponential terms we have that for large t
4E E 1E
i2 − =
3R R 3R

2
(s2 + 2)X1 (s) − X2 (s) =
s2 +4
−X1 (s) + (s2 + 2)X2 (s) = 0
Eliminating X1 (s)
2
[(s2 + 2)2 − 1]X2 (s) =
s2 +4
2
X2 (s) =
(s2 + 4)(s2 + 1)(s2 + 3)
2 1
3 3 1
= + −
s2 +4 s2 +1 s2 +3
1 1 1 √
so x2 (t) = L−1 {X2 (s)} = sin 2t + sin t − √ sin 3t
3 3 3
Then from the second differential equation
d2 x2 2 2 2 √ 4 1 √ √
x1 (t) = 2x2 + = sin 2t + sin t − √ sin 3t − sin 2t − sin t + 3 sin 3t
dt2 3 3 3 3 3
2 1 1 √
or x1 (t) = − sin 2t + sin t + √ sin 3t
3 3 3
15(a)
(i)
s+4 (s + 1) + 3
L−1 = L−1
s2 + 2s + 10 (s + 1)2 + 32
= e−t (cos 3t + sin 3t)
(ii)
s−3 1 2 1
L−1 2
= L−1 + 2
−
(s − 1) (s − 2) (s − 1) (s − 1) s−2
= et + 2tet − e2t

(s2 + 2s + 1)Y (s) = 4s + 2 + 8 + L{3te−t }

3
(s + 1)2 Y (s) = 4s + 10 +
(s + 1)2
4s + 10 3
Y (s) = 2
+
(s + 1) (s + 1)4
4 6 3
= + 2
+
s + 1 (s + 1) (s + 1)4
1
giving y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = 4e−t + 6te−t + t3 e−t
2
1 −t
i.e. y(t) = e (8 + 12t + t3 )
2
16(a)
5 5 2
F (s) = = ·
s2 − 14s + 53 2 (s − 7)2 + 22
5
∴ f (t) = L−1 {F (s)} = e7t sin 2t
2
d2 θ dθ 2 n2 i
16(b) + 2K + n θ = , θ(0) = θ̇(0) = 0, i const.
dt2 dt K
2 2 n2 i
(s + 2Ks + n )Φ(s) =
Ks
n2 i
∴ Φ(s) =
Ks(s2 + 2Ks + n2 )
For the case of critical damping n = K giving
Ki K12 1
K2
1
Φ(s) = = Ki − − K
s(s + K)2 s s+K (s + K)2

Thus
i
θ(t) = L−1 {Φ(s)} = [1 − e−Kt − Kte−Kt ]
K
17(a)
(i)
L{sin tH(t − α)} = L{sin[(t − α) + α]H(t − α)}

= L{[sin(t − α) cos α + cos(t − α) sin α]H(t − α)}
cos α + s sin α −αs
= .e
s2 + 1
(ii)
se−αs (s + 1) − 1
L−1 2
= L−1 e−αs
s + 2s + 5 (s + 1)2 + 4
1
= L−1 eαs L[e−t (cos 2t − sin 2t)]
2
1
= e−(t−α) [cos 2(t − α) − sin 2(t − α)]H(t − α)
2
1 −e−sπ
(s2 + 2s + 5)Y (s) = − by (i) above in part (a)
s2 + 1 s2 + 1
1 + e−πs
= 2
s +1
1+e −πs 1 s−2 1 s
Y (s) = 2 = − + (1 + e−πs )
(s + 1)(s2 + 2s + 5) 10 s2 + 1 10 s2 + 2s + 5

giving
1
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = [2 sin t − cos t + e−(t−π) [2 sin(t − π) − cos(t − π)]H(t − π)]
10
1
+ e−t (cos 2t − sin 2t) + e−(t−π) [cos 2(t − z)
2
1
− sin 2(t − π)]H(t − π)]
2
1 −t 1
= e (cos 2t − sin 2t) + 2 sin t − cos t
10 2
1
+ [e−(t−π) (cos 2t − sin 2t) + cos t − 2 sin t]H(t − π)
2
18 By theorem 2.5

