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COMPUTER NETWORKING
& DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Theoretical & Practical Approach
Engr. Nureni Asafe YEKINI

Computer Engineering Department
Yaba College of Technology
Lagos Nigeria
i
Copyright
Copyright © 2022 Yekini Nureni Asafe
Typesetting @ YGF ICT & Educational Research-Publication Unit. A
division of YEKNUA GLOBAL FOUNTAIN ACADEMY 1-4 Global
Fountain Close Majoun Agala Ikire, Osun State Nigeria.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the copyright holder.
ISBN: 978-978-998-650-7
Printed in Nigeria by:

Has-fem Enterprises,
Shomolu, Lagos Nigeria.
ii
Preface
The objective of this book is to provide adequate theoretical and practical
knowledge on Computer Networking and Data Communication System for
undergraduate students of Computer Science and Engineering, Network
Engineer and Administrators, researchers and instructors.
This book introduces the basic principle, theories and practical of Computer
Networking and Data Communication System in Nigeria polytechnics and
colleges of technology in line with 2020 National Board for Technical
Education Curriculum (NBTE).
The book will be very useful for the readers of different categories as in
undergraduate students of University, Polytechnics, Colleges of Education
and allied institutions in all fields of Computer Engineering Sciences.
Computer
Nureni Asafe YEKINI

Computer Engineering Department
Yaba College of Technology Lagos Nigeria
iii
Foreword
Some books on computer networks and data communication are demanding
but insufficient; others cover a large amount of material but are
insufficiently thorough. Computer networking and data communication
systems are unique in their ability to combine rigor and completeness. The
purpose of this book is to introduce readers to the fundamental concepts of
computer networks and data communications systems, computer network
security, and network troubleshooting.
This book covers a wide range of data communications and networking
issues in depth while also providing introductory information on basic
electronic communications and telecommunications systems. The book is
readable, easy to understand, and packed with different ways to understand
topics such as data communications components, data representation, data
flow, resource sharing, wireless telecommunications systems, basic data
communications networks and systems, local area networks, internetworks,
and the Internet, including the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Each chapter is distinct and can be used as a standalone unit of study. The
book discusses computer network fundamental concepts such as the
advantages and security of computer networks, Internet models, protocols
and standards, network topology, network troubleshooting, transition
modes, and media. This book is intended for undergraduate computer
science and engineering students, as well as professionals, researchers,
iv
instructors, and technologists with a career or interest in data
communications and/or computer networking.
Oyeranmi Adigun PhD

Department of Computer Technology
Yaba College of Technology,
Lagos, Nigeria
v
Table of Figures
Figure 1: Local Area Network ............................................................................ 27
Figure 2: Metropolitan area Network................................................................... 28
Figure 3: Wide Area Network .............................................................................. 30
Figure 4: Serve-based network ............................................................................ 32
Figure 5: Peer-to-Peer Network ........................................................................... 34
Figure 6: Client-based network ............................................................................ 35
Figure 7: Network Topology categories .............................................................. 62
Figure 8: Bus Topology ....................................................................................... 63
Figure 9: Bus Topology with three stations ......................................................... 65
Figure 10: Ring Topology .................................................................................... 68
Figure 11: Star Topology ..................................................................................... 70
Figure 12: Mesh Topology................................................................................... 72
Figure 13: Hybrid Network .................................................................................. 75
Figure 14. Internal Cable Structure and Color Coding ........................................ 79
Figure 15: wiring diagram and pin out for RJ45 .................................................. 80
Figure 16. Peer-to-Peer Network ........................................................................ 87
Figure 17. Ping result for 2 PCs on peer-to-peer network ................................... 91
Figure 18. Simple Wired Home Network diagram ............................................ 102
Figure 19. Physical Network Setup with D-Link's DI-604 broadband router .... 106
Figure 20: A typical home wired network ......................................................... 114
Figure 21: Command Prompt window for nslook............................................. 118
Figure 22. Simplex Transmission Mode ............................................................ 135
Figure 23. Half Duplex transmission Mode ....................................................... 135
Figure 24. Full Duplex Transmission Mode ...................................................... 136
Figure 25. Organization of Data Communication System ................................. 139
Figure 26. DTE & DCE Representation ............................................................ 142
Figure 27. Description of Analog Signal ........................................................... 145
Figure 28. Fig: A digital signal with Two levels. „1‟ represented by a positive
voltage and „0‟ represented by a negative voltage ............................................ 152
vi
Figure 29: A digital signal with four levels ....................................................... 152
Figure 30. Category of Digital Data Transmission ............................................ 157
Figure 31: A T-periodic function. ...................................................................... 167
Figure 32. Categories of Transmission Media ................................................... 184
Figure 33: Shielded and Unshielded Twisted pair cable .................................... 186
Figure 34. Coaxial Cable ................................................................................... 188
Figure 35: Optical fiber cable ............................................................................ 189
Figure 36. Step Index Mode ............................................................................... 191
Figure 37. Grade Index Mode ............................................................................ 192
Figure 38: Single Mode...................................................................................... 192
Figure 39. Grounded Wave transmission ........................................................... 194
Figure 40. Sky wave propagation ...................................................................... 194
Figure 41. Line of sight Propagation ................................................................. 195
Figure 42: Radio waves transmission ................................................................ 196
Figure 43: Microwaves transmission ................................................................. 198
Figure 44: Infrared Transmission ....................................................................... 198
Figure 45: Distortion impairment ...................................................................... 200
Figure 46: Attenuation impairment .................................................................... 201
Figure 47: Noise impairment ............................................................................. 203
Figure 48. Error in transmission ........................................................................ 205
Figure 49: Classification of Line Coding Schemes............................................ 222
Figure 50: Unipolar (NRZ) & Polar (RZ & NRZ) Encoding............................. 223
Figure 51: Polar biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester .................. 224
Figure 52: Bipolar coding schemes – AMI and Pseudometry ........................... 225
Figure 53: Multilevel coding scheme: 2BIQ ...................................................... 227
Figure 54: Multilevel coding scheme: 8B6T ..................................................... 227
Figure 55: Block Coding .................................................................................... 229
Figure 56: Types of Modulation ........................................................................ 230
Figure 57: Waveform representation of Amplitude modulated wave ................ 231
Figure 58: Frequency Modulation...................................................................... 233
Figure 59. Basic concept of FDM ...................................................................... 250
vii
Figure 60. Synchronous versus asynchronous TDM ......................................... 257
viii
Contents
Copyright ........................................................................................................... ii
Preface............................................................................................................... iii
Table of Figures ................................................................................................ vi
About the Book ...................................................................................................xxii
C
HAPTER ONE
COMPUTER NETWORK CONCEPT
1.1. What Is Computer Network .................................................................. 23

