Instrumentation, Measurements, and E xperiments in Fluids 1.2.41 Wind Tunnel Studies : Wi ols are used for Mise ae are used for numerous investigations ranging from fundamen- ‘al research to industrial aerodynamics. Many wind tunnel studies aim at the determing of forces on sc i ¢ determination of forces on scaled models of aircraft, aircraft components, automobiles, buildings, and so on. Fore models being tested such as lift and drag acting on the are known to obey the following law of similitude (1.1) where Sis the surface area or cross-sectional area of the model, depending on the application. The force Coefficient Cy is known to be a’ function of sev. eral nondimensional parameters. The prime ones, among such dimensionless parameters used, in aerodynamics are > Inertia force VI Reynolds number = tia force _. pV! Viscous force “ Inertia force V Mach number = atone _ V os ie aE NTOCGST a where p and V are the density and velocity of flow, respectively, j1 is the dynamic viscosity coefficient, / is the characteristic length, and a is the speed of sound To correlate data, velocity is measured with a pitot-static tube, hot-wire anemometer, or laser Doppler anemometer, and the temperature and pressure are obtained with appropriate instrumentation. The forces and the moments on a model are usually determined witha specially designed balance or surface pressure measurements. The density is usually calculated from the measured pressure and temperature. 1.2.2 Analogue Methods By analogue methods, problems may be solved by setting up another physical system, such as an electric field, for which the governing equations are of the same form as those for the problem to be solved, with corresponding boundary conditions. The solution of the original problem may be obtained experimentally from measurements on the analogous system. Some of the ethods for solving fluid flow problems are the Hele- / id the surface waves in a ripple tank.Need and Objective of Experimental Study flow visualization methods for fluid flow analysis are flow visualization with smoke, tuft, chemical coating, interferometer, S P lieren, and shadowgraph 1.3. Measurement Systems Basically, the main components of a measuring system may be classified i the following categories. The sensing element The signal converter one . The display : 1.3.1. Sensing Element A sensing element is also called a transducer. For instance, the bulb of mercury-in-glass thermometer, and the diaphragm in a pressure transd are sensing elements. The transducer is in some way “in contact” wi quantity to be measured and produces somesignal that is related to the q tity being measured. A typical sensing process is illustrated schematic Figure 1.1. 1.3.2 Signal Converter A signal converter is a device to convert the output from the sensing element toa desired form and feed the same to the display unit. A typical exampleofa signal converter is the amplifier that receives a small signal from the sensing element and makes it large enough to activate the display. 1.3.3. Display _ The display is yet another vital part of a measuring system. Itis here that the information from the sensing element, whichis converted into a desired form e signal converter, is rea n enter. A typical example of a a as in the case of 2