DRIVER’S TRAINING

MANUAL
DRIVER’S TRAINING

MANUAL
For

City and Intercity

Express Bus Service

PAKOR global
(Pvt) Ltd

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Contents

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Signs, Signals & Road Marking

City and Intercity

Express Bus Service

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 Sign Boards & Their Specification

Take

Car Mandatory Sign

9
e 0

Warning Sign

Islamabad
Islamabad
5km
Informatory Sign 5km

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 The Signing System
There are three basic types of traffic signs. Signs which give orders, signs that
warn, and signs which gives information. Each type has a different shape.

Circles Triangles Rectangles

Order Warn Information

A further guide to the function of a sign is its colour.

Blue circles tell Red circles tell

you what you
You what you must not do. e.g. you must not
must do. exceed 30 mph. no vehicle over
the height shown may proceed.

Blue rectangles Green rectangles White rectangles

are used for
information signs
except on motorway
where blue is used for
direction signs
are used for with black border
direction signs on are used to show
primary routes Direction signs on
non- primary routes

There are a few exceptions to the shape and colour rules to give
greater prominence to certain signs. For example, the octagonal
stop sign.

Mandatory Signs

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Warning Signs

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Informatory Signs

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 Signals

Stop Wait for green light

Drive Be Slow for stop

Only turn right

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Stopping & Beckoning Signal

Manual Signal

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Road Marking
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Warning Signs (Vehicle Marking)

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Goods Vehicles

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 Highway Offences & Penalties

City and Intercity

Express Bus Service

Offences & Penalties

The penalty table indicates the offences and the allied penalties. These are intended to deter people
from dangerous and illegitimate driving attitude.

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 Highway Offences And Their Penalties

Code Offences Penalty (Rs) Imprisonment

A 20 Driving when disqualified 1000 Upto 6 Months
Obtaining/ applying for a driving license without disclosing
A 21 500 - 1000 Upto 6 Months
particulars of endorsement
A 22 Offences relating to construction of vehicle 500 - 1000 Upto 6 Months
A 23 Offences relating to permits 1000 - 2000 Upto 6 Months
A 24 Overloading of goods 15 % in excess of permissible limits 1000 - 5000 Upto 1 Months
A 25 Overloading of goods 30 % in excess of permissible limits 1000 - 2000 Upto 6 Months
A 26 Offences relating to accidents 1000 - 2000 Upto 6 Months
A 27 Taking vehicle without lawful authority 1000 - 2000 Upto 6 Months
A 28 Un-authorized interference with vehicle 500 - 1000 Upto 6 Months
A 29 Willful disobedience or obstruction of lawful orders 1000 - 2000 Upto 6 Months
A 30 Altering a license or using an altered/forged license 1000 - 3000 Upto 6 Months
A 31 Driving a transport vehicle without obtaining a license 500 - 1000 Upto 1 Months
A 32 taking part in un-authorized race or trial or speed 1000 - 2000 Upto 1 Months

A 33 Over taking by transport vehicle dangerously where prohibited 500 - 1000 Upto 1 Months

A 34 Driving at a speed 40 kph higher than specified 750 - 1500 Upto 1 Months
A 35 Driving a transport vehicle not covered by certified of fitness 500 - 1000 Upto 3 Months
A 36 Failing to stop when ordered by a police officer in uniform 500 - 1000 Upto 1 Months
Driving when mentally/physically unfit to drive or under
A 37 5000 - 10000 Upto 1 Months
influence of drugs or alcohol
A 38 Driving recklessly 500 - 1000 Upto 1 Months

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Theoretical Driving Training

City and Intercity

Express Bus Service

Importance of Training

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Training is a compulsory element for the perfection of the
working ability of any individual for assigned job.

 Training helps to change and improve the attitude.

 Creates best professional skills.
 With the help of the training, the chances of accidents can reduce.
 Improve the control over feelings and learns the lesson to control the
mental and moral emotions.
 Training helps to improve the capabilities.
 Training gradually enhances your knowledge.
 In emergency conditions, creates the ability to make better decisions.
 Helps to gain full awareness towards traffic rules and regulations.

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 Characteristics of Good Driver

Good drivers know the local laws, pay attention to the road and plan exit
strategies. "Defensive Driving" is commonly used term. However the following
are some important characteristic of a good driver.

Personal Characteristics
 Good health and vision
 Good communication skills
 The ability to be diplomatic and courteous in dealing with the public,
from the first passenger to the last passenger each day.
 The ability to remain alert and maintain a high level of concentration.
 Good judgment and the ability to react quickly in emergency situations.
 Responsibility
 Attention
 Experience
 Judgment
 Confidence
 Patience
 Technical information
 Understanding about traffic rules and regulations
 Decision power
 Good moral attitude with Passengers, general public/Road users.

Important Duties of Driver

Dutiful drivers can never be fall short if he performs his duties with full
devotion, honestly and according to the instructions of company regarding the
driving Techniques and Traffic Rules Regulations about City and Intercity bus
operations. Therefore, all the drivers strictly directed to follow the following
instruction through out their driving carrier and keeps up the Company’s Motto
“No Accident No Break Down” at all.

 Must follow the company’s instructions about weather conditions as well

as road conditions time to time given to you for the best interest of the
company, safety & comfortableness of our valuable passengers and your
own safety etc.

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  Do not violate the Traffic Rules & Regulations in any case as this can cause
the occurrence of minor as well as major accident which purely harmful
and irreparable losses can be bear to our valuable passenger, general
public, other road user and your own persona.
 Always adopt a good moral attitude/behavior with Passengers, Other
Road Users and Officers/Officials of Law Enforcement Agencies.
 Always give 1st importance to the safety and security of the human being
in all sorts of phenomenon.
 Always understand the situation/Circumstances first and than act upon
the best possible option keeping the importance of “First Safety”.
 Be understand the actions of other road users and let them make safe and
secure for your own safety and security as you knows well about the
traffic bylaws and you will have to abide them in the entire situations
while the other road user may not know as much as you.
 Before going on rout check all the systems of your vehicle which you have
been taught in class rooms and during on the job training on bus. In short
your vehicle/bus should be well maintained/road worthy condition in all
aspects.
 Be loyal to the Company and always work for the best interest/benefits of
the organizations as this is actually the loyalty with your own family.
 Always give importance to the rights of General Public and Act upon the
Company’s Instructions/Rules and Regulations to prove yourself an
employee of well mannered and organized Company.
 Keep yourself hygienic, fresh and decent to wear neat and clean Uniform
as you are not only a driver but also the representative of the Company.
 Never drive without taking complete sleep and rest after performing duty.
It is the most important issue for the safety and security of passengers,
general public/other road users, you & your family and Company’s assets
as well.

Commencement of Driving
Precautions before getting into vehicle

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 Before getting into your vehicle, make it a habit to walk around your vehicle for
the inspection of the following points.
Check Tyres, Body, Engine oil level, V-belts, Transmission oil, OVM tool,
Radiator Water level, Spare tire, Belts, Batteries, Indictors, H/lamps,
Gauges/warning lamps on instrument panel & window glasses before driving.
Use your mirrors before you move off.
Only move off when it is safe to do so.

786

786

Adjustment of driving seat

Adjust driving seat in front & rear Adjust back seat & stretch
arms Adjust seat up & down to have
position for the proper handling of Just to hold steering properly a clear vision.
accelerator, brake and clutch pedals

Seat belt
Fastening of seat belts saves lives and
reduces the risk of serious injury in an
accident. You must fasten your seat belt s
before the start of driving/moving of vehicle.
Holding steering wheel

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Hold steering wheel in such a way that You can also hold steering wheel in such
Hands indicate like 09:15 on a clock a way that hands indicate like 10:10 on a clock

Adjustment of Side/rear view mirror

Adjust RH, LH Side/Rear view mirrors in such a way that you can easily view the situation of
vehicle coming behind you.

Adjust mirror by dividing upper & lower portion. Use lower portion to view the road
while upper portion should reveal the road traffic.

Invisible area

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 001

During driving, the dark areas, shown in figure No.001

& 002 are usually not visible for driver.
In order to view these areas properly, the driver should
have to move his head/eyes in that direction for proper
observance of these sides.

002

Driver should move his head up/down to view invisible area of Right/Left side

Instrument panel

Check all the gauges & warning

lamps/buzzer’ for operation on
instrument panel before the
starting of driving.

Lanes and Lines

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Lane
The road way between two lines which is assign/allocate for any specific
vehicles, that road way is called lane.
Line
The marking on roads which is used to differentiate/divide road ways is called
lines. Always follow the lines and lane discipline.

Line

Shoulder Line Lane

Continuous line

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A single unbroken line,
along the centre of the road
is called continuous line.
You must not cross or
straddle/overlap it unless it
is safe to do so.

Doted line
A single broken line, with
long markings and short
gaps, along the centre of the
road is a hazard warning
line. Do not cross it unless
you can see that the road
ahead is well cleared.

Continuous + dot line

Where there are double lines,
along the road and the line
nearest to you is unbroken,
you must not cross it unless
it is safe to do so and you
need to do so to enter
adjoining premises, or a side
road to pass a stationary
vehicle, or pass a road maintenance vehicle.

Dot + continuous line

Where there are double lines,
along the road and the line
nearest to you is broken, you
may cross the lines to
overtake if it is safe.

Lane / line discipline

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  Do not change lane unnecessarily/suddenly.
 Do not drive on line.
 Do not drive in zigzag manner.
 Always keep your vehicle in left lane.
 Use 2nd /right lane only for overtaking.
 If you need to change lane, 1 st use your mirrors to make sure that you are
not forcing another driver to swerve/turn sharply or slow down.
 If it is safe to move over, give indicator and then change your lane.
 Do not change more than one lane at a time.
 Keep well to the left of the road, but give pedestrians, cyclist and other
slow moving traffic sufficient room. Do not hug the middle of the road.

Overtaking
When you are trying to overtake any vehicle, come in the overtaking lane 300
feet before and assesses the road accurately 1200 feet in front of the vehicle which
you are going to overtake so that the traffic coming from opposite side not create
danger for you. Your bus is 11.6 meters long therefore; you should make yourself
full satisfied that your vehicle is safe and secure from any danger. Your full
concentration is necessary in this regard. Before starting overtaking give proper
indicator for changing the lane for overtaking. After over taking observe in your
right side view mirror that vehicle is completely overtaken and the safety
distance between our vehicles is also sufficient and then come in the 1st lane
using indicator. Before over taking you should sure that you are not disturbing
the traffic which is following you, using RH side view mirror and road shoulder.
Always overtake in such a way that passengers should not feel any annoyance
while changing lane for over taking. You should avoid changing lane sharply.
Note: Over taking is not allowed at crossing, continuous line, at turn, U-Turn,
near factory/ school gate, at box junction/round about and bridges etc.