1.2. Benefits of Computer Networks ............................................................ 23
1.2.1. Information Sharing .............................................................................. 23
1.2.2. Sharing Resources ................................................................................. 24
1.2.2.1. Hardware (Peripherals) Sharing ............................................................ 24
1.2.2.2. Application Sharing............................................................................... 24
1.2.3. Assisting Collaboration ......................................................................... 25
1.3. Network Engineer & Administrator ...................................................... 25
1.3.1. Responsibility of Network Engineer & Administrator .......................... 25
1.4. Classification of Computer Network ..................................................... 26
1.4.1. Classification by Geography ................................................................. 27
1.4.1.1. Local Area Network (LAN) .................................................................. 27
1.4.1.2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) ..................................................... 28
1.4.1.3. Wide Area Network (WAN) ................................................................. 29
1.4.1.4. Internetwork .......................................................................................... 30
1.4.2. Networks Classification by Component Roles ...................................... 31
ix
1.4.2.1. Client Server Model .............................................................................. 31
1.4.2.2. Peer-To-Peer Model .............................................................................. 32
1.4.2.3. Client-based Networks .......................................................................... 34
1.5. Review Questions.................................................................................. 35
C
HAPTER TWO
PROTOCOL AND STANDARD
2.1. Standards and Its Type .......................................................................... 36

2.1.1. De facto Standard .................................................................................. 36
2.1.2. De jure Standard .................................................................................... 36
2.1.3. Standard Organizations ......................................................................... 36
2.2. Protocol Types and Components........................................................... 39
2.2.1. Protocol and Its Types ........................................................................... 39
2.2.2. Components of Protocol ........................................................................ 49
2.3. Review Question ................................................................................... 50
C
HAPTER THREE
NETWORKING DEVICES
3.1. What are Computer Networking Devices? ............................................ 51

3.2. Modem .................................................................................................. 51
3.3. Gateway................................................................................................. 52
3.4. Network Interface Card ......................................................................... 52
3.5. Repeaters ............................................................................................... 53
3.6. Hubs ...................................................................................................... 53
x
3.7. Bridges .................................................................................................. 54
3.8. Switches ................................................................................................ 55
3.9. Routers .................................................................................................. 56
3.10. Brouters ................................................................................................. 58
3.11. Access Point .......................................................................................... 58
C
HAPTER FOUR
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
10.1. Description of Network Topology ........................................................ 62

4.2. Bus Topology ........................................................................................ 62
4.2.1. What is Bus Topology ........................................................................... 62
4.2.2. Advantages of Bus Topology ................................................................ 66
4.2.3. Disadvantages of Bus Topology............................................................ 66
4.3. Ring Topology....................................................................................... 67
4.3.1. What is Ring Topology? ....................................................................... 67
4.3.2. Advantages of Ring Topology .............................................................. 68
4.3.3. Disadvantages of Ring Topology .......................................................... 68
4.4. Star Topology ........................................................................................ 69
4.4.1. What is Star Topology........................................................................... 69
4.4.2. Advantages of Star Topology ................................................................ 70
4.4.3. Disadvantages of Star Topology ........................................................... 71
4.5. Mesh Topology ..................................................................................... 71
4.5.1. What is Mesh Topology ........................................................................ 71
xi
4.5.2. Advantages of Mesh topology ............................................................... 72
4.5.3. Disadvantages of Mesh topology .......................................................... 73
4.6. Hybrid Topology ................................................................................... 74
4.6.1. What is Hybrid Topology ...................................................................... 74
4.6.2. Advantages of Hybrid Topology ........................................................... 75
4.6.3. Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology ...................................................... 76
C
HAPTER FIVE
NETWORK & DATA COMMUNICATION LAB
5.1. Network Cabling and Testing (RJ45) .................................................... 78