T
1
L{v(t)} = V (s) = e−st v(t)dt
1 − e−sT 0

T /2
T
1 −st −st
= e dt − e dt
1 − e−sT 0 T /2

1 1 −st T /2 1 −st T
= − e − − e
1 − e−sT s 0 s T /2
1 1
= · (e−sT − e−sT /2 − e−sT /2 + 1)
s 1 − e−sT
1 (1 − e−sT /2 )2 1 1 − e−sT /2
= =
s (1 − e−sT /2 )(1 + e−sT /2 ) s 1 + e−sT /2
Equation for current flowing is

t
1
250i + (q0 + i(τ )dτ ) = v(t), q0 = 0
C 0
1 1 1 1 − e−sT /2
250I(s) + · · I(s) = V (s) =
10−4 s s 1 + e−sT /2
1 1 − e−sT /2
(s + 40)I(s) =
250 1 + e−sT /2
1 1 − e−sT /2
or I(s) = ·
250(s + 40) 1 + e−sT /2

1 3
I(s) = (1 − e−sT /2 )(1 − e−sT /2 + e−sT − e− 2 sT + e−2sT . . .)
250(s + 40)
1 3
= [1 − 2e−sT /2 + 2e−sT − 2e− 2 sT + 2e−2sT . . .]
250(s + 40)
1 1 −40t
Since L−1 = e using the second shift theorem gives
250(s + 40) 250

1 T −40(t−T /2)
i(t) = e−40t − 2H t − e + 2H(t − T )e−40(t−T )
250 2

3T −40(t−3T /2)
−2H t − e + ...
2
If T = 10−3 s then the first few terms give a good representation of the steady
1
state since the time constant of the circuit is large compared to the period T .
4
19 The impulse response h(t) is the solution of
d2 h 2dh
+ + 2h = δ(t)
dt2 dt
subject to the initial conditions h(0) = ḣ(0) = 0 . Taking Laplace transforms
(s2 + 2s + s)H(s) = L{δ(t)} = 1

1
H(s) =
(s + 1)2 + 1
i.e. h(t) = L−1 {H(s)} = e−t sin t.
Using the convolution integral the step response xs (t) is given by

t
xs (t) = h(τ )u(t − τ )dτ
0
with u(t) = 1H(t) ; that is

t
xs (t) = 1.e−τ sin τ dτ
0
1
= − [e−τ cos τ + e−τ sin τ ]t0
2
1
i.e. xs (t) = [1 − e−t (cos t + sin t)].
2

d2 xs 2dxs
Solving + + 2xs = 1 directly we have taking Laplace transforms
dt2 dt
1
(s2 + 2s + 2)Xs (s) =
s
1
Xs (s) =
s(s2 + 2s + 2)
1 1 1 s+2
= · − 2
2 s 2 (s + 1) + 1
giving as before
1 1 −t
xs (t) = − e (cos t + sin t)
2 2
20
d4 y
EI = 12 + 12H(x − 4) − Rδ(x − 4)
dx4
y(0) = y (0) = 0, y(4) = 0, y (5) = y (5) = 0
With y (0) = A, y (0) = B taking Laplace transforms
12 12 −4s
EIs4 Y (s) = EI(sA + B) + + e − Re−4s
s s
A B 12 1 12 1 −4s R 1 −4s
Y (s) = 3 + 4 + · 5+ · 5e − · e
s s EI s EI s EI s4
giving
A B 1 4 1
y(x) = L−1 {Y (s)} = x2 + x3 + x + (x − 4)4 H(x − 4)
2 6 2EI 2EI
R
− (x − 4)3 H(x − 4)
6EI

or
1 1 1 1 R
EIy(x) = A1 x2 + B1 x3 + x4 + (x − 4)4 H(x − 4) − (x − 4)3 H(x − 4)
2 6 2 2 6
32
y(4) = 0 ⇒ 0 = 8A1 + B1 + 128 ⇒ 3A1 + 4B1 = −48
3
y (5) = 0 ⇒ 0 = A1 + 5B1 + 6(25) + 6 − R ⇒ A1 + 5B1 − R = −156
y (5) = 0 ⇒ 0 = B1 + 12(5) + 12 − R ⇒ B1 − R = −72
which solve to give A1 = 18, B1 = −25.5, R = 46.5