Defensive / safe driving

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Defense means safety or protection. The act or practice of operating an automobile in
such a way as to minimize accidents, especially by looking out for and avoiding others
who are driving badly. Defensive Driving is not a rocket science. Basically, it is all about
minimizing the odds of accident happening. Defensive driving is the term used for
reasonable and responsible operation of a vehicle, according to Fun and Safe
Driving. The term refers to the anticipation of potential problems and other
driver's actions to lower the likelihood of accidents. Defensive driving means, the
passengers, other road users and the company’s assets should not be hurt in any
situation. This can be achieved through adherence to a variety of General
Rules/Rule of road at all time, the practice of specific driving techniques and
being able to instantly recognize what is expected on the roadway according to
the law will prevent the miscommunication between drivers that leads to
accidents. Following are the major factors which can pay major role in
defensive/safe driving.

 Prevention

 Driver Assessment

 Clear Intentions

 Room for Error

 Education
Necessary objects of defensively

Highway Code
Driver must be aware of Highway Code book.
He should not violate the rules given in Highway
Code book in any situation.

Weak eyesight
Do not drive if your eyesight is weak and filling trouble
while driving in night. Use proper glasses as advised by
the doctor.
Position of other people

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Keep other people’s
position/location in
to consideration.

Use of side/back view mirrors

Always use side view mirror of your bus before
driving, change of lane, overtaking, U-turn and
stopping/parking etc.

Use of indicators
Always use indicators before driving, turning, change
of lane, parking/stopping and overtaking.

Speed limit
Do not over speed. Always
follow Company Instructions
as it can cause to heavy loses.

Prohibition of mobile phone

Do not drive while texting/talking on mobile

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Phone set otherwise you will bear irreparable
losses.

Attitude of others
Be alert and observe the attitude of others along the road, near round about, on
turn, on junction, while overtaking, parking /stopping and lane changing etc.

Proper indicators
Be careful about the use of indicators. Don’t use
improper indicator such as the bus is turning turning
to right side while indicator flashing of left side.

Safety distance
Follow Company’s instructions in keeping of safe distance from other road users’
i.e. vehicles, cyclists, motor cyclists, animal carts and pedestrians etc.

Drowsiness
Don’t drive if you feel drowsy as it can cause to
Major accident. Take proper rest before going
on route/duty. If you are on the way, stop the
bus, wash face and make sure that you are fully

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alert. While driving, keep driver side window in
open condition.

Sudden change
Avoid from sudden change in direction, speed, rapid starting, sudden apply of
brake, sudden reduction in speed, rapid acceleration, sharp turns.

Unnecessarily slow drive

Do not drive slowly unnecessarily as it will cause
to:

 Disturbance in scheduled time.

 For coverage of scheduled time, violation of
defensive driving limitations.
 Excessive fuel consumption.

Expectation of danger
Keep yourself ready for expecting various dangerous cases.

Violations by others road users

Always keep in mind that everybody can violate traffic rules while driving.

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Prohibitions of overtaking
Do not overtake.
i. When any other vehicle overtaking your vehicle
ii. Near turn
iii. Near round about
iv. When any vehicle emerging from behind
v. When pedestrian crossing road
vi. From wrong side
vii. On bridges

Speed control
Make habit of reducing speed near crossing & non signal light area.

Proper lane

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Never try to exit if
lost chance for proper
lane entry.

Change of lane
Always change lane bit by bit.

Before overtaking
Give sign such as “H – light on, horn” before overtaking. As the vehicle running
in front may take U-turn or right turn.

Observe Pedestrian while overtaking

Always keep in mind that pedestrian can appear from in front of forward
vehicle. Be particularly attentive if you are passing a school bus or an ice cream
van, as children may run out from behind it.

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Expectation
Never expect that the car following you,
would reduce speed and let you to
overtake. You always should make
yourself careful and abide by the Traffic
Rules and Regulation and Company
Instruction in such situations.

Road condition
Do not treat speed limit as a target. It won’t always be safe to drive at that limit.
Always take road and traffic conditions into account.

City areas
In narrow residential roads/streets with parked vehicle, you should not exceed
30 Km/h. Look out for hazards such as :

i. Vehicle emerging from junction

ii. Vehicle moving off
iii. Car doors opening
iv. Pedestrians running out from between parked vehicle

While overtaking long vehicle

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Large/long vehicle can
block your view. Dropping
back may increase your
ability to see and to plan
ahead.
If the vehicle in front of you
begins to overtake a
large/long vehicle, do not
presume that you can follow
it. If any obstacle develops,
the vehicle ahead may abort overtaking and need to drop back, so be careful and
avoid from following such vehicles.

Four points plan

Always keep in mind Four-Points Plan.
i. KNOW - What is happening around you?
ii. SLOW - When you are not sure.
iii. SHOW - Others what you intend to do.
iv. GO - When the circumstances are clear.

Safe Distance
As a general rule, drive at the same speed as traffic around you without going
over the speed limit. Leave a cushion of space around your vehicle to let other
drivers see you and to avoid a collision. Whenever you follow another vehicle,
you need enough space to stop safely if the other vehicle brakes suddenly. A safe
following distance is at least 03 seconds behind the vehicle in front of you. This
lets you see around the vehicle ahead and gives you enough distance to stop
suddenly. Do not block the normal and reasonable movement of traffic.

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 3 second time

To give yourself a three-second space, follow these steps:

1. Pick a marker on the road ahead, such as a road sign or telephone pole.
2. When the rear of the vehicle ahead passes the marker, count "two
thousand and one (2001), two thousand and two (2002), and two thousand
and three (2003)".
3. When the front of your vehicle reaches the marker, stop counting. If you
reach the marker before you count "one thousand and three," you are
following too closely.
Leave more than a three-second distance in bad weather and when following
large vehicles that block your view of the road ahead. You will also need to leave
more space when your vehicle is heavily loaded and when following smaller/
lighter vehicles, such as motorcycles, limited-speed motorcycles & rickshaws that
can stop more quickly than you.

Stopping Distance
Always drive at a speed which allows you to stop well within the distance you
can see to be clear. Leave enough room/space between you and the vehicle in
front so that you could stop safely in case of sudden brake to slow down or stop.
The safe rule is never to get closer than the overall stopping distances. But in
good condition 03 second time gap is sufficient. The gap should be doubled
on soggy/wet roads and 4th time on Slippery/icy roads.

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Speed
Observe the maximum speed limit specified on signs
board along the road keeping in view the safety
precautions regarding /defensive driving /road rules,
in a construction zone, heavy traffic and weather
conditions as well. Speed drastically affects the risk of
driving. National Highway and Transportation Safety
Administration (NHTSA) reports that in 1994 speed was a
factor in 30%of all fatal crashes, and 12480 lives were lost in
speed related crashes. The 1999 New Mexico Highway safety

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Safety Performance Plan reports that speeding is a contributing factor in approximately
34%of all fatal crashes in New Mexico.
Where there are no specific speed limits, the maximum speed is 50 km/h in
cities, towns, villages and built-up areas while 70 km/h elsewhere.
All the drivers are directed to follow strictly below mentioned instructions.
 In W/shops/Terminals premises, drive at the speed of 05km/h. (1 st gear).
 Abide by the speed limit specified on sing boards at GT road & motorway.
 Drive below the maximum speed in night, fog & in bad weather.
 Reduce speed near hospitals, schools & in city areas.
 Do not over speed.
 Always maintain safe distance.

Long Drive preparation

Before going on long journey, precautions given
below are very important for safety point of view.
Each driver is required to follow it strictly.

 Before the start of journey, every driver

should to take at least 08 hours complete
sleep.
 Do not drive if you are tired. In case of
incomplete sleep, do not start your journey.
If you didn’t care and started journey, it will not only dangerous for you
but also for your passengers, other road users and company’s assets.
 Always make sure of proper ventilation and fresh air in driver cabin.
 Take at least 10 minutes one stay after 2-3 hours journey.
 For a while chat with your companion on general topic in such a way that
your concentration on driving could not reduce and no one can raise any
objection. But don’t do chatting continuously as it’s only for energizing of
your mind. You should fully concentrate on your duties entrusted to you
while driving.

Driving In Summer
In summer season, engine of the bus gets hotter in case
of very slight mistreat. Therefore, every driver should
regularly follow the given precautions.

 Frequently check water level in radiator.

 Frequently check radiator fins for clogging.
 Regularly check engine cooling fan & fan belts
for cracks to avoid any trouble on the road.
 Observe temperature gauge time to time as
engine can seized if it gets overheated.
 In case engine overheating, be careful and act upon the followings orders.

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  Don’t turn off engine; keeps it running in slow speed.
 Don’t open radiator cap at once as it can cause serious injury to you
 Wash radiator with water OR wait for cool down with air blowing.
 Always keep a can full of water in your bus to meet an emergency.

Driving In Night
In night, drive only at a speed which allows you to stop
within the distance you can see very clearly. While going
to drive in night, follow the given instructions habitually.
 Before the start of journey, thoroughly check the head
lights, back lights & indicators for proper working.
 Slow down if you can’t see measures in front clearly.
 At junctions with limited visibility, slow down speed
and then move forward carefully, check both ways as much as possible. Make
sure that it is safe to emerge, do so decisively. Once you have reached a
position where you would be in the path of approaching traffic, do not stop.
 You must have your headlights on low-beam when another vehicle is within
the distance of 200 meters. This includes dipping the headlights when driving
200 meters or less behind another vehicle.
 If a vehicle with high-beams on is approaching you, reduce speed and look to
the left side of the road going on high beams for a while to confirm that the
road is clear and keep to the left of your lane. It may possible that the driver
of other vehicle’s dipped headlights to low beam observing your best driving
attitude. Or you may need to keep on high beams to let your eyes recover if
the lights dazzle you. However you should adopt the best possible attitude.
 If your vehicle breaks down on the road, turn on the hazard warning lights to
make sure that other road users can see your vehicle .If possible, pull off the
road side but avoid stopping just over a hill or just around a curve.

Driving In Rain
While raining, drive at the speed which allows you to
stop safe and sound within safety distance. Following
instructions are very important to follow in rain.
 To avoid skidding/slipping, drive slowly.
 Stopping safety distance is required double as
compare to dry roads.
 Rain reduces visibility. Use wipers to wipe up
front w/shield from outside and some cloth from inside to clear the view.
 Wipers and washer nozzle jet of your bus must be in working condition.
 Rain makes road surfaces slippery and the tires do not contact directly
with the road the surface of road. A thin layer of water is formed between

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 the tires and the road causing a complete loss of control. This is called
hydroplaning. Make sure you have good tires with deep tread.
 Slow down and have complete control on steering while taking turn.
 Steer and brake with a light touch otherwise bus will skid to either side.
 Keep more distance from the vehicle ahead as it will take longer to stop.
Water can also affect the efficiency of the brakes.
 If the bus begins to skid, remain calm, ease off the gas pedal and carefully
steer in the direction you want the front of the bus to go.
 Do not use clutch and brake together to reduce speed at once.