5.1.1. Theory: Description of Network Cable and Modular Connection Plug 78
5.1.2. Making and Testing of Patch cable ....................................................... 80
5.1.2.1. Required Tool and Materials ................................................................. 80
5.1.2.2. Procedure to make RJ45 Cable ............................................................. 80
5.1.2.3. Testing Network Cable.......................................................................... 82
5.1.3. Punch Down Tools ................................................................................ 83
5.1.3.1. Description Punch down Tool ............................................................... 83
5.1.3.2. RJ-45 Jack Punch Down ....................................................................... 83
5.2. Building a Peer-to-Peer Network .......................................................... 86
5.2.1. Direct Connection of 2-Computers to share internet ............................. 91
5.2.2. Share files from Windows to Windows ................................................ 93
5.2.3. Sharing Internet from Mac .................................................................... 96
5.2.4. Sharing Files from One MAC system to Another MAC System .......... 98
xii
5.2.5. Sharing Files from Mac to Windows .................................................... 99
5.3. Building Home Network ..................................................................... 101
5.3.1. Wired or Wireless Home Network ...................................................... 101
5.3.2. Setting up a Home Network ................................................................ 103
5.4. Configuring IP Address ....................................................................... 103
5.5. Physical Network Set-up ..................................................................... 104
5.6. IP Logical Network Design ................................................................. 106
5.7. Review Question ................................................................................. 108
C
HAPTER SIX
NETWORK TROUBLESHOOTING
6.1. Description of Network Troubleshooting............................................ 110

6.2. Networking Troubleshooting Steps ..................................................... 110
6.2.1. Check the Cords & Power ................................................................... 110
6.2.2. Ping Yourself....................................................................................... 110
6.2.3. Ping Your Router (AKA: the Default Gateway) ................................. 110
6.2.4. Ping Yourself with Your IP Address ................................................... 111
6.2.5. Ping and Tracert outside Your Network.............................................. 111
6.3. Ways to check if a website is down .................................................... 112
6.3.1. Ping ..................................................................................................... 112
6.3.2. Traceroute............................................................................................ 112
6.3.3. Domain Name System (DNS) ............................................................. 112
6.3.4. Proxies ................................................................................................. 113
6.4. Troubleshoot Network Problem With “ping” Command .................... 113
xiii
6.5. Using nslookup command ................................................................... 117
6.6. Review Questions................................................................................ 120
C
HAPTER SEVEN
COMPUTER NETWORK SECURITY
7.1. Network Security Issues ...................................................................... 122

7.2. Security Requirements and Attacks .................................................... 122
7.2.1. Network Security Requirements ......................................................... 122
7.2.2. Network Security Threats and Attacks ................................................ 123
7.2.2.1. Attacks against IP ................................................................................ 123
7.2.2.2. Denial-of-Service (DoS) ..................................................................... 124
7.2.2.3. Unauthorized Access ........................................................................... 124
7.2.2.4. Executing Commands Illicitly ............................................................. 125
7.2.2.5. Destructive Behavior ........................................................................... 125
7.3. Prevention of Network Security Threats ............................................. 126
7.3.1. Encryption ........................................................................................... 126
7.3.2. Firewall ............................................................................................... 128
7.3.2.1. Types of Firewall ................................................................................ 128
7.3.2.1.1. Network Layer Firewalls ................................................................... 129
7.3.2.1.2. Application Layer Firewalls............................................................... 129
7.3.2.1.3. Proxy Firewalls .................................................................................. 129
xiv
C
HAPTER EIGHT
DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
8.1. Data Representation ............................................................................ 131

8.2. Data Representation in Computers ...................................................... 132
8.2.1. Description of Data Representation .................................................... 132
8.2.2. Decimal Numbers ................................................................................ 132
8.2.3. Binary Numbers .................................................................................. 132
8.2.4. Hexadecimal Numbers ........................................................................ 132
8.2.5. Text ..................................................................................................... 133
8.2.6. Graphics .............................................................................................. 133
8.3. Data Flow or Transmission Modes ..................................................... 134
8.3.1. Description of Data flow or Transmission modes ............................... 134
8.3.2. Types of Transmission modes ............................................................. 134
8.3.2.1. Simplex Data Flow .............................................................................. 134
8.3.2.2. Half Duplex Data Flow ....................................................................... 135
8.3.2.3. Full Duplex Data Flow ........................................................................ 136
8.4. Data Communication System and it Components ............................... 136
8.4.1. Data Communication and Data Communication System .................... 136
8.4.2. Purpose of Data Communication ........................................................ 137
8.4.3. Data Communication Components ..................................................... 138
8.4.4. Data Communication Criteria ............................................................. 139
8.4.4.1. Performance ........................................................................................ 139
8.4.4.2. Consistency ......................................................................................... 140
xv
8.4.4.3. Reliability ............................................................................................ 140
8.4.4.4. Recovery.............................................................................................. 140
8.4.4.5. Security ............................................................................................... 141
8.4.5. Data Communication Equipment (DCE) & Data Terminal Equipment
(DTE) .................................................................................................. 141
8.4.5.1. Data Communication Equipment (DCE) ............................................ 141
8.4.5.2. Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) ........................................................ 142
C
HAPTER NINE
ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
9.1. Analog Data and Signal....................................................................... 144