Thus
 1 4
 x − 4.25x3 + 9x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
y(x) = 1 2
 x4 − 4.25x3 + 9x2 + 1 (x − 4)4 − 7.75(x − 4)3 , 4 ≤ x ≤ 5
2 2
R0 = −EIy (0) = 25.5kN, M0 = EIy (0) = 18kN.m

√
Check R0 + R = 72kN, Total load = 12 × 4 + 24 = 72kN
Moment about x = 0 is
√
12 × 4 × 2 + 24 × 4.5 − 4R = 18 = M0
21(a)
f (t) = H(t − 1) − H(t − 2)

e−s e−2s
and L{f (t)} = F (s) = −
s s

Taking Laplace transforms throughout the differential equation
1 −s
(s + 1)X(s) = (e − e−2s )
s
1
X(s) = (e−s − e−2s )
s(s + 1)
1 1 −s 1 1 −2s
= − e − − e
s s+1 s s+1
giving x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = [1 − e−(t−1) ]H(t − 1) − [1 − e−(t−2) ]H(t − 2)
E
21(b) I(s) =
s[Ls + R/(1 + Cs)]
(i) By the initial value theorem
E
lim i(t) = lim sI(s) = lim =0
t→0 s→∞ s→∞ Ls + R/(1 + Cs)
(ii) Since sI(s) has all its poles in the left half of the s-plane the conditions of
the final value theorem hold so
E
lim i(t) = lim sI(s) =
t→∞ s→0 R
22 We have that for a periodic function f (t) of period T

T
1
L{f (t)} = e−sT f (t)dt
1 − e−sT 0
Thus the Laplace transform of the half-rectified sine wave is

π
1
L{v(t)} = −2πs
e−sT sin tdt
1−e 0

π
1 (j−s)t

= Im e dt
1 − e−2πs 0
π
1 e(j−s)t
= Im
1 − e−2πs j − s 0
1 (−e−πs − 1)(−j − s) 1 + e−πs
= Im =
1 − e−2πs (j − s)(−j − s) (1 − e−2πs )(1 + s2 )
1
i.e. L{v(t)} =
(1 + s )(1 − e−πs )
2

Applying Kirchoff’s law to the circuit the current is determined by
di
+ i = v(t)
dt
which on taking Laplace transforms gives
1
(s + 1)I(s) =
(1 + s2 )(1
− e−πs )
1 1 s+1 1
I(s) = − ·
1 − e−πs s + 1 s2 + 1 2
1 1 s + 1
= − 2 1 + e−πs + e−2πs + . . .
2 s+1 s +1
1 1 s + 1 1
Since L−1 − 2 = (sin t − cos t + e−t )H(t) = f (t)
2 s+1 s +1 2
we have by the second shift theorem that
∞

i(t) = f (t) + f (t − π) + f (t − 2π) + . . . = f (t − nπ)
n=0
The graph may be plotted by computer and should take the form
1 1
23(a) Since L{t} = 2
, L{te−t } =
s (s + 1)2
−t
taking f (t) = t and g(t) = te in the convolution theorem
L−1 [F (s)G(s)] = f ∗ g(t)

gives
−1
1 1 t
L 2
· 2
= f (t − τ )g(τ )dτ
s (s + 1) 0

t
= (t − τ )τ e−τ
0
t
= −(t − τ )τ e−τ − (t − 2τ )e−τ + 2e−τ 0
1 1
i.e. L−1 2
· 2
= t − 2 + 2e−t + te−t .
s (s + 2)
t
23(b) y(t) = t + 2 0
y(u) cos(t − u)du
s
Taking f (t) = y(t), g(t) = cos t ⇒ F (s) = Y (s), G(s) = 2 giving on taking
s +1
transforms
1 s
Y (s) =
2
+ 2Y (s) 2
s s +1
2
s +1
(s2 + 1 − 2s)Y (s) =
s2
s2 + 1 2 1 2 2
or Y (s) = 2 2
= + 2− +
s (s − 1) s s s − 1 (s − 1)2
and y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = 2 + t − 2et + 2tet .
Taking transforms
(s2 Y (s) − sy(0) − y (0))(sY (s) − y(0)) = Y (s)

or (s2 Y (s) − y1 )(sY (s)) = Y (s)
y1 1
giving Y (s) = 0 or Y (s) = 2 + 3
s s
which on inversion gives
1 2
y(t) = 0 or y(t) = t + ty1
2
In the second of these solutions the condition on y (0) is arbitrary.

24
Equation for displacement is
d4 y
EI = −W δ(x − )
dx4
with y(0) = 0, y(3) = 0, y (0) = y (3) = 0

with y (0) = A, y (0) = B then taking Laplace transforms gives
EIs4 Y (s) = EI(sA + B) − W e−s

−W −s A B
Y (s) = 4
e + 3+ 4
EIs s s
−W A B
giving y(x) = (x − )3 .H(x − ) + x2 + x3
6EI 2 6
−3W B
For x > , y (x) = (x − )2 + Ax + x2
6EI 2

so y (3) = 0 and y(3) = 0 gives
2W 2 2
0=− + 3A + 9B
EI 2
3
4W 9 9
0=− + A2 + B3
3EI 2 2
4W 20 W
giving A = − and B =
9EI 27 EI
Thus deflection y(x) is
W 2 W 2 10 W 3
y(x) = − (x − )3 H(x − ) − x + x
6EI 9 EI 81 EI

With the added uniform load the differential equation governing the deflection is
d4 y
EI = −W δ(x − ) − w[H(x) − H(x − )]
dx4
25(a) Taking Laplace transforms
1 −as
(s2 − 3s + 3)X(s) = e
s
1 −as
16 1 1
6s − 2
−as
X(s) = · e = − ·e
s(s2 − 3s + 3) s s2 − 3s + 3
√ √
1 1 (s − 32 ) − 3( 23 ) −as
= − √ e
6 s (s − 3 )2 + ( 3 )2
2 2
√ √
e−as 3
−2t 3 √ 3
= L 1−e cos t − 3 sin t
6 2 2
giving
√ √
−1 1 3
− 2 (t−a)
3 √ 3
x(t) = L {X(s)} = 1−e cos (t − a) − 3 sin (t − a) H(t − a)
6 2 2
25(b)
w
X(s) = G(s)L{sin wt} = G(s)
s2 + w2
w
= G(s)
(s + jw)(s − jw)
Since the system is stable all the poles of G(s) have negative real part. Expanding
in partial fractions and inverting gives
F (jw)w jwt
x(t) = 2Re ·e + terms from G(s) with negative exponentials
2jw
Thus as t → ∞ the added terms tend to zero and x(t) → xs (t) with
ejwt F (jw)
xs (t) = Re
j

26(a) In the absence of feedback the system has poles at
s = −3 and s = 1
and is therefore unstable.
G(s) 1 1
26(b) G1 (s) = = = 2
1 + KG(s) (s − 1)(s + 3) + K s + 2s + (K − 3)
√
26(c) Poles G1 (s) given by s = −1 ± 4−K.
These may be plotted in the s-plane for different values of K . Plot should be as
in the figure
26(d) Clearly from the plot in (c) all the poles are in the left half plane when
K > 3 . Thus system stable for K > 3 .
a2 a1 a0
26(e) 2
1s + 2s + (K − 3) = 0
Routh–Hurwitz determinants are
∆1 = 2 > 0

a1 a2 1
∆2 = = 2 = 2(K − 3) > 0 if K > 3
0 a0 0 K − 3
thus confirming the result in (d).
27(a) Closed loop transfer function is
G(s) 2
G1 (s) = = 2
1 + G(s) s + αs + 5

2
Thus L−1 2 = h(t) = 2e−2t sin t
s + αs + 5
−1
2 α
−2t α2
i.e. L 2 = 2e sin (5 − 4 )t = 2e−2t sin t
(s + α2 )2 + (5 − α4 )
giving α = 4
27(b) Closed loop transfer function is

10
s(s−1) 10
G(s) = =
1 − (1+Ks)10 s2 + (10K − 1)s + 10
s(s−1)
Poles of the system are given by
s2 + (10K − 1)s + 10 = 0
which are both in the negative half plane of the s-plane provided (10K − 1) > 0 ;
1
that is, K > 10 . Thus the critical value of K for stability of the closed loop system
1
is K = 10 .
28(a) Overall closed loop transfer function is

K
s(s+1) K
G(s) = =
1+ K
s(s+1) (1 + K1 s) s2 + s(1 + KK1 ) + K
28(b) Assuming zero initial conditions step response x(t) is given by
K
X(s) = G(s)L{1.H(t)} =
s[s2 + s(1 + KK1 ) + K]
wn
=
s[s2
+ 2ξwn s + wn2 ]
1 s + 2ξwn
= − 2
s s + 2ξwn s + wn2

1 (s + ξwn ) + ξwn
= −
s (s + ξwn )2 + [wn2 (1 − ξ 2 )]

1 (s + ξwn ) + ξwn
= −
s (s + ξwn )2 + wd2
ξ
giving x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = 1 − e−ξwn t cos wd t + sin wd t , t ≥ 0.
1 − ξ2

dx
28(c) The peak time tp is given by the solution of =0
dt t=tp

dx −ξwn t
ξwd ξ 2 wn
=e ξwn − cos wd t + wd sin wd t
dt 1 − ξ2 1 − ξ2
wn
= e−ξwn t sin wd t
1 − ξ2
Thus tp given by the solution of
wn
e−ξwn tp sin wd tp = 0
1 − ξ2
i.e. sin wd tp = 0
Since the peak time corresponds to the first peak overshoot
π
wd tp = π or tp =
wd
The maximum overshoot Mp occurs at the peak time tp . Thus
− wn
ξw π ξ
Mp = x(tp ) − 1 = e d cos π + sin π
1 − ξ2
ξw π √
− wn 1−ξ 2
=e d = e−ξπ/ π
We wish Mp to be 0.2 and tp to be 1 s, thus

√
1−ξ 2
e−ξπ/ = 0.2 giving ξ = 0.456
and
π
tp = = 1 giving wd = 3.14
wd
wd
Then it follows that wn = = 3.53 from which we deduce that
1 − ξ2
K = wn2 = 12.5
2wn ξ − 1
and K1 = = 0.178.
K

28(d) The rise time tr is given by the solution of
ξ
x(tr ) = 1 = 1 − e−ξwn tr cos wd tr + sin wd tr
1 − ξ2
Since e−ξwn tr = 0
ξ
cos wd tr + sin wd tr = 0
1 − ξ2

1 − ξ2
giving tan wd tr = −
ξ

1 1 − ξ 2 π − 1.10
or tr = tan−1 − = = 0.65s.
wd ξ wd
The response x(t) in (b) may be written as

e−ξwn t 1 − ξ2
x(t) = 1 − sin wα t + tan−1
1 − ξ2 ξ
e−ξwn t
so the curves 1 ± are the envelope curves of the transient response to a
1 − ξ2
1
unit step input and have a time constant T = . The settling time ts may
ξwn
be measured in terms of T . Using the 2% criterion ts is approximately 4 times
the time constant and for the 5% criterion it is approximately 3 times the time
constant. Thus
4
2% criterion : ts = 4T = = 2.48s
ξwn
3
5% criterion : ts = 3T = = 1.86s
ξwn
Footnote This is intended to be an extended exercise with students being

encouraged to carry out simulation studies in order to develop a better
understanding of how the transient response characteristics can be used in system
design.
29 As for Exercise 28 this is intended to be an extended problem supported by

simulation studies. The following is simply an outline of a possible solution.

Figure 2.63(a) is simply a mass-spring damper system represented by the

differential equation
d2 x dx
M1 2 + B + K1 x = sin wt
dt dt
Assuming that it is initially in a quiescent state taking Laplace transforms
1 w
X(s) = · 2
M1 s2 + Bs + K1 s + w2
The steady state response will be due to the forcing term and determined by the
αs + β
term in the partial fractions expansion of X(s) . Thus, the steady state
s2 + w2
response will be of the form A sin(wt + δ) ; that is, a sinusoid having the same
frequency as the forcing term but with a phase shift δ and amplitude scaling A .
In the situation of Figure 2.63(b) the equations of motion are
d2 x dx
M1 2
= −K1 x − B + K2 (y − x) + sin wt
dt dt
d2 y
M2 2 = −K2 (y − x)
dt
Assuming an initial quiescent state taking Laplace transforms gives
[M1 s2 + Bs + (K1 + K2 )]X(s) − K2 Y (s) = w/(s2 + w2 )

−K2 X(s) + (s2 M2 + K2 )Y (s) = 0
Eliminating Y (s) gives

w(s2 M2 + K2 )
X(s) =
(s2 + w2 )p(s)
where p(s) = (M1 s2 + Bs + K1 + K2 )(s2 M2 + K2 ) .
Because of the term (s2 + w2 ) in the denominator x(t) will contain terms in
sin wt and cos wt . However, if (s2 M2 + K2 ) exactly cancels (s2 + w2 ) this will
be avoided. Thus choose K2 = M2 w2 . This does make practical sense for if the
natural frequency of the secondary system is equal to the frequency of the applied
force then it may resonate and therefore damp out the steady state vibration of
M1 .
It is also required to show that the polynomial p(s) does not give rise to any
undamped oscillations. That is, it is necessary to show that p(s) does not possess
purely imaginary roots of the form jθ, θ real, and that it has no roots with
a positive real part. This can be checked using the Routh–Hurwitz criterion.

To examine the motion of the secondary mass M2 solve for Y (s) giving
K2 w
Y (s) =
(s2 + w2 )p(s)
Clearly due to the term (s2 + w2 ) in the denominator the mass M2 possesses an
undamped oscillation. Thus, in some sense the secondary system has absorbed the
energy produced by the applied sinusoidal force sin wt .
30 Again this is intended to be an extended problem requiring wider exploration

by the students. The following is an outline of the solution.
30(a) Students should be encouraged to plot the Bode plots using the steps
used in example 2.62 of the text and using a software package. Sketches of the
magnitude and phase Bode plots are given in the figures below.
30(b) With unity feedback the amplifier is unstable. Since the −180◦ crossover
gain is greater than 0dB (from the plot it is +92dB) .
30(c) Due to the assumption that the amplifier is ideal it follows that for
1
marginal stability the value of must be 92dB (that is, the plot is effectively
β
lowered by 92dB) . Thus
1
20 log = 92
β
1 92
= antilog ⇒ β 2.5 × 10−5
β 20
30(d) From the amplitude plot the effective 0dB axis is now drawn through
the 100dB point. Comparing this to the line drawn through the 92dB point,
corresponding to marginal stability, it follows that
Gain margin = −8dB

and Phase margin = 24◦ .

30(e)
K
G(s) =
(1 + sτ1 )(1 − sτ2 )(1 + sτ3 )
Given low frequency gain K = 120dB so
20 log K = 120 ⇒ K = 106

1
Ti = where fi is the oscillating frequency in cycles per second of the pole.
fi
Since 1MHz = 10 cycles per second
1 1
τ1 = = 6 since f1 = 1MHz
f1 10
1 1
τ2 = = since f2 = 10MHz
f2 10.106
1 1
τ3 = = since f3 = 25MHz
f3 25.106
Thus
106
G(s) = s s s
(1 + 106 )(1 + 10.106 )(1 + 25.106 )
24
250.10
=
(s + 106 )(s+ 107 )(s + 52 .107 )
The closed loop transfer function G1 (s) is
G(s)
G(s) =
1 + βG(s)
30(f ) The characteristic equation for the closed loop system is
(s + 106 )(s + 107 )(s + 52 .107 ) + β25.1025 = 0
or
s3 + 36(106 )s2 + (285)1012 s + 1019 (25 + 25β106 ) = 0
↓ ↓ ↓
A1 A2 A3
By Routh–Hurwitz criterion system stable provided A1 > 0 and A1 A2 > A3 . If
β = 1 then A1 A2 < A3 and the system is unstable as determined in (b). For
marginal stability A1 A2 = A3 giving β = 1.40−5 (compared with β = 2.5.10−5
using the Bode plot).

Magnitude vs Frequency Plot

120
Data margin
– 8 dB
100
80
60
1/β = 92 dB
40
Gain dB
20
0
Corresponds to 180° phase lag
To phase plot
1 10 25 Log freq. MHz
Phase vs Frequency Plot

0°
– 90°
Phase margin 24°

– 180°
16 MHz
– 270°
1 10 25 ln freq. MHz


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2

2(a) 5 (b) -3 (c) 0 (d) 3 (e) 2 (f ) 0

x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = 3e−2t + e−2t cos t + e−2t sin t

1 4 −s3 − 6s2 − 16s + 32

= 5 sin t + 5 cos t − 3 − et − e2t

15s + 50 −4s2 − 10s + 11

From the second diﬀerential equation

s(6s − 5) (3s − 2)(3s + 1)

[(s2 + 2)2 − 1]X(s) = 4s(s2 + 2) + 2s

From the ﬁrst of the given equations

(4s2 + 16)X(s) − (2s + 8)Y (s) = 4(s + 1)

Then from (i) and (ii)

7 1µF = 10−6 F so 50µ = 5.105 F

Taking Laplace transforms

Applying Kirchhoﬀ’s law to the right hand loop

which on taking Laplace transforms gives

sI1 (s) = (50 + s)I2 (s) (ii)

Expanding in partial functions

8 Applying Kirchhoﬀ’s second law to the primary and secondary circuits

Applying Laplace transforms

Substituting back in the ﬁrst equation

Then from (i)

10 Applying Newton’s law to the motion of each mass

ẍ1 = 3(x2 − x1 ) − x1 = 3x2 − 4x1

Taking Laplace transforms

(s2 + 4)X1 (s) − 3X2 (s) = −s

[(s2 + 4)(s2 + 12) − 9]X1 (s) = −s(s2 + 12) + 6s

From the ﬁrst diﬀerential equation

3x2 = 4x1 + ẍ1

11 The equation of motion is

12 By Newton’s second law of motion

M2 ẍ2 = −K2 x2 − B1 (ẋ2 − ẋ1 ) + u2

Taking Laplace transforms and assuming quiescent initial state

(M2 s2 + B1 s + K2 )X2 (s) − B1 sX1 (s) = U2 (s)

[(M1 s2 + B1 s + K1 )(M2 s2 + B1 s + K2 ) − B12 s2 ]X2 (s)

Likewise eliminating X2 (t) from the original equation gives

f (t) = 3t2 H(t) − (3t2 − 2t + 3)H(t − 4) − (2t − 8)H(t − 6)

Taking inverse transforms

x(t) = −1 + e−t + t − (t − 1)H(t − 1)

Thus taking inverse transforms

x(t) = 3 − 2 cos t + 2(t − 4 − sin(t − 4))H(t − 4)

Thus taking inverse transforms

If T > a then H(T ) = 1, H(T − a) = 1 giving

e(t) = e0 H(t − t1 ) − e0 H(t − t2 )

By Kirchhoﬀ’s second law current in the circuit is given by

which on taking Laplace transforms

Sketch over one period as shown and

f1 (t) = 3tH(t) − (3t − 6)H(t − 2) − 6H(t − 4)

Then by theorem 2.5

(s2 + 7s + 12)X(s) = s + 8 + e−3s

x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = 5e−3t − 4e−4t + [e−3(t−3) − e−4(t−3) ]H(t − 3)

f (t) = g (t) − 43δ(t − 4) − 4δ(t − 6)

f (t) = g (t) + 5δ(t) − 6δ(t − 2) + 15δ(t − 4)

19 −2t 4 −2t 19 −5t

and a sketch of the response is as follows

and the sketch of the response is as follows

30 The charge q on the LCR circuit is determined by

where e(t) = Eδ(t), q(0) = q̇(0) = 0 .

having Laplace transform

Since the beam is freely supported at both ends

y(0) = y2 (0) = y() = y2 () = 0

and the transformed equation (2.64) of the text becomes

Taking inverse transforms gives

y2 () = 0 then gives y3 (0) = 0 and y() = 0 gives

y(0) = y2 (0) = y() = y2 () = 0

y2 () = 0 then gives y3 (0) = 0 and y() = 0 gives

y(0) = y1 (0) = 0, y2 () = y3 () = 0

The boundary condition y2 () = 0 then gives

When x1 = 0, x2 = , max deﬂection at x =

y(0) = y1 (0) = 0, y2 () = y3 () = 0

Using the boundary condition y2 () = 0