Driving In Fog
In fog, keep drive at a speed which allows you to stop
within the distance you see very clearly. In fog, the
visibility decrease due to which the chances of accident
increase. Thus to avoid accident always observe the
following instructions in consideration.
 Before start of your journey, make sure that the
F/wind shield of your bus is clean.
 Heater for front must be in working condition.
 Proper ventilation of fresh air in driver cabin is
essential to avoid from the formation of soggy on F/wind shield.
 Fog lights on front and back of your bus must be in working condition
 H/lights & indicators, parking and brake lights are must be in operation.
 In fog, the road becomes wet and misty. Thus to avoid skids, drive very
careful in controllable speed.
 Your full concentration in such situation is the confirmation of security.
 To avoid skidding, don’t steer and brake harshly.

 Keep Safety distance three times greater than the distance in routine.
 Don’t change your lane carelessly and unnecessarily.
 Don’t drive, following the back lights of the vehicle in front of you.
 Don’t allow haze on F/wind shield so that your vision could not disturb.

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Driving In Salt Range
In salt range area, defensive and economical
driving is the proof of a careful, talented and
professional skillfulness of the driver. Engine of
the bus depends only on your driving technique.
Thus carelessness in driving, can damage the
engine within short span of time. So, every
driver should pay full attention to the following
driving techniques necessary for driving in salt
range area.

Methodology/Instructions of driving in Salt Range

Area (LHE to RWP)

 At Lillah interchange, reduce speed up to 105 Km/h and shift Gear No.
06th down towards Gear No. 05th.
 Close to salt range, once again reduce speed up to 80 Km/h and shift Gear
No.05th down towards Gear No. 04th .(Road sign board also indicate
Reduce Speed).
 At the start of salt range, sign boards of specific speed are displayed at
different point. 1st sign board is 70 Km/h, 2nd is 50 Km/h. On crossing the
sign board of 50Km/h, shift into 3 rd gear and accelerate the engine to
maintain the RPM about 1700 to 2000.
 Be careful while shifting into 3rd gear, don’t delay in acceleration,
otherwise engine RPM will become very low and load on engine will
increase instantly. It will consider low pulling.
 Keep in drive the bus in 3rd gear and maintain RPM of engine in between
1700 to 2000.Don’t accede, other wise load on engine will increase and
performance will reduce which cause to increase the temperature of
engine. Always ascend in salt range area with low gear and accelerator.
 In salt range areas, drive the bus in 3rd Gear with 2000 RPM of engine.
 In salt range areas some part is ascending/uphill while some is
descending/downhill. In the descending areas, usually some drivers shift
Gear into 4th and speed up the bus which is dangerous for engine. So,
always use 3rd gear while going downhill so that temperature of engine
become at normal. The general rules of economic driving in hilly areas are
the use of same gears while ascending or descending.
 While ascending in salt range area, temperature of engine increase than
normal and some of the drivers after crossing this area with out observing
temperature gauge, shifts gear one by one to increase the speed which is a

46
 very serious mistake. Similarly in Sumbal ascending area too, some
drivers keeps to drive in the same speed. Resultantly the engines overheat
and usually buses gets break down in those areas.
 After the end of salt range area, where the sign board allows the speed of
100 Km/h, switch into 4th gear and accelerate the engine gradually to
increase the speed up to 80 Km/h with 2000 RPM of engine. It is
especially Sumbal ascending/uphill area.
 After crossing the Sumbal ascending/uphill area, while descending, do
not change gear at once to speed up the bus.
 Keep on drive the bus in 4th gear with 2,000 RPM of engine for at least 2
kilometers. Then shift into 5th gear and drive at 105 Km/h with 1800
RPM.

Methodology/Instructions of driving in Salt Range

Area (RWP to LHE)

 After crossing Kalar Kahar service area, shift into 4 th gear at toll plaza and
maintain speed at 80 Km/h with 2000 RPM of engine.
 Before starting of salt range area, keep on drive in the same speed. As
soon as you approached to salt range area, reduce speed up to 70 Km/h
just along the sign board of 70Km/h and than after a short distance, there
is another sign board of 50 Km/h. Before getting close to that board,
reduce speed up to 50 km/h and shift into 3rd gear with 2000 engine RPM.
 In entire salt range area drive the bus in 3rd gear at a speed of 50 Km/h.
 After crossing salt range area, gradually increase the speed up to normal.

Note:
From Salt range area to Balkasar, Observe time to time the engine temperature
gauge. In case of high temperature and abnormal sound of engine, park the bus
on the side of road and thoroughly check engine to recognize the reason of over
heating. Following important points are required to be checked.
 Water level and water leakage from the cooling system of engine.
 All belts for loosen and breakage. Radiator cap for loosen.
 Outer door of RRR filter/diesel pump, if that door is opened, close it.
 Oil and diesel leakage from engine.
 Wheel for jam & overheating. Air pressure in tires.
After confirmation of necessary checks and cool down the engine temperature up
to normal, then depart from there again.

Economical Driving

47
By following the under mentioned instructions, we not only minimize our diesel
cost but also the cost of spare parts and maintenance hours/labor charges.
 Always take start/move/march in 1st gear.
 Avoid rapid and high acceleration.
 Do not accelerate and drive when engine is cold.
 Avoid clutch riding. (While driving doesn’t keep
your foot on clutch pedal).
 Do not accelerate while switching off engine.
 Avoid continuous driving in low gear.
 Observe instrument panel while driving.
 Avoid to drive with low tires pressure.
 Do not use sudden brakes.
 Always maintain engine RPM as per instructions.
 Avoid over speeding.
 Avoid partial clutch & gear engagement on traffic signals or any traffic
blockage.

Drunks/Drugs
Do not use drunks/drugs before driving as it leads
to impair reaction times, difficulty in estimating
speed & distance, drowsiness and loss of
concentration. Drivers are required to strictly follow
the following instructions regarding drugs.
 Avoid taking any sort of Drunks/drugs if
you plan to drive.
 Driving in intoxication of drugs not only
dangerous for you, but also for passengers, company and other road users
as well.
 Medicinal drugs mostly cause drowsiness, nervousness and high
pretension etc. Thus read the medical advice on the bottle/packet if you
can, otherwise consult your doctor, before using and driving.
 Late night drinkers may be over the limit till following morning.
 Drugs like cannabis, heroin, ecstasy and cocaine are badly affect driving.

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Sleeping
Sleeping during driving is one of the most
dangerous and major cause of fetal accidents. Before
the start of journey, every driver especially those
who has to go on long route, must take proper sleep
for at least 8 hrs before going on duty.
On many occasions, it has been observed that driver
avoid stopping the bus in case of feeling even though heavy dozes while driving.
It is actually a very wrong thought of any driver. Drivers are required to avoid
such wrong and dangerous thoughts. When ever you feel the following warning
signs/abnormalities, its mean you are becoming lazy and sleep/doze can attack.

Alerting Signs of Dozing:

 Eyes closing or view displacement by themselves.

 Head leaning/incline by itself.
 Continuous yawning and tiredness on eyebrow.
 Thoughts/mind wandering.
 Forgetting of crossed areas (The area/distance drove).
 Drifting between lanes and track OR miss signs.
 Drifting off the road and narrow to the hard shoulder.

In case of any symptom of the above, abide by the following instructions,

 Stop the bus on roadside for a while, wash your face with cold water and
keep wandering for a movement.
 Keep open driver’s side window to make sure the proper ventilation of
fresh air in driver cabin.
 Keep slight exercise by moving your head left/right, up/down and
stretch your arm/fingers etc.
 If you’re still feeling abnormality, pull over to a safe place/service area.
Take a cup of tea, walk briskly and wash your face with cold water again
and again to make yourself fresh and alert.
 Start driving again and observe the road attentively. Don’t hassle an
aggressive driver by making negative eye contact or gesturing.
 Memorize, the danger of falling asleep on steering is early morning and
afternoon i.e. 4am ~ 6am & 2pm ~ 4pm which is 13 times as likely to have
a sleep-related accident.
 In case of over doze, don’t take risk to keep on driving. Stop again and
take at least two cups of tea/coffee and wash face too. It will eradicate

49
 sleep for more 90 minutes. But no longer as actually you have not taken
complete sleep before going on long drive.
 Avoid continuation if you’re still sleepy/ uncomfortable.
 To keep you alert, observe road signs and traffic around attentively.
 Prefer to use high protein snacks over heavy or fatty foods such as fries.
 Avoid alcoholic and medications (including cold remedies).
 Consult your doctor for advice of medicine non-intoxicated if required.
 Avoid too hungry and over food as both conditions are dangerous.
 Avoid driving in depressed & angry mood, extremely nervous about
certain things, or desperately want to reach your destination in a rush.
 Avoid too tight/uncomfortable dress/uniform and shoes as it can cause
disturbance in your mind.
 Plan for stop/break after 2 ~ 3 hours driving throughout your trip and get
out of your vehicle for making you alert and attentive.
 Be polite, even if other drivers are not. If other driver challenges you,
ignore his attitude and concentrate on driving.

Unexpected/Unseen
dangers
Unexpected dangers can arise on the road at any time.
Therefore, defensive driving dictate that drivers
continually expect the unexpected, thus avoid
potential accident by adopting defensive driving
techniques. For example on high way in city, rural
and jungle areas too, be attentive as pet or wild
animals from the roadsides can appear suddenly before your vehicle. In such
situation if encounter with animal is inevitable, follow the given instructions to
minimize the chance of collision or major injuries/damages.
 Apply the brake (Depress pedal) until the very last moment of collision so
that the crash force could minimize. Suddenly release of brake will cause
to propel the animal on the roadway rather than into your windshield.
 After observing animals, don’t try to cross them from sides in high speed.
 Reduce the speed and if possible, stop your bus and let the animal go.
 Don’t use horn for the animals; it’s also very dangerous at all.
 Be careful about animals on turn, narrow roads and in night times.
 Most of the major/fatal accidents occurred in avoiding of the hitting of
animals and striking with solid objects such as trees, road side heavy iron
protectors, parked vehicles and concrete borders etc. It may seem
unprotected, but keep in mind; simply applying brakes while you're
buckled up, holding the steering wheel with both hands, and coming to a
controlled stop (if possible) can really help to minimize the damages,
juries and causalities etc.

50
Defect in Vehicle
During driving, any defect can occur in your
vehicle. Most common faults are as under.
 Over heating of engine.
 Puncture/burst of tyre.
 Failure of electric system.
 Failure of A/C system.
 Failure of Air charging system. 786
 Defect in clutch system.
 Defect in engine acceleration.
 Defect in suspension system.

To avoid breakdown on road, make habit of careful inspection of the following

components before going on route.

 Water level and leakage of water from cooling system of engine.