9.1.1. Description of Analog Data and Signal ............................................... 144
9.1.2. Characteristics of Analog Signal ......................................................... 145
9.1.3. Advantages of Analog Signals ............................................................ 145
9.1.4. Disadvantages of Analog Signals ........................................................ 146
9.1.5. Fundamental Components of Analog Signals ..................................... 146
9.1.5.1. Frequency ............................................................................................ 147
9.1.5.2. Amplitude ............................................................................................ 147
9.1.5.3. Phase ................................................................................................... 148
9.1.6. Composite Signal ................................................................................ 149
9.1.7. Digital Signal....................................................................................... 150
9.1.7.1. Description of Digital Signals ............................................................. 150
9.1.7.2. Characteristics of Digital Signals ........................................................ 150
xvi
9.1.7.3. Advantages of Digital Signals ............................................................. 151
9.1.8. Digital Signal Level ............................................................................ 151
9.1.9. Bit Length or Bit Interval (Tb) ............................................................. 152
9.1.10. Bit Rate................................................................................................ 153
9.1.11. Baud Rate ............................................................................................ 153
9.1.12. Transmission Channel & Composite Signal ....................................... 153
9.1.13. Transmission of Digital Signal ............................................................ 154
C
HAPTER TEN
DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION METHODS
10.2.1. Serial Transmission ............................................................................. 157

10.2.1.1. Synchronous Transmission ................................................................. 157
10.2.1.2. Asynchronous Transmission ............................................................... 159
10.2.1.3. Isochronous ......................................................................................... 162
10.2.2. Parallel Transmission .......................................................................... 163
C
HAPTER ELEVEN
BANDWIDTH
11.1. What is Bandwidth .............................................................................. 165

11.2. Fourier analysis and It Application ..................................................... 165
11.2.1. What is Fourier analysis ...................................................................... 165
11.2.2. Fourier series ....................................................................................... 166
xvii
Solution .......................................................................................................... 167
11.3. Bandwidth of Analog Signal ............................................................... 168
11.4. Bandwidth of Digital Signal ................................................................ 169
11.5. Bandwidth of Channel ......................................................................... 171
C
HAPTER TWELVE
OSI MODEL
12.1. What is OSI Model .............................................................................. 175

12.2. OSI Model Layers ............................................................................... 175
12.3. Physical Layer ..................................................................................... 176
12.4. Data Link Layer .................................................................................. 177
12.5. Network Layer..................................................................................... 178
12.6. Transport Layer ................................................................................... 178
12.7. Session Layer ...................................................................................... 179
12.8. Presentation Layer ............................................................................... 180
12.9. Application Layer ................................................................................ 180
C
HAPTER THIRTEEN
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
13.1. Description of Transmission Media .................................................... 183

13.2. Guided (Wired) Transmission Media .................................................. 184
13.3. Open Wire medium ............................................................................. 184
13.3.1. Twisted Pair Medium .......................................................................... 185
xviii
13.3.2. Coaxial Cable ...................................................................................... 187
13.3.3. Optical Fiber ........................................................................................ 188
13.4. Unguided (Wireless) Transmission Media .......................................... 193
13.4.1. What is Wireless Media ...................................................................... 193
13.4.2. Wireless Signal Propagation ............................................................... 193
13.4.3. Radio Wave ......................................................................................... 195
13.4.4. Microwave........................................................................................... 197
13.4.5. Infra-Red ............................................................................................. 198
13.5. Transmission Media Impairments ....................................................... 199
13.5.1. Distortion............................................................................................. 199
13.5.2. Attenuation .......................................................................................... 200
13.6. Review Question ................................................................................. 203
C
HAPTER FOURTEEN
ERROR DETECTION & CORRECTION
14.1. What are Errors Data Communication System ................................... 205

14.2. Types of Errors .................................................................................... 206
14.2.1. Single bit errors ................................................................................... 206
14.2.2. Multiple bit errors................................................................................ 206
14.2.3. Burst Errors ......................................................................................... 207
14.3. Errors Detection and Correction.......................................................... 207
14.4. Types of Detection .............................................................................. 208
14.4.1. Parity Checking ................................................................................... 208
14.4.2. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) ....................................................... 210
xix
14.4.3. Longitudinal Redundancy Check ........................................................ 212
14.4.4. Check Sum .......................................................................................... 213
14.5. Error Correction .................................................................................. 215
C
HAPTER FIFTEEN
SIGNAL CODING & ENCODING
15.1. Digital Data to Digital Signal Conversion .......................................... 221

15.1.1. Line Encoding ..................................................................................... 221
15.1.2. Line Encoding Categories ................................................................... 221
15.1.2.1. Unipolar NRZ...................................................................................... 222
15.1.2.2. Polar .................................................................................................... 222
15.1.2.3. Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary ....................................................... 225
15.1.2.4. Multilevel ............................................................................................ 225
15.1.2.5. Multitransition ..................................................................................... 227
15.1.2.6. Block Coding....................................................................................... 228
15.2. Analog Data to Analog Signal Conversion ......................................... 229
15.2.1. Modulation .......................................................................................... 229
15.2.2. Analog Modulation ............................................................................. 230
15.2.2.1. Amplitude Modulation ........................................................................ 230
15.2.2.2. Frequency Modulation ........................................................................ 232
15.2.2.3. Pulse Modulation................................................................................. 238
15.3. Review Question ................................................................................. 246
xx
C
HAPTER SIXTEEN
MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
16.1. Description of Multiplexing ................................................................ 248

16.2. Types of Multiplexing Techniques...................................................... 249
16.2.1. Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) ........................................... 249
16.2.2. Wavelength-Division Multiplexing..................................................... 252
16.2.3. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) ................................................... 254
16.2.4. Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing (STDM) ................................ 256
16.2.5. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing .................................... 258
Bibliography ...................................................................................................... 261
Index .............................................................................................................. 262
xxi
About the Book
This book presents the basic information both theoretical and practical
teaching and learning materials required for Computer Networking & Data
Communication in Nigeria Polytechnics and Colleges of Technology for
training of National and Higher National Diploma graduates in Computer
Engineering Technology. The book is written with particular attention to
the minimum requirements as contained in the new National board for
Technical Education (NBTE) released in the year 2020 for CTE 244:
Computer Networking & CTE 432: Data Communication for National and
Higher National Diploma.
xxii
C
HAPTER ONE
COMPUTER NETWORK CONCEPT
1.1. What Is Computer Network

Computer network is interconnectivity of two or more computers, computer
like devices such as printers, scanners, plotters, etc., so that they can
communicate with each other for the purpose of sharing resources, which
include but not limited to the followings: files, data, software, printers,
network services etc.
Computer networks are built using network infrastructure devices like
switches, routers, firewalls, servers etc. The computers or computer like
devices in a network can send and receive data, to or from another device
inside the computer network. These devices connected to the network are
called network hosts or network nodes, and they follow special rules called
network protocols to send and receive data over the network.
1.2. Benefits of Computer Networks
There are various benefits accrue to use of networked computers. Some of
the benefits are describe as follows:
1.2.1. Information Sharing
Computers increase users’ ability to communicate. Communication requires
not only someone with information to share but also someone on the other
end with whom to share it. The initial reason for developing most computer
23
networks was to assist users with sharing their increased output, especially
between computers in the same general vicinity. Networks allow users to
communicate using e-mail, newsgroups, and video conferencing etc.
1.2.2. Sharing Resources
The ability to share resources was another reason networks were created,
and it is still one of the main purposes for using networks. Some of the
resources that are commonly shared over computer networks are describe
as follows:
1.2.2.1. Hardware (Peripherals) Sharing
Computer network users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD-
ROM drives, hard drives etc. Without computer networks, device sharing is
not possible. Many organizations start with multiple stand-alone computers.
Not too long after the initial computer purchase, however, additional
components that attach to a computer, called peripherals, like printers,
scanners, and speakers, are purchased and are connected to that computer
to expand its use
1.2.2.2. Application Sharing
Applications can be shared over the network, and this allows implementing
client/server applications. Applications, such as those used for preparing
taxes, creating text documents, playing computer games, and others in
business organizations have grown in complexity and size and often take up
considerable local storage. Installing an application once on a network and
then sharing it cuts down on the storage space required when multiple users
24
need the same application, which allow multi-users to access it from
different locations.
1.2.3. Assisting Collaboration
With digital information and the ability to share it instantly with others over
networks, network users can have multiple people working on the same
process collectively.
1.3. Network Engineer & Administrator
1.3.1. Responsibility of Network Engineer & Administrator
Network engineers are responsible for designing and setting-up of
organization's computer network. They also maintain networking devices
like switches, routers, firewalls, servers etc., and deal with organization's
internet connectivity inter-branch connectivity etc. Network engineers also
provide technical support for end users.
The basic nature of duty of a network engineer is to design computer
networks and to install, administer & troubleshoot computer networks.
Therefore, a network engineer should have thorough knowledge about
network infrastructure devices. A network engineer should have enough
knowledge in how to install, administer and troubleshoot network and
devices attached.
1.3.2. Responsibility of Network Engineer & Administrator
A network engineer has a wide range of responsibilities. Some of the
responsibilities are listed below.
i. Designing an organization's computer network.
25
ii. Managing an organization's computer network.
iii. Designing, Building and maintaining and connections between offices
(physical sites).
iv. Provisioning Internet and providing user access to internet.
v. Configuring user privileges to access the internet.
vi. Configuring user privileges in network.
vii. Determine how much bandwidth is required for smooth operation of
organization's network.
viii. Configuring Network Infrastructure Devices like switches, routers,
firewalls, servers etc.
ix. Hardening Network Infrastructure Devices like switches, routers,
firewalls, servers etc.
x. Provision the connection and internal network devices to meet those
requirements.
xi. Conduct analysis to make the computer network more reliable.
xii. Installing, configuring, managing and hardening Operating Systems.
xiii. Configure DNS servers for internal and external name resolution.
xiv. Configure DHCP servers for dynamic IP address allocation.
xv. Providing network security.
xvi. Providing technical support to end users.
1.4. Classification of Computer Network
Networks are frequently classified according to the geographical boundaries
the network covers, and on the roles the networked computers play in the
26
network’s operation, and more specifically on which computer controls that
operation.
1.4.1. Classification by Geography
1.4.1.1. Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is generally confined to a specific location, such as floor, building or
some other small area. Traditional LANs runs at speed of 10 to 100 mbps.
A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices
in a single office, building, or campus. Depending on the needs of an
organization and type of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two
desktops and a printer in someone’s home office; or it can extend
throughout a company or an organization. LANs are distinguished from
other types of networks by their transmission media and topology.
Figure 1: Local Area Network
27
1.4.1.2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Metropolitan Area Network is a bigger version of LAN and normally uses
same technology. It might cover a group of nearby corporate offices or a
city and might be either private or public. On other hand, MAN is network
running through out a metropolitan area such as a backbone for a phone
service carrier. A MAN just has one or two cables and does not contain
switching elements.
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a
LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is
designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the
internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city. A good
example of a MAN is part of the telephone company network that can
provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer.
Figure 2: Metropolitan area Network

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1.4.1.3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
A wide area network spans a large geographical area, often a country or
continent. It multiplies multiple connected LANs; that can be separated by
any geographical distance. A LAN at the corporate headquarters in
Indianapolis can be connected to a LAN at field office in Chicago and to
another field office LAN in St. Louis to form a single Wide Area Network.
In most WANs the network contains numerous cables or telephone lines,
each one connection a pair of routers. If two routers that do not share a cable
nevertheless and wish to communicate, they must do it indirectly. On
personal computers we are using modem to communicate indirectly with
other computer.
A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data,
image, audio, and video information over large geographic areas that may
comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world. A WAN can be
as complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-
up line that connects a home computer to the internet. We normally refer to
the first one as a switched WAN and to the second as a point-to-point WAN.
The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a
router (internetworking connecting device) that connects to another LAN or
WAN. The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone
or cable TV provider that connects a home computer or a small LAN to an
internet service provider (ISP). A good example of a switched WAN is
X.25, the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network. See figure 8.
29
Figure 3: Wide Area Network
1.4.1.4. Internetwork
Many networks exist in world, often with different hardware and software.
People connected to one network .always want to communicate with, people
attached to a different one. This requires connecting together different, and
frequently incompatible networks, sometimes by using machines called as
gateways to make the connection and provide the necessary translation,
both in terms of hardware and software. Such collection of interconnected
networks is called as Internet works or Internet. A common form of Internet
is collections of LANs connected by WA are form when distinct networks
are connected with each other through routers and hosts.
30
1.4.2. Networks Classification by Component Roles
Another method used to classify networks focuses on the roles the
networked computers play in the network’s operation, and more specifically
on which computer controls that operation. There are two basic types of role
classifications for networks peer-to-peer networks and server-based
networks. The difference between the two revolves around which computer
is in charge of the network. Third classification, client-based networks, has
come into existence because of the increased capabilities of the typical
client computer.
1.4.2.1. Client Server Model
Unlike peer-to-peer networks that operate without central control and are
difficult to secure, a server-based network offers centralized control and is
designed for secured operations, as shown in Figure 1.10. While there are
still both clients and servers on a server-based network, a dedicated server
controls the network.
A dedicated server is one that, for all practical purposes, operates solely as
a server. A dedicated server on a server-based network services its network
clients by storing data, applications, and other resources, and then providing
access to those resources when called for by a client. When a client requests
a resource such as a document, the server sends the whole resource (the
document) over the network to the client, where it is processed and later
returned to the server for continued storage.
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Dedicated servers can also control the entire network’s security from one
central location or share that control with other specially configured servers.
This central network control also contributes to the economies of scale
discussed under the “Facilitating Centralized Management” section earlier
in this chapter (using similar equipment results in cheaper equipment prices
and fewer training costs) and makes the server-based network the dominant
networking model used in networks today.
Figure 4: Serve-based network

1.4.2.2. Peer-To-Peer Model
A peer is considered an equal. All computers on a peer-to-peer network can
be considered equals, That is to say, no one computer is in charge of the
network’s operation. Each computer controls its own information and is
capable of functioning as either a client or a server depending on which is
needed at the time.
Peer-to-peer networks are popular as home networks and for use in small
companies because they are inexpensive and easy to install. Most operating
systems (the software that runs the basic computer functionality) come with
32
peer-to-peer networking capability built in. The only other cost involved
with setting up a peer-to-peer network comes into play if a computer does
not have a network interface card, or NIC (the device that physically
connects your computer to your network’s cabling), already installed.
Typical initial peer-to-peer networking involves no security measures.
Rather, each peer simply shares its resources and allows others open access
to them. In fact, a peer-to-peer network becomes difficult to manage when
more and more security is added to the resources. This is because users
control their own security by adding password protection to each share they
create. Shares are any resources users control on their computers, such as
document folders, printers, and other peripherals. Each shared resource can
actually have its own password. Someone wanting access to numerous
shared resources has to remember many passwords.
Security on a peer-to-peer network can quickly become complex and
confusing. While peer-to-peer networks are inexpensive to set up, they are
extremely limited in scope. The accepted maximum number of peers that
can operate on a peer-to-peer network is ten. They are, therefore, not
appropriate for larger, more secure networks.
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Figure 5: Peer-to-Peer Network
1.4.2.3. Client-based Networks
Client-based networks are a further refinement to the concept of a server
based network that relieves the heavy burden on the network’s capacity
resulting from frequent server-performed transactions. A client-based
network takes better advantage of the server’s powerful processors and of
the increasingly powerful computers used in typical workstations.
A client-based network utilizes a client workstation’s power in processing
some functions locally while requesting additional processing from a server
whenever it is needed for increased speed. Client-based network servers
process requests from clients and return just the results, rather than sending
the original resource to the client to be processed and returned after
computations are complete.
Client-based networks, therefore, take advantage of the powerful processing
capabilities of both the client and the server, as shown in Figure 6. This type
of arrangement may include application servers (where entire computer
34
programs are shared from the server) and communications servers (where
e-mail and other communications media are operated).
Figure 6: Client-based network

1.5. Review Questions
1) Define Computer Network and gives three basic benefits that could
emanate from using networked computers.
2) Identify any ten (10) responsibilities of Network Engineers and
Administrators.
3) Justify classification of computer network based on (a) geographical
boundaries the network covers (b) the roles the networked
computers play in the network’s operation.
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C
HAPTER TWO
PROTOCOL AND STANDARD
2.1. Standards and Its Type

Standards are necessary in networking to ensure interconnectivity and
interoperability between various networking hardware and software
components. Without standards we would have proprietary products
creating isolated islands of users which cannot interconnect. Standards
provide guidelines to product manufacturers and vendors to ensure national
and international interconnectivity. Data communications standards are
classified into two categories:
2.1.1. De facto Standard
These are the standards that have been traditionally used and known by fact
or by convention. These standards are not approved by any organized body
but are adopted by widespread use.
2.1.2. De jure Standard
De jure means by law or by regulation. These standards are legislated and
approved by a body that is officially recognized.
2.1.3. Standard Organizations
Standards are created by standards creation committees, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.
Examples of Standard Creation Committees
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1) International Organization for Standardization (ISO): The ISO is a
multinational body whose membership is drawn mainly from the
standards creation committees of various governments throughout the
world. The ISO is active in developing cooperation in the realms of
scientific, technological, and economic activity.
2) International Telecommunications Union – Telecommunications
Standard (ITU-T): By the early 1970s, a number of countries were
defining national standards for telecommunications, but there was still
little international compatibility. The United Nations responded by
forming, as part of its International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a
committee, the Consultative Committee for International Telegraphy
and Telephony (CCITT). This committee was devoted to the research
and establishment of standards for telecommunications in general and
for phone and data systems in particular.
3) American National Standards Institute (ANSI): Despite its name, the
American National Standards Institute is a completely private, non-
profit corporation not affiliated with the U.S. federal government.
However, all ANSI activities are undertaken with the welfare of the
United States and its citizens occupying primary importance.
4) Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers (IEEE): The Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers is the largest professional
engineering society in the world. International in scope, it aims to
advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the fields of electrical
37
engineering, electronics, and radio as well as in all related branches of
engineering. As one of its goals, the IEEE oversees the development and
adoption of international standards for computing and communications.
5) Electronic Industries Associates (EIA): Aligned with ANSI, the
Electronic Industries Association is a non-profit organization devoted
to the promotion of electronics manufacturing concerns
Example of Government Regulatory Agencies
1. The Nigerian Communications Commission (NCC): NCC is the
independent National Regulatory Authority for the telecommunications
industry in Nigeria. The Commission is responsible for creating an
enabling environment for competition among operators in the industry
as well as ensuring the provision of qualitative and efficient
telecommunications services throughout the country. Function of NCC
includes but not limited to the following: NCC Entrenches Standards,
Monitors Compliance, NCC’s Increased Collaboration on Equipment
Standardization, Deepening Wireless Connectivity in Era of Emerging
Technologies, and Focusing on Pervasive Digital Future.
2. National Information Technology Development Agency (NITDA)
3. Nigerian Communications Satellite Limited (NIGCOMSAT)
Example of Forums in Networking and IT
Internet forums: An Internet forum, or message board, is an online
discussion site where people can hold conversations in the form of posted
messages.
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2.2. Protocol Types and Components
2.2.1. Protocol and Its Types
A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is
transmitted between different devices in the same network. Essentially, it
allows connected devices to communicate with each other, regardless of any
differences in their internal processes, structure or design. A network
protocol can be viewed as a common network communication standard,
which is used to define a method of exchanging data over a computer
network. Network protocols define rules and conventions for
communication between different devices, participating in a computer
network, if computers (or computer like devices) want to communicate each
other, they must follow certain set of predefined communication rules.
A network protocol is that set of rules that should be followed by different
computers or computer-like devices when they participate in network
communication. Almost all protocols used in the Internet are common
standards defined by RFC (Request for Comments). Examples/types of
standard network protocols are:
a) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a standard that defines how
to establish and maintain a network conversation by which
applications can exchange data.
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TCP works with the Internet Protocol (IP), which defines how
computers send packets of data to each other. Together, TCP and IP
are the basic rules that define the internet. The Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF) defines TCP in the Request for Comment (RFC)
standards document number 793. TCP is a connection-oriented
protocol, which means a connection is established and maintained
until the applications at each end have finished exchanging
messages.
TCP performs the following actions:

i. Determines how to break application data into packets that
networks can deliver;
ii. Sends packets to, and accepts packets from, the network
layer;
iii. Manages flow control;
iv. Handles retransmission of dropped or garbled packets, as it's
meant to provide error-free data transmission; and
v. Acknowledges all packets that arrive.
In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model, TCP
covers parts of Layer 4, the transport layer, and parts of Layer 5, the session
layer.
When a web server sends an HTML file to a client, it uses the hypertext
transfer protocol (HTTP) to do so. The HTTP program layer asks the TCP
40
layer to set up the connection and send the file. The TCP stack divides the
file into data packets, numbers them and then forwards them individually to
the IP layer for delivery.
b) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a communications protocol that
is primarily used to establish low-latency and loss-tolerating
connections between applications on the internet.
UDP speeds up transmissions by enabling the transfer of data before

an agreement is provided by the receiving party. As a result, UDP is
beneficial in time-sensitive communications, including voice over
IP (VoIP), domain name system (DNS) lookup, and video or audio
playback.
UDP is an alternative to Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Both

UDP and TCP run on top of IP and are sometimes referred to as
UDP/IP or TCP/IP. However, there are important differences
between the two. For example, UDP enables process-to-process
communication, while TCP supports host-to-host communication.
TCP sends individual packets and is considered a reliable transport

medium. On the other hand, UDP sends messages, called datagrams,
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and is considered a best-effort mode of communications. This means
UDP doesn't provide any guarantees that the data will be delivered
or offer special features to retransmit lost or corrupted messages.
UDP provides two services not provided by the IP layer. It provides port
numbers to help distinguish different user requests. It also provides an
optional checksum capability to verify that the data arrived intact.
User Datagram Protocol features
User Datagram Protocol has attributes that make it beneficial for use with
applications that can tolerate lost data. Below are some examples:
i. It allows packets to be dropped and received in a different order than
they were transmitted, making it suitable for real-time applications
where latency might be a concern.
ii. It can be used for transaction-based protocols, such as DNS or
Network Time Protocol (NTP).
iii. It can be used where a large number of clients are connected and
where real-time error correction isn't necessary, such as gaming, voice
or video conferencing, and streaming media.
UDP header composition

UDP uses headers when packaging message data to transfer over network
connections. UDP headers contain a set of parameters called fields defined
by the technical specifications of the protocol.
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The User Datagram Protocol header has four fields, each of which is 2 bytes.
They are the following:
i. source port number, which is the number of the sender
ii. destination port number, the port to which the datagram is
addressed
iii. length, the length in bytes of the UDP header and any
encapsulated data
iv. checksum, which is used in error checking -- its use is
required in IPv6 and optional in IPv4.
How UDP works
UDP uses IP to get a datagram from one computer to another. UDP works
by gathering data in a UDP packet and adding its own header information
to the packet. This data consists of the source and destination ports on which
to communicate, the packet length and a checksum. After UDP packets are
encapsulated in an IP packet, they're sent off to their destinations.
Unlike TCP, UDP doesn't guarantee the packets will get to the right
destinations. This means UDP doesn't connect to the receiving computer
directly, which TCP does. Rather, it sends the data out and relies on the
devices in between the sending and receiving computers to correctly get the
data where it's supposed to go.
Most applications wait for any replies they expect to receive as a result of
packets sent using UDP. If an application doesn't receive a reply within a
certain time frame, the application sends the packet again, or it stops trying.
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UDP uses a simple transmission model that doesn't include handshaking
dialogues to provide reliability, ordering or data integrity. Consequently,
UDP's service is unreliable. Packets may arrive out of order, appear to have
duplicates or disappear without warning.
Although this transmission method doesn't guarantee that the data being
sent will reach its destination, it does have low overhead and is popular for
services that don't absolutely have to work the first time.
Applications of UDP
Lossless data transmission
UDP can be used in applications that require lossless data transmission. For
example, an application that is configured to manage the process of
retransmitting lost packets and correctly arrange received packets might use
UDP. This approach can help to improve the data transfer rate of large files
compared to TCP. In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
communication model, UDP is in Layer 4, the transport layer. UDP works
in conjunction with higher-level protocols to help manage data transmission
services, including Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP), Real Time
Streaming Protocol (RTSP) and Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP).
Gaming, voice and video
UDP is an ideal protocol for network applications in which perceived
latency is critical, such as in gaming, voice and video communications.
These examples can suffer some data loss without adversely affecting
44
perceived quality. In some cases, however, forward error correction
techniques are used in addition to UDP to improve audio and video quality,
despite some loss.
Services that don't need fixed packet transmission
UDP can also be used for applications that depend on the reliable exchange
of information but should have their own methods to answer packets. These
services are advantageous because they're not bound to fixed patterns to
guarantee the completeness and correctness of the data packets sent. Users
can decide how and when to respond to information that's not correct or
sorted.
Multicasting and routing update protocols
UDP can also be used for multicasting because it supports packet switching.
In addition, UDP is used for some routing update protocols, such as Routing
Information Protocol (RIP).
Fast applications
UDP can be used in applications where speed rather than reliability is
critical. For instance, it might be prudent to use UDP in an application
sending data from a fast acquisition where it's OK to lose some data points.
c) Internet Protocol (IP)?

Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent
from one computer to another on the internet. Each computer known
45
as a host on the internet has at least one IP address that uniquely
identifies it from all other computers on the internet.
IP is the defining set of protocols that enable the modern internet.

How does IP routing work?
When data is received or sent -- such as an email or a webpage -- the
message is divided into chunks called packets. Each packet contains both
the sender's internet address and the receiver's address. Any packet is sent
first to a gateway computer that understands a small part of the internet. The
gateway computer reads the destination address and forwards the packet to
an adjacent gateway that in turn reads the destination address and so forth
until one gateway recognizes the packet as belonging to a computer within
its immediate neighborhood -- or domain. That gateway then forwards the
packet directly to the computer whose address is specified.
Because a message is divided into a number of packets, each packet can, if
necessary, be sent by a different route across the internet. Packets can arrive
in a different order than the order they were sent. The Internet Protocol just
delivers them. It's up to another protocol the Transmission Control Protocol
to put them back in the right order.
IP packets
While IP defines the protocol by which data moves around the internet, the
unit that does the actual moving is the IP packet.
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An IP packet is like a physical parcel or a letter with an envelope indicating
address information and the data contained within.
An IP packet's envelope is called the header. The packet header provides
the information needed to route the packet to its destination. An IP packet
header is up to 24 bytes long and includes the source IP address, the
destination IP address and information about the size of the whole packet.
The other key part of an IP packet is the data component, which can vary in
size. Data inside an IP packet is the content that is being transmitted.
IP address
IP provides mechanisms that enable different systems to connect to each
other to transfer data. Identifying each machine in an IP network is enabled
with an IP address.
Similar to the way a street address identifies the location of a home or
business, an IP address provides an address that identifies a specific system
so data can be sent to it or received from it.
An IP address is typically assigned via