 All belts for loosen and cracks. Radiator cap for loosen and defect.
 Water level in batteries and fuse box for fuses & relays.
 Oil and diesel leakage from engine.
 Air pressure in tires and tyrs for abnormal wear & cracks.
 Leakage of air from air charging system.
 Leakage of air from Air bags (suspension system).
 Observing of engine, alternator, and air & A/C compressor for abnormal
sound.
 Operation of clutch system.
 Operation of engine acceleration system.
 Inspection of all lights for proper operation.

Precautions
The following precautions are the key points of
our motto “No breakdown No accident”. Thus
each driver is required to follow these
precautions so that our motto could not be
suffered. For easy understanding it can be
divided into three major steps.

Checks before going on route

51
 o Patrol/ Diesel /CNG
o Oil & lubricating systems
o Water and water system
o Electric systems lights and wiring etc
o Rubber parts V-belts, hose pipes & tires etc.
o Body for damage and paint.

Observation during driving

During driving, observe the following time to time.

 Battery charging gauge/light and smell of wire
burning.
 A/C system warning lights & buzzers.
 Cooling system water level warning light.
 Engine temperature gauge and abnormal sound.
 Suspension system operation and inclination.
 Air charging system gauge/needle.
 Air pressure leakage from tyre and bus inclining due to tyre puncture.
 Brake for proper operation/function.
 Write down by Hostess all the observations/defects one by one on crew
comments sheet.

Checks at the end of journey

 Thoroughly check the bus body for any damage/scratches on paint.

 Engine for abnormal sound and oil leakage etc.
 Glasses and wind shield for any cracks and damage.
 Seats for any faults/defects.
 Tyres for low pressure and any damage.

Note: Once again check the observations/defects noted on the way on Crew
comments paper and submit it to workshop for further process. If there is a
chance of misunderstanding about any defect, it is better to explain it in detail to
concerned mechanic, so that the fault could remove without any hurdle.

Lights of vehicle

52
  Before the start of journey, check carefully all the lights i.e. head lights,
back lights & indicators for proper working.
 Check the adjustment and low/high beam of headlights before the start of
driving.
 Always use headlights on low beam as high beam can be disturbed other
road users.
 Use headlights on high beam when it is necessary.

Importance of Seat Belts

Do not ignore the importance of seat belt fastening. Make
safety a habit. Seat belts are important safety features of
modern vehicles that save lives and prevent injuries.

 The job of the seatbelt is to hold the passenger in

place so the passenger is almost part of the car which
prevents the passenger from flying forward as the car
stops abruptly in the case of a collision. People who
are thrown from a vehicle have a much lower chance
of surviving a collision.
 When a car stops suddenly due to a collision with another object such as
another car, a tree, pole, guardrail, etc. the car's acceleration decreases
very quickly in a short period of time. This is called deceleration.
Newton's Law of Inertia explains how this happens.

LAW OF INERTIA: An object in motion continues in motion with the same speed
and direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

 Safety belts when used properly reduce the number of serious traffic
injuries by 50 percent and fatalities by 60-70 percent.
 In a 30 m/h collision, an unbelted 160 lb. person can strike another
passenger, crash through a windshield and/or slam into the vehicle’s
interior with a 4,800 lb. force.
 For every one percent increase in safety belt use, 172 lives and close to
$100 million in annual injury and death costs could be saved.
 Today over 25 countries around the world have some type of mandatory
safety belt law. Results of these laws were measured; usage rate went
from 20-25 percent before passage to 60-90 percent after passage.
 Motorists can increase safety belt usage by example and verbal reminders.
Nine out of 10 people buckle up when asked.
 In case of accident, seat belts keep away head and body from hitting with
any thing or another person inside the vehicle. When a vehicle hits a solid
object, the people with out seat belts, keep moving until something stops
them or thrown away out of the car. If you are not wearing seat belt, the

53
 steering wheel, windshield, dashboard or another person strike with you
and might causes serious injury/injuries.
 Fire or sinking in water is rare in collisions. If they do happen, seat belts
help keep you conscious, giving you a chance to get out of the vehicle.
 Use a locking clips where needed to ensure that the seat belt stays locked
into position and will not develop slack during a collision.
 It has been observed that drivers often use blade, metal piece, nail or
pencil to lose seat belt for their convenience which cause to damage it .

Observation of
Instrument panel
 Keep an eye on instruments panel
frequently to observe all gauges, RPM
and speedometer etc.
 Maintain RPM according to gear and
speed so that economy could achieve.
 The high gear shifting RPM should not
be exceeded up to 1800 as it can severely
damage the engine.
 The low gear shifting should also not be up to 1300 RPM.
 Following the above instructions is the assurance of the best performance
and long operational life of the engine.

Why Accidents Occurs

Following are the major reasons of accidents
occurrence. Thus avoid these miserable habits
so that the chances if accident could minimize.

 Beating of red signals/lights, dashing

through amber.
 Keep on driving carelessly through stop
signs when there’s apparently no other
cars.
 Texting or talking on mobile/cell phone
while driving.
 Eating/drinking and clean up spills while driving.
 Being oblivious to others while aggressively searching for parking space.
 Getting frustrated while driving behind tankers/large/long OR slow
speed vehicles that obstruct way and view.

54
  Over speeding and careless driving attitude where speed limit is specified.
 Engagement in music/radio and oblivious to safe driving.
 Getting aggressive with loud music and chatting with others.
 Getting into confrontation even though verbal arguments or hand
gestures due to any reason.
 Ignorance of dozing/drowsiness and keep on driving.
 Talking/chatting with any one, take eyes off the road/make inattentive.
 Never bet with any one about driving attitude of others.
 The foot must have a “feel of the pressure needed by the pedals” to
achieve the desired braking or acceleration. Platform shoes or clogs with
hard heels are not good for driving as it obstruct the feelings required by
the feet for correct operation of the pedals.
 Accelerator and brake pedals both are operated with the heel on the floor.
Hence, using high-heeled shoes will hamper the operation of the pedals.
 Use of slippers is also not useful as the rear part of the slipper bends and
gets caught under the pedal or under the floor mat near the pedal.
 Socks or stockings are slippery which are also not viable on the pedals.
 Basic gym or walking shoes is good for driving. These provide enough
feeling on the feet and are firm and thick enough to give you the exact
pressure needed for.
Some important features to look for and to take in consideration:

 The sole of the shoe should be medium thick, medium firm and
should have enough grips on the pedal to avoid slipping.
 The shoe should be lightweight to enable easy movement and let
the feet relax.
 It should not be hinder the ankle movement in working different
pedals.
 It should also not be too wide as to cause stepping on two pedals at
the same time.

DO AVOID ACCIDENTS, ALWAYS DRIVE

DEFENSIVELY.

Breakdown
In case of any breakdown/fault in vehicle
follow the instructions given below.
 Slow down speed gradually and stop
the vehicle at roadside on safe place.
 After parking turn on double indicator.

55
  Let the engine run in slow and then turn
it off.
 Advice all the passengers to wait inside
the bus if not possible to stay inside
otherwise avoid to wander here and
there on road as it is dangerous for all.
 Observe the cause of breakdown very
careful if possible, remove the fault.
 Immediately inform the nearest
workshops/Terminals about the fault in
detail so that they could
prepare/arrange accordingly.
 Also tell the breakdown place/location exactly so that the recovery would
be possible without any delay.
 Inform motorway/highway police also for help and necessary
arrangement.
 Ensure safe and secure shifting of passengers and their luggage into other
bus of recovery.

Accident
In case of accident, may Almighty Allah BLESS
all, follow the instructions given below.
However it’s total depend on the situation and
nature of accident.

Minor Accident:
 If the accident is minor and there is no
human injury to both side/passengers
and no one is ready to admit his
fault/mistake. In such cases stop/remain
the vehicle at the spot.
 Contact the nearby police office/Police
station for lodging FIR of the incident and
necessary action.
 After parking turn on double indicator.
 Let the engine run in slow and then turn
it off.
 Advice all the passengers to wait inside
the bus if not possible to stay inside, then
avoid to wander here and there on road as it is dangerous for all.

56
  Immediately inform the nearest workshops/Terminals about the accident
in detail so that they could prepare/arrange accordingly.
 Also tell the accident place/location exactly so that the recovery would be
possible without any delay.
 Inform motorway/highway police also for help and necessary
arrangement.
 Ensure safe and secure shifting of passengers and their luggage into other
bus of recovery.

Major Accident:

 If the accident is major/fetal and there is

human causalities/injuries to both sides
crew/passengers and you are safe then
immediately contact first to emergency
1122 for help/first aid treatment.
 Contact the nearby police office/Police
station for lodging FIR of the incident and
necessary action.
 If possible after parking turn on double indicator so that other road user
would get alert ness about the situation. Be careful, if the condition of bus
body is very bad and it may get on fire due to damage electric
wire/system. Then immediately disconnect
the battery’s terminals.
 Go out of the bus and stand/positioned on
the roadside to call/request the other road
user for help and first aid to passengers.
 Try to get out first the serious injured
persons so that they could provide
treatment immediately.
 Keep close eyes on the ornaments/jewelries
& pockets of the injured as on such
occasions pickpockets take advantages of
emergency.
 Request all the passengers to avoid crying/howling and if possible please
help the injured with your best knowledge and courage. Also avoid from
wandering here and there on road as it is dangerous for all.
 Immediately inform the nearest workshops/Terminals in detail about the
accident so that they could prepare/arrange accordingly.
 Also tell the accident place/location exactly so that the recovery would be
possible without any delay.
 Inform motorway/highway police also for help and necessary
arrangement.

57
  Ensure safe and secure shifting of passengers and their luggage into other
bus of recovery.

Parking on Road
 Always park your vehicle properly as your
wrong parking can cause inconvenience for
others.
 Do not park on “No Parking”any where.
 On motorway/highway, always park your
vehicle on hard shoulder (after yellow line).
 After parking, always on double indicator.
 Leave enough space between your own
vehicle and that of other parked vehicle.
 Parking in ascending (descend) area
 Turn front wheel toward wall side.
 Make sure that you have placed logs
of wood or a brick under the tyres.

Stopping At Toll Plaza

While stopping at any toll plaza, follow the
under mentioned instructions so that the
chances of misshapen could minimize.

 At least one kilometer before toll

plaza, slow down the speed of your
vehicle gradually.
 About 500~300 meters before toll
plaza, reduce speed of your bus up
to 80~70~ 60 km/h gradually.
 Now observe the track suitable for
you keeping in view the traffic load on that track and time saving.
 Before the start of your desired track, bus speed should reduce up to 30
Kilometer/h.
 As soon as you enter in toll plaza premises, the speed should be 10 Km/h.
 Closely observe the side walls of toll plaza and make sure that your bus is
not touching with it. Use back/side view mirror for observation of sides.
 After stopping at toll gate/plaza, shift gear into neutral position. Do not
remain the vehicle in gear position.
 Avoid keeping your foot continuously on clutch pedal at tool gate/plaza.
 While stopping at toll plaza, immediately apply hand brake of the vehicle.
 After getting the toll slip and balance amount, always march in 1st gear.

58
Safety Measures at Service Area
Entering
While closing to service area, every driver is
required to strictly follow the below given
instructions.

 Keep in 1st lane about 1 Kilometer (1000

meters) before the start of service area.
 About 500~300 meters before service
area, slow down the speed of bus up to
80~70~60 Km/h gradually.
 Keep on left side indicator continuously
and reduce speed gradually as the
vehicles following you can be disturbed badly if you suddenly slow down
your speed and didn’t use side indicators.
 As soon as you entered in service road for service area, gradually reduce
the speed by slightly applying brake. Up to the end of road the speed of
bus should be reduced till 40~30~20~10 Km/h.
 While entering in service area, drive your bus at 10~5 km/h. Then observe
the empty lane and carefully park your vehicle at service area.

Exiting

While exiting from service area, precautions are as important as on entering in

service area. The ignorance of these safety measures can also cause
serious/major accident. Hence every one is required to follow the under
mentioned instructions.

 Before going inside the vehicle/bus, carefully check at the back of your
vehicle any parked vehicle and person.
 After getting in and starting the engine, carefully back the vehicle using
back/side view mirrors.
 Very carefully drive in service area using 1st gear as probably children are
running here and there. In service area too, follow vehicle’s lane.
 Gradually increase the speed and arrive at motorway link road by
adopting road way.
 Do not use any other way (tough tile way) to reach on link road.
 Before entering motorway, closely observe the vehicles approaching/
following on motorway. Make sure, that it is safe to enter, otherwise wait
for and enter when it is safe.

59
  Always use proper indicators, when entering on motorway from service
area link road.
 Use side mirror too before entering motorway from service area link road.

Resumption of Journey on Motorway

In case of stop on motorway, restart of journey
is required very carefull. In this regard
following safety measures are very important
for the drivers driving on motorway.

 While starting/moving it is necessary to

turn on right side indicators 1st , observe
side/back view mirror for the vehicles
coming from backside.
 After resumption of journey, keep on
driving on shoulder at the speed of 10
Km/h and gradually increase it upto 3rd gear speed .
 Keep on driving in 3rd gear with 1700 ~1800 engine RPM at speed of 40~50
Km/h and at the same time observe the back view mirror too .
 Turn on right side indicators and once again closely observe (using the
back/side view mirrors) the vehicles approaching/forthcoming from back.
 Make sure that the side and back is clear,then very politly change your lane
and enter in lane 1st.
 Now you are in your authorised lane,therefore, gradually increase speed
according to the company’s instructions.

Special Instructions
 In any case do not violate the Traffic as well as Company Rules &
Regulations during driving.
 While driving be attentive with the attitude of other road users.
 Always drive with full concentration.
 Do not use mobile phone while driving.
 Make habit of defensive and economic driving.
 Avoid over speeding as it is dangerous in all cases.
 Report for duty one hour before departure time.
 Make habit of taking complete rest before your next duty.

60
 Do not use drugs, intoxicated and alcoholic medicine before driving and
during the driving on road.
 Do change lanes unnecessarily and with out observing safety measures.
 Do not drive on lines and never violate the line/lane discipline.
 Use right (2nd land) lane only for overtaking as this lane is only allow for
high speed vehicles (Specified for more than 120 Km/h) .
 While driving make sure of the proper ventilation of fresh air and keep
open the driver side window glass.
 Enter/exit in service areas as per given training
 Take care of light vehicles, as mostly these vehicles are driven by
inexperienced and nonprofessional drivers.
 Always maintain safe distance by using 3 second rule.
 Do not involve yourselves in any gamble and unfair/unethical activities.
 If you feel laziness/dozing, open side window glass and stop the bus at
safe place. Take a cup of tea, walk briskly & wash your face with cold
water and the restart your journey.
 Always adopt a good moral attitude/behavior with Passengers, Other
Road Users and Officers/Officials of Law Enforcement Agencies.

 Always give 1st importance to the safety and security of the human being
in all sorts of phenomenon
 Be loyal to the Company and always work for the best interest/benefits
of the organizations as this is actually the loyalty with your own family.
 Always understand the situation/Circumstances first and than act upon
the best possible option keeping the importance of “First Safety”.
 In case tyre of the bus got punctured, do not drive with puncture tire.
Change puncture tyre and then restart your journey.
 During overtaking of any vehicle, follow the precautions and procedure
narrated in the topic “Overtaking” in the beginning of this booklet.
 In case of accident, accomplish the instructions of company described in
the subject “Accident”.
 Similarly, if the bus got breakdown on the way, never forget the
instructions regarding the recovery procedure of breakdown explained
in this book.

61
Theoretical Training From
Driver’s Manual

PAKOR Global
(Pvt) Ltd
62
 City and Intercity
Express Bus Service

Two Days
Theoretical Training

From
63
 Driver’s Manual

Bus Technology/Equipments

64
 City and Intercity
Express Bus Service

Engine
A machine/device that converts chemical
energy into thermal energy and than into
mechanical energy/force or motion is
called engine. There are two major types of
engine with combustion point of view.

Internal Combustion Engine:

An internal combustion engine develops its
operating pressure by burning fuel directly
in the engine’s cylinders. Gasoline engines,
Wankel engines, diesels, gas turbines are all
internal combustion.

External combustion engines:

External combustion engines burn the fuel outside the engine and use it to heat
an operating fluid which then is used to operate the engine.
Steam locomotives, steam turbines, and Stirling engines are external combustion.
In any vehicle mostly internal combustion engine is the main power source
except hybrid cars and fuel cell vehicles.
Internal combustion engine means “engines combustion process completes
inside the engine”. Combustion of fuel in the presence of air creates enough
power to propel the vehicle.
Mostly one designed engine cab is run only on fuel for which it was designed.
Because different fuels require different requirements.

65
Fuels which are being in use these days or can be used as fuel are Gasoline,
Diesel, Bio-Diesel, CNG, LPG, Ethanol, Hydrogen, Kerosene oil, Belzol, Alcohol
and petrol etc.

Engine Systems:

An engine has the following different systems for specific functions and purpose.

 Cooling system
 Lubrication system
 Fuel system
 Air Intake system
 Exhaust system
 Ignition system

Cooling system:
The cooling system forms an intrinsic part of an automobile engine. It performs
multitude of functions such as removing excess heat from the engine,
maintaining efficient temperature and allowing engine to perform its task within
a short span of time. Ideally, automobile cooling system keeps the engine
running at an optimum temperature whatever the operating conditions are.
Automobile Cooling System consists of components or equipment installed in
vehicles for removing heat from all the moving parts so that they can work
suitably without melting, seizing and overheating.
Cooling system Components
 Radiator
 Radiator Fan
 Radiator Reserve Tank
 Water pump
 Thermostat valves
 Hose pipes
 Fan belts

66
Lubrication system:
The lubrication system of an automobile
is mostly used for collecting, cleaning,
cooling and re circulating oil in the
engine of vehicle. The main function an
automobile lubrication system is to
circulate and deliver oil to all the
moving parts of an engine in order to
lessen friction between surfaces that
comes in contact with each other. The
lubrication system of an automobile acts
to reduce engine wear caused by the
friction of its metal parts, as well as to
carry off heat

67
Lubrication system Components:
 Oil pan/sum
 Inlet screen
 Oil filters
 Pressure regulating valve
 Bypass valve
 Oil pump
 Oil cooler

68
Fuel system:
The fuel supply system of the vehicle constitutes an important element of an
engine. Its core function is to ensure the smooth and uninterrupted supply of fuel
to other peripherals of an engine. An automobile fuel supply system comprises
of various components and devices like fuel cells, carburetor, fuel pump, fuel
tank, fuel coolers, automobile filters which are used for storing fuel and
distributing it to internal combustion engine as in when needed. Today, almost
every automobile has a pressurized fuel supply system equipped with a pump
that is used for pushing fuel from the fuel tank to engine of the vehicle.

Diesel Engine Fuel System

The construction of diesel engines is comparable to that of spark ignition engines
except the fuel system. In diesel engines the main fuel component is the diesel
fuel injection pump whereas the major part in a spark ignition engine is the
carburetor. However, the cylinder block, pistons, and cylinders are similar in
both the engines. The diesel fuel is burnt in the combustion chambers and the
high pressures produced pushes the pistons down. The movement of pistons
causes the crankshaft to rotate, and this rotary motion of the crankshaft is
transmitted to the drive wheels through the shaft and gears.

Functioning Of Fuel Injection Pumps

The function of a fuel injection pump is to distribute an accurately measured
quantity of fuel at high pressure, to the injector at the correct time. The injector

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directly injects the fuel into a pre chamber coupled with the cylinder, or into the
cylinder. Injection pumps that are fitted in diesel engines obtain drive through
chains from the crankshaft or gears. The diesel fuel injection pump is
synchronized with the engine timing belt to supply fuel into the engine
immediately before the compression stroke of the engine. The working of fuel
injection pump involves high pressures, due to which efficient safety precautions
are necessary while working on fuel injection pumps, so that the operator is not
wounded because of the high pressures.

Types of Fuel Injection Pumps

In small cars and trucks rotary type of fuel injection pump is used that delivers
the fuel to the fuel system. An electronic type fuel injection pump has integrated
safety features that are designed to shut down the pump if an accident occurs or
if it measures no oil pressure in engine.

Distribution Pump
The function of the distribution pump is to control the amount and timing of the
fuel injected that is regulated by the governor. The movement of the accelerator
pedal changes the adjustment of the governor. The governor used in automotive
diesel engines is controlled mechanically, pneumatically, or electronically, and
are variable speed governors that are designed to control the engine that
operates at different speeds.

Air Intake system:

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Air   intake   systems   vary   greatly from   vendor   to   vendor   but   are usually
one of two types, wet or dry.   In a wet filter intake system, as  shown  in  Figure
14,  the  air  is sucked    or    bubbled    through    a housing  that  holds  a  bath  of
oil such  that   the   dirt  in   the   air   is removed  by  the  oil  in  the  filter. The
air   then   flows   through   a screen-type material to ensure any entrained oil is
removed from the air.   In a dry filter system, paper, cloth, or a metal screen
material is used to catch and trap dirt before it enters the engine (similar to the
type used in automobile engines). In addition to cleaning the air, the intake
system is usually designed to   intake   fresh   air   from   as   far away from the
engine as practicable, usually just outside of the engine's building or enclosure.
This  provides  the  engine  with  a supply  of  air  that  has  not  been heated by
the engine's  own  waste heat. The reason for ensuring that an engine's air supply
is as cool as possible is that cool air is denser than hot air.   This means that, per
unit volume, cool air has more oxygen than hot air.   Thus, cool air provides
more oxygen per cylinder charge than less dense, hot air.   More oxygen means a
more efficient fuel burn and more power.

Exhaust system:

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An automobile exhaust system comprises of various devices or parts of an
automotive engine, which are used for discharging burned gases or steam.
Exhaust systems consists of tubing, which are usually used for emitting out
waste exhaust gases with the help of a controlled combustion taking place inside
an automobile engine. All the burnt gases are exhaled from an engine using one
or more exhaust pipes. These gases are expelled out through several devices like
cylinder head, exhaust manifold, turbocharger, catalytic converter, muffler and
silencer.
The diagram illustrated below explains the working of all the key components of
an exhaust system used in automobile. The major components used in a typical
automobile exhaust system are exhausted manifold, resonator, catalytic
converter, exhaust pipe, muffler, tail pipe, ‘Y’ pipe, ball flanges. All of these
components are especially designed for providing suitable and effective exhaust
flow, silencing, and emission levels.

Components of Automobile Exhaust System  

 Exhaust pipes
 Exhaust Clamp and Brackets
 Headers
 Catalytic Converters
 Exhaust Flange
 Air Components
 Exhaust Manifold Gaskets
 Heat Protection Products
 Muffler

Ignition system
Main types of ignition system in internal combustion engine of vehicles.

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  Spark ignition system
 Compression ignition system
Spark ignition system:
Automobile Ignition System constitute of various devices, tools and components
that are used for igniting the fuel in an internal combustion engine of a vehicle.
In this system, electric current is used for burning the mixture of air and fuel
with the help of coil, battery, and spark plug. Ignition system is assembled in
only those automobile engines, which operates with the help of petrol or
gasoline. The two main functions of automobile ignition system are to produce
enough voltage so that it can easily create a spark for burning air/fuel mixture
and secondly it exercises control over the timing of spark and transmit it to the
apt cylinder. A typical automobile ignition system produces voltage somewhere
between 20000 volts and 50000 volts from a 12-volt source. Automobile ignition
system can be further classified into three main heads such as mechanical
ignition system, electronic ignition system and distributor less ignition system.
Most of the vehicles today incorporate electronic ignition system in its engine.

Compression ignition system

Similarly this System also constitutes of various devices, tools and components
that are used for igniting the fuel in an internal combustion engine of a vehicle.
In this system, the high compression pressure developed in the cylinder of an
engine at the end of compression stroke which cause to increase the temperature
up to 700C ~ 1200C and the same time the injector start spray of
diesel/atomization of diesel on the top of the piston .As soon as the atomization
takes place the diesel/fuel itself ignite as the temperature sufficient is there for
self ignition of diesel/fuel. In this system only air is inducting in the cylinder
during the suction stroke. During compression stroke the same air is compressed
in the cylinder to create high compression/temperature for the ignition of
atomized diesel/fuel in the cylinder. Major are as under.
Components of the compression ignition system

 Fuel injection pump

 Injector nozzles
 Diesel/Fuel filter
 High pressure pipes
 Fuel feed pump
Major Parts of Engine

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The major parts of diesel engines are Cylinder block, Cylinder head, Piston,
Connecting rods, Crank shaft, Cam shaft, Fuel Injection pump, Injectors.

Cylinder block Piston

Connecting rod

Crankshaft
Checking of Engine blow by
Before departing from workshop/terminal OR from stay area each driver is
required to check the engine for the smoke emits through tappet cover cap OR
trough breathing pipe. If the engine emits smoke through tappet cover cap OR
trough breathing pipe continuously. It means the engine is blowing bye. In such
case switch off the engine and inform concerned workshops for replacement of
bus as the engine get breakdown on the way due to seizing of pistons or rings.

Temperature gauge observation

While driving, all the drivers are
instructed to keep close eyes on the
gauges of instrument panel. If the
temperature gauge shows/indicates
any abnormality regarding engine’s
heat up, stop the bus and rectify the
fault if you can or inform the nearest
w/shop for necessary action.
Engine seized

74
Incase of engine seized, or you feel that engine is not cranking so don’t try to
crank the engine again & again. Inform the nearest W/shop immediately.

Electric system
Automobile electrical system has gradually evolved/developed over the years
and today it assimilates automatic computer control of the automotive
mechanics. In the early days, automobiles electrical system comprised of only
basic wiring technologies that were used for distributing power to other parts of
a vehicle. It had only switches, wires, relays and controlled motors as its key
components but today’s electrical system includes sensors, actuators, alternators,
battery, oxygen sensors, generator, starter solenoid, starter drive, high power
electrical system and other devices. Electrical system provides the electricity to
the various components of bus like starter motor, all exterior & interior lights,
and air conditioned system etc.

The electrical wiring system of an automobile incorporate different types of

devices, flexible electrical wires, electrical fuses, connectors, fuse blocks used for
fastening one end of an automobile component to the power source device.
These electrical wiring components are used for bearing mechanical loads and
transmitting communication signals or electrical energy.
Function
Automobile Battery refers to an electrochemical device comprising of primary
and secondary cells that are used for transforming chemical energy into

75
mechanical energy. Most of the vehicles today use ‘lead acid’ batteries. Batteries
are mostly of two types i.e. non-rechargeable and rechargeable. Often called as
disposable batteries, non-rechargeable batteries are used once and then dumped.
Rechargeable batteries are those devices that can be easily recharged by applying
electrical current that turns or reverses chemical reaction. China, Hong Kong,
United States, India and Taiwan are the major battery manufacturing countries
on the global platform.

The charging system of an automobile has three basic components such as

alternator, regulator, and the interconnecting wiring. The main function of
automobile charging system is to control and regulate the charge in the battery of
a vehicle. Automobile charging system generally generates a voltage between
13.5 and 14.4 volts when the engine is working. It produces electrical current for
operating automobile lights, music systems, heater, engine electrical system and
other electrical components.
Battery is the main source of electricity in the bus which provides current to all
components. Alternator is just used to recharge the batteries. Alternator
produces AC current which convert by diodes/rectifiers into DC current and
uses to recharge the batteries. Fuses in fuse box are protecting the wiring from
excessive flow of current. As soon as we turn on the ignition switch, current
flows from batteries to operating circuit of the system in warning lights, gauges
and stator of alternator for magnetizing.

Parts of electrical system

 Batteries
 Ignition switch
 Alternator
 Starter motor
 Main relay
Voltage Regulator
 Main fuse box
 All lights
 Air con motors
 Dash board gauges

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 Batteries Fuse box

Dash Board Gauges Alternator

Main Fuse Box Main Switch

Automotive steering system

Automotive steering system is basically a mechanical system through which
driver of the vehicle controls the movement of an automobile, truck, tractor or
bus. The basic function of an automobile suspension and steering system is to
enable the wheels of a vehicle to function independently thereby making it more
sound, sturdy and suspended.

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Steering Mechanism:

By automotive steering mechanism, we mean a system composed of various

devices and components which are used for steering a motor vehicle. Power
steering is the widely used mechanism in automobiles in which engineer power

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expands the torque applied to the steering wheel. Power steering pumps used in
automotive steering mechanism comprises of retractable vane that is driven by
the car's engine via a gear, belt and pulley.

Power steering
The term power steering is usually used to describe a system that provides
mechanical steering assistance to the driver of a land vehicle, for example, a car,
truck and bus etc. The power steering system in a vehicle is a type of
servomechanism.

For many drivers, turning the steering wheel in a vehicle that doesn't have power
steering requires more force (torque) than the driver finds comfortable, especially
when the vehicle is moving at a very slow speed. Steering force is very sensitive
to the weight of the vehicle, and nearly so much to its length, so this is most
important for large vehicles. In a vehicle equipped with power steering, when
the driver turns the steering wheel, she or he feels only a slight retarding force,
so a vehicle equipped with power steering can be driven by any healthy driver,
even when the vehicle is being parked. This is because the power steering system
furnishes most of the energy required to turn the steered wheels of the car.

Most power steering systems in cars and light trucks today are hydraulic (that is, the
force to turn the wheels is provided by a hydraulic piston, which is powered by high

79
pressure hydraulic fluid), but in some cars and trucks, the steering force is provided by an
electric motor.

80
 Steering pump

Suspension System
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Automotive or automobile suspension and steering are the two paramount parts
of an automobile, which are directly related to each other. The basic function of
an automobile suspension and steering system is to enable the wheels of a
vehicle to function independently thereby making it more sound, sturdy and
suspended. Automotive or automobile suspension and steering system make use
of many kinds of suspension springs that help the vehicle to move comfortably
and adapt to the uneven road conditions. These suspensions springs used by an
automobile contract when the wheels come in contact with a bump and expand
when they hit a dip. Suspension system is used for comfortable drive and reduce
road jerk for the safety of different systems. Some common features of
suspension system are as under.
 To safeguard the occupants against road shocks.
 To keep the body of the vehicle on even while traveling over through
ground, or when turning in order.
 To minimize the rolling, pitch or vertical moment tendency.
 To minimize the effect of stress due to road shocks on the mechanism of
the bus.
 To keep the body perfectly in level while traveling overt rough or uneven
ground.
 Up and down moment of the wheels should be relative to the body.

Parts of suspension system

 Shock absorbers
 Air bags
 Stabilizer bar
 Strut rod
 Torque Rod
 Leaf Springs
 Suspension Brackets

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 Air Spring (Air Bag) Shock Absorber

Automotive Transmission System

Transmission system comprises of various transmission components such as
gears, shafts and other parts, which function together to enable the movement of
an automobile.
Automotive transmission system consists of various devices that help in
transmitting power from the engine through the drive shaft to the live axle of an
automobile. Gears, brakes, clutch, fluid drive and other auto transmission parts
work together for transforming the speed ratio between the engine and wheels of
a vehicle. The auto transmission system incorporates various components, which
are attached to the back of the engine, and used for distributing the power from
the engine to the drive wheels.

Parts of Transmission system:

 Clutch system
 Pressure Plate
 Gear Box
 Propeller Shaft
 Differential
 Torque Converter (in case of Automatic Transmission)
 Axles
 Universal joints

83
84
Clutch System
A clutch is basically used for connecting and disconnecting the engine from the
driving wheels, whether stationary or when the vehicle is in motion. The clutch
is engaged or disengaged by using a spring-loading mechanism and is done
using the pressure of a pedal operated by the driver from within the driving
cabin.

 As mentioned earlier, a clutch is basically used to disengage the engine from the
rest of the vehicle because the engine does not have enough torque to make the
vehicle move from a state of rest to that of motion. A clutch helps in disengaging
the vehicle from the engine such that the engine can develop the torque required,
in due course of time, to move a vehicle.

The clutch basically consists of a clutch plate (or a series of them in larger
vehicles) and a clutch assembly which is spring loaded in such a way that when
the pedal is pressed, the release levers (as shown in the picture below) are
pressed inward, which push against a set of springs that clamp this clutch plate
to the flywheel of the engine, thereby releasing the clutch plate. This causes the
engine flywheel to rotate freely (the clutch is not in contact anymore) and the
gears can be shifted now or the engine can be started (if you are about to start the
engine). This clutch plate is always in contact with the engine’s flywheel, by
default. It is disengaged only when necessary by the action of the driver on the
pedal.

In other words as we press the clutch pedal it uncouples the clutch disc between
fly wheel and pressure plate. Resulting engine to run on idle state with out

85
transmitting the power to drive train. The speed of gears in gear box reduces
(gears in gear box become free) which cause to shift the gears easily with out
obstacle/clashing.

Gear box/Transmission

A transmission or gearbox provides speed and torque conversions from a

rotating power source to another device using gear ratios. In British English the
term transmission refers to the whole drive train, including gearbox, clutch, prop
shaft (for rear-wheel drive), differential and final drive shafts. In American
English, however, the distinction is made that a gearbox is any device which
converts speed and torque, whereas a transmission is a type of gearbox that can
be "shifted" to dynamically change the speed : torque ratio, such as in a vehicle.
The most common use is in motor vehicles, where the transmission adapts the
output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need
to operate at a relatively high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for
starting, stopping, and slower travel. The transmission reduces the higher engine
speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the process. Transmissions
are also used on pedal bicycles, fixed machines, and anywhere else rotational
speed and torque needs to be adapted.

Often, a transmission will have multiple gear ratios (or simply "gears"), with the
ability to switch between them as speed varies. This switching may be done
manually (by the operator), or automatically. Directional (forward and reverse)
control may also be provided. Single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply
change the speed and torque (and sometimes direction) of motor output.

In motor vehicle applications, the transmission will generally be connected to the

crankshaft of the engine. The output of the transmission is transmitted via
driveshaft to one or more differentials, which in turn drive the wheels. While a
differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to change the
direction of rotation.

86
Principle of operation
As explained earlier Transmission is a device which gives variable speed ratios.
During operation of any vehicle, need various speed ratios is required. For
example if a vehicle is stopped and need to drive it again from static position.
Thus need excessive power means more torque and low speed as torque and
speed are indirectly proportional to each other.
As soon as vehicle getting some speed the less torque and more speed is
provided by the transmission. While driving different speed and torque ratios is
required according to load on vehicle. Transmission/ Gearbox /is device which
could meet these requirement. Transmission provides us different gear ratios like
slow forward gears, top gear (direct drive) and reverse gear & over drive gear
ratios.

Construction of Transmission
In side the gearbox there are three shafts. One is counter shaft, second is main
shaft and third is reveres shaft. Different types of gears are designed on all these
three shafts. On counter shaft, some gears are fixed/developed as part of shaft
while two gears are replaceable in case of breakage. Remember that all the gears
on counter/lay shaft are fixed/rigid. On main shaft and reverse shaft, all the
gears are rotating with the help of fixed gears of counter/lay shaft. When ever
the engagement of any gear is desired, the catcher’s ring with synchronizer just
slips over the catcher’s hub until to engage/hold the gear. Gears on both shafts
always remain engaged/constant mesh with each other. However in neural
position the gears fixed on lay shaft only drive the gears of main shaft while the
main shaft remains static. At the time of engagement of catcher ring with the
driven gear on main shaft, it also starts rotating and the vehicle movement takes
place. Keep in mind only one gear can remain engaged when the vehicle is

87
running. Two gears simultaneously (at same time) can never engage as each gear
speed and torque is not matching with each other. Also remember that two gears
having different speed and different torque (1st speed gear and 2nd or 3rd speed
gear etc) capacity can never engage simultaneously. It will cause to lock the gears
in gear box and damage all the gears. When ever drive and driven gears of any
speed engages with each other, power transmits to wheels via clutch, input
shaft , counter/lay shaft drive gear, driven gear, main shaft, propeller shaft,
differential and axels.

Gear box Shaft & gear

Differential:

Differential is a device or equipment that comprises of gears which are attached

to the drive shaft and allows the wheels to rotate at varied speeds. The main
purpose of creating this mechanism is for driving wheels with the same force
thereby allowing them to turn at different speeds. More specifically, differential
balances the power between the left and right drive wheels at the time of
cornering i.e. when inside wheels move more slowly than the outside wheels.

In other words the differential is a device that splits/divides power between 2

wheels. As a car drives straight, its wheels will travel the same distance and
rotate at the same speed. When a car turns, the outside wheels will follow a
longer path around the curve. If the inside and outside wheels were connected
by a mechanically solid axle, they would force each other to rotate at the same
speed. The speed difference between the wheels on the shorter, inside path and

88
the wheels on the longer, outside path would result in tire wear, poor handling,
and if the traction of the tires were too great, the axle itself could be damaged.

Functional description

Torque is supplied from the engine, via the transmission, to a drive shaft (British
term: 'propeller shaft', commonly and informally abbreviated to 'prop-shaft'),
which runs to the final drive unit that contains the differential. A spiral bevel
pinion gear takes its drive from the end of the propeller shaft, and is encased
within the housing of the final drive unit. This meshes with the large spiral bevel
ring gear, known as the crown wheel. The crown wheel and pinion may mesh in
hypoid orientation, not shown. The crown wheel gear is attached to the
differential carrier or cage, which contains the 'sun' and 'planet' wheels or gears,
which are a cluster of four opposed bevel gears in perpendicular plane, so each
bevel gear meshes with two neighbors, and rotates counter to the third, that it
faces and does not mesh with. The two sun wheel gears are aligned on the same
axis as the crown wheel gear, and drive the axle half shafts connected to the
vehicle's driven wheels. The other two planet gears are aligned on a
perpendicular axis which changes orientation with the ring gear's rotation. In the
two figures shown above, only one planet gear (green) is illustrated, however,
most automotive applications contain two opposing planet gears. Other
differential designs employ different numbers of planet gears, depending on
durability requirements. As the differential carrier rotates, the changing axis
orientation of the planet gears imparts the motion of the ring gear to the motion
of the sun gears by pushing on them rather than turning against them (that is, the
same teeth stay in the same mesh or contact position), but because the planet
gears are not restricted from turning against each other, within that motion, the
sun gears can counter-rotate relative to the ring gear and to each other under the
same force (in which case the same teeth do not stay in contact).

Thus, for example, if the car is making a turn to the right, the main crown wheel
may make 10 full rotations. During that time, the left wheel will make more
rotations because it has further to travel, and the right wheel will make fewer
rotations as it has less distance to travel. The sun gears (which drive the axle half-

89
shafts) will rotate in opposite directions relative to the ring gear by, say, 2 full
turns each (4 full turns relative to each other), resulting in the left wheel making
12 rotations, and the right wheel making 8 rotations.

The rotation of the crown wheel gear is always the average of the rotations of the
side sun gears. This is why, if the driven road wheels are lifted clear of the
ground with the engine off, and the drive shaft is held (say leaving the
transmission 'in gear', preventing the ring gear from turning inside the
differential), manually rotating one driven road wheel causes the opposite road
wheel to rotate in the opposite direction by the same amount.

When the vehicle is traveling in a straight line, there will be no differential

movement of the planetary system of gears other than the minute movements
necessary to compensate for slight differences in wheel diameter, undulations in
the road (which make for a longer or shorter wheel path), etc.

Clutch and Transmission Troubleshooting

Defect/Fault Reason/Cause Action Require

Insufficient gear oil Replenish

Abnormal noises from

Wrong or poor quality of oil Use recommended oil

gear box

Gears teeth broken Replace

Gears teeth worn Replace

Excessive wear of bearings Replace

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 Clutch dragging Adjust

Hard gears Shifting (Gear

Insufficient gear oil Replenish

grating occurs)
Improper adjustment of clutch Adjust
Replace with recommended
Wrong or poor quality of oil
oil
Worn synchronizer assembly Replace

Remote control rod joints worn Replace worn parts

Slipping out of gears while

Worn shift rod or lock ball,

adjust with shim or replace
sagged spring

Worn shift rod ball groove Replace

running

Excessive play in gear shifting

Replace
ring and hub.
Worn or bent shift arm Rectify or replace

Gear with considerable partial

Replace Gear
wear

Tires
Automotive tires are usually rubber tubes or
more specifically pneumatic enclosures affixed
around a wheel which helps in facilitating
rotation of a vehicle. Almost all types of
automobiles ranging from two wheelers, cars
to airplanes use tires. Tires are filled with air,
which ultimately offers a flexible support to
the vehicle. Tires enhance the performance of
an automobile by providing a smooth and
comfortable grip of the road. Mostly, auto tires
are manufactured using ductile elastomer
material like rubber, fabric and wire. Tire is a band of iron, steel, rubber placed
round the rim of a wheel to strengthen it and reduce vibration. In addition to the
absorption of vibration the tyres also absorb the irregularities of the road surface

91
without transferring them to the vehicle. Tires provide traction for vehicle in
high speed as well as in rainy seasons when the road surface are almost slippery.

Air pressure in Tyre

Tyre gives the road grip to vehicle in order to move on road easily. If air pressure
in tyre is too low, result should be excessive fuel consumption. If air pressure in
tyre is too high/excessive, resulting uneven road grip, tire burst and also road
shocks will take place as tyre also provide suspension to vehicle’s body.

Tires threads provide traction and vehicle move with this traction. These threads
are design in different patterns for different vehicles.

Bus Air conditioning System

Bus Air Conditioning is the cooling, dehumidification, and filtration of the air
within the passenger compartment of the vehicle you travel in. This process is
performed by a close refrigeration system that circulates refrigeration in the bus
with high pressure.
As passenger comfort becomes an ever higher priority, it is impossible to
imagine buses and coaches without good air conditioning systems. But a good
air conditioning system in itself is no guarantee of immaculate operation in
practice. A perfect match between the system and the vehicle is equally
important.

92
Pre-syndication on how air conditioners work:
In the absolute basic, air conditioners used for cooling, work under five basic
building blocks. How? Through refrigerant:
 Compression
 Condensation
 Expansion
 Evaporation and boiling. Boiling? And it is suppose to cool air?
 Heat transfer or heat exchange

These five processes, work together to:

 Change the air property for you, by

 Lowering the temperature.

An air conditioner system in its simplest form consists of:

 A compressor

93
  A condenser coil
 A receiver and dryer
 An expansion valve
 An evaporator coil
 Fans
 Tubing to make the system, a closed loop system
 Refrigerant

Yes, air conditioners work in a closed loop arrangement and filled with necessary
quantity of refrigerant to cool the air. That is the secret (well, not anymore) of
how air conditioners work out the cooling effect.

Fundamentally, ACUs (air conditioning units) have two sides.

 High pressure side

 Low pressure side.

 The high pressure side consists of the discharge of the compressor, the
condenser, and the inlet of the expansion valve.
 The low pressure side consists of the outlet of the expansion valve, the
evaporator, and the suction of the compressor.

Schematic summary of how air conditioners work:

94
 1. High pressure side. Refrigerant gas' temperature rises up due to
compression from the compressor
2. Outdoor air is passed through a heat exchanger named, condenser.
Condensation of refrigerant happens here.

Refrigerant will be cooled down - to liquid state, and air will be heated up.

Motion of air is forced by condenser fan

3. Warm liquid refrigerant

4. Expansion valve or device. The device that allows pressure build up from
the compressor
5. Next, on how air conditioners work, the low pressure side. Expanded
liquid refrigerant. Liquid refrigerant will "see" low pressure area after
expansion valve, thus it will start to form refrigerant mist
6. Refrigerant evaporation and boiling will happen at the evaporator, as
temperature within the room (7), is higher than the refrigerant's boiling
temperature.

Room's warm air, will be passed through the evaporator, and cooled down.
Forced draft is helped by the blower

7. Boundary of the room

8. Superheated refrigerant vapor at about 10 oC (50 oF). Useful for
compressor's cooling
9. Last, and by no means the least - the compressor itself. Cycle starts back
from (1).

That was the pre-syndication part of how air conditioners work. The simple
introduction of evaporator and condenser is as under. All air conditioning
systems contain at least two heat exchangers, usually called the evaporator and
the condenser.

Evaporator
In case, evaporator or condenser, the refrigerant flows into the heat exchanger
and transfers heat, either gaining or releasing it to the cooling medium.
Commonly, the cooling medium is air or water. In the case of the condenser, the
hot, high pressure refrigerant gas must be condensed to a sub cooled liquid. 

A fluid absorbs heat when it changes from liquid to gas. This process is occurred
in the evaporator which is placed in the passenger’s compartment.
Condenser

95
The condenser accomplishes this by cooling the gas, transferring its heat to either
air or water. The cooled gas then condenses into a liquid. In the evaporator, the
sub cooled refrigerant flows into the heat exchanger, but the heat flow is
reversed, with the relatively cool refrigerant absorbing heat from the hotter air
flowing on the outside of the tubes. This cools the air and boils the refrigerant.

A fluid will release heat when it changes from gas to liquid. This principle is
done in condenser which generally is position in the air stream, in the form of
engine cooling system radiation.

Ac clutch & Compressor Ac Switches

Practical Training
On Road

96
 City and Intercity
Express Bus Service

97
Fifteen Days Practical Driving
Training on Road

Keeping in view the theoretical/classroom training

regarding the traffic bylaws and company
instructions

City and Intercity

Express Bus Service

98
How to Avoid Accidents

City and Intercity

Express Bus Service

99
Training by Showing
Movie Clips

100
 First Aid Treatment

City and Intercity

Express Bus Service

First Aid
First Aid is the temporary help given to an injured or a sick person before
professional medical treatment can be provided. This timely assistance,
comprising of simple medical techniques, is most critical to the victims and is,
often, life saving. Any layperson can be trained to administer first aid, which can
be carried out using minimal equipments. Basic training in first aid skills should

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be taught in school, in work places and, in general, be learnt by all, as it is
mandatory to our modern and stressful life.
In other words First Aid is defined as a lifesaving method to give immediate and
temporary treatment/care to the victim of an accident until an ambulance or
paramedic services arrives.

First Aid& Initial Action Steps

In case of any injury in an accident, take the following steps.
 Primary Assessment
o Protecting yourself
o Happening
o Responsiveness
o Summary
 Next Steps
 Treatment

Protecting yourself
First aiders are never required to place themselves in a situation which might put
them in danger. Remember, you can’t help a victim if you become a victim too.

First aider must always remember to safeguard themselves in the first instance
and then assess the situation. Keep in mind that your own personal safety is
above all else. Before you enter a scene, put on personal protective equipment,
especially impermeable gloves.

First aider is needed to be aware of the dangers which might be posing him as a
first aider, or to the victim. These can include obviously dangerous factors such
as traffic, gas or chemical leaks, live electrical wire and vehicle on fire etc.

In case you can not mitigate by your actions, then STAY CLEAR and call the
emergency services. Remember never put yourself in harm's way. Only after
these steps are completed can treatment of the victim begin.

Happening
Try and build a mental "picture" of the situation in your head. Details you
observe can help you care for your victim, especially if the injury or illness is not
obvious. Carefully observe the following points.

Assess the Scene –

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 Where are you? What stores, clubs, public buildings, etc. are nearby? Does this
area have motor vehicle traffic? What time of day is it? What are the weather
conditions?

Look for Clues –

Things that could help you determine the reason for the patient's illness or injury
may be obvious (such as an empty pill bottle between the patients legs) or subtle
(shellfish - which many people are allergic to - in the victims food).

Get some History –

If there are witnesses, ask them what's happened "Did you see what happened
here?" and gain information such as how long ago it happened "How long have
they been like this?", but be sure to start your assessment and treatment of the
victim simultaneous with your history taking.

Be sure to listen –

While working on a victim you may overhear information from witnesses in the
crowd. An example of this would be an old man falling on the sidewalk, as you
approach the scene you can hear someone say "He was just walking and his legs
went out from under him." But you may not see the person saying this.
Everything should be taken into account should no witnesses want to become
involved or you cannot ask questions. Note what is said and continue treatment.

Responsiveness
Once you are confident that there is minimal danger to yourself in the situation,
the next step is to assess how well (if at all) your victim responds to you.

This can be started with an initial responsiveness check as you approach the
victim. This is best as a form of greeting and question, such as:

"Hello, I'm here to help you. Are you alright?"

The best result would be the victim looking at you and replying. This means that
the victim is alert at this time.

In an emergency setting, the level of responsiveness is categorized by using what

is called the AVPU scale, AVPU stands for the four possible categories they can
fit into. They are either "Alert", "Verbal", alert to "Pain", or "Unresponsive"'

If the victim is unconscious, the first aider should immediately call an

ambulance as you will need professional help regardless of whether they are

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breathing or not. Waiting would endanger the victim's life unnecessarily, and
any time wasted in summoning help is time lost. If you are alone with an adult
victim, call immediately, even if you must leave the victim. Placing them into the
recovery position will help prevent them from choking if they should vomit
while you are calling the ambulance. If you have bystanders call the ambulance
immediately while you continue your assessment and care of the victim.

If there is more than one person injured the rescuer must determine the order in
which victims need care. In general, rescuers should focus on the victim with the
injury that is the greatest threat to life. Simple Triage techniques should be
applied to make sure that those in greatest need of care receive support quickly.

Triage is a system used by of rationing limited medical resources when the

number of injured needing care exceeds the resources available to perform care
so as to treat those patients in most need of treatment who are able to benefit
first. The term comes from the French word for sort.

Treatment
The last step is to actually provide care to the limits of the first aider's training --
but never beyond. In some jurisdictions, you open yourself to liability if you
attempt treatment beyond your level of training. Treatment should always be
guided by the 3Ps:

Preserve life
Prevent further injury
Promote recovery

Treatment will obviously depend on the specific situation, but some situations
will always require treatment. The level of injury determines the level of
treatment required.

The principles first, do no harm and life over limb is essential parts of the
practice of first aid. Do nothing that causes unnecessary pain or further injury
unless to do otherwise would result in death.

Examine the injured.

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Victim movement
If there is any danger that the accident may trigger further
accident by fire or passing traffic, you should shift the
injured to safe place. Move the injured with caution and

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careful observation as per victim’s state. Special attention should be paid because
neck damage is suspected.

Control of victim
The injured should be laid down so as not to aggravate ( more serious) their injury.
If the victim is in conscious, gently place the injured in the most convenient
position after talking. If the victim is not in conscious, place them in a position to
secure passage of air (be careful to potential neck injury).

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (revive)

Secure the passage of air.

Secure passage of air through the mouth or nose. Remove
any vomited substance from the victim’s mouth and open
the airway by lifting the lower jaw and lying down the
head. If the person is lying on their neck, leave them alone.
But if the victim is lying face down, try to readjust the
position to face up word without twisting the body. If the
person is in unconscious, set them in a position so that the
face is turned sideway. If the person has head or neck
injury, leave them alone and wait for the ambulance or
doctor because moving a person in such a state could
aggravate the condition.

Mouth-To-Mouth Ventilation
If the person is unconscious and not
breathing even with the air way open, give
artificial respiration as soon as possible. The
two kind of artificial respiration are,
i. Mouth to mouth method.
ii. Mouth to nose method.
Mouth to mouth resuscitation is the easiest
and most effective.

Heart massage
If you feel the absence of pulse even after artificial
respiration twice, massage their heart. Place your hand on
the victim’s chest and position shoulders over hand, with
elbow locked and arms straight. Compress breast 11/2 to 2
inches at the rate of 80 to 100 compressions per min. (15

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compressions should take 9 to 11 sec.). Compress down and release smoothly,
keeping hands in contact with chest at all times.

Ways to stop the bleeding

The three methods to stop bleeding are the direct pressure method, indirect
pressure method and tourniquet method.

Direct pressure method

The method, as the most reliable way of stanching, to apply a gauze or
handkerchief on the wound and press it firmly.

Indirect pressure method

The method applies pressure over an artery nearer to the heart rather than the
wound itself.

Tourniquet method
If you find it difficult to stop bleeding by either the direct or indirect pressure
methods, use a tourniquet. Tie a tourniquet around the part of an arm or leg at a
point closer to the heart than the bleeding wound. The tourniquet should not be
used for more than 30 minutes, and write down the time and position of
application on the tourniquet or other visible place.

Emergency supplies
Drivers should carry triangular bandages, gauze and other necessary items in
their vehicle for emergency aid in case of an emergency.

First Aid Kit

What Your First Aid Kit Should Consist Of

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There are ready made first aid kits available in chemists and large department
stores, but some people like to make up their own kits, so with this in mind, we
have put together some items you might like to include in your first-aid kit.

Every office, factory, home and school should have an accessible first-aid box
with following recommended basic contents:

1. First Aid Book

Clearly explains how to handle basic problems.

2. Band-aids (Plasters)
Band aids or sticky plasters are great for
dressing small wounds. They come in
all shapes and sizes for fingers, legs,
and anywhere else you might get little
cuts.
Make sure the Band aid is big enough to
cover the wound, if not you should use a
dressing instead
3. Elastic Bandages
The elastic bandages are good for wrapping sprained joints or
making a sling in the case of a broken arm.

4. Gauze and Adhesive Tape

Gauze pads or roll are cloth pads that
are placed directly on a wound to
protect and control bleeding (for larger
cuts and scrapes).
You will need adhesive tape to keep the
gauze in place.
In an emergency, a clean tea cloth, hand
towel, clean tee-shirt can be used to
cover the wound.
5. Antiseptic Wipes (Alcohol Swaps) and Cotton Wool

6. Safety Pins and Tweezer

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7. Scissors
A pair of scissors is needed to cut the
tape and gauze.

8. Small Mirror and Latex Gloves

Latex gloves are always a good idea, especially if you are dealing
with body fluids from a stranger.

9. Calamine Lotion
Calamine lotion is used for soothing sunburns and stings.

10. Clinical Thermometer

11. Analgesic Tablets

Such as aspirin or paracetamol

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THANKS TO ALL

AND

GOD BLESS YOU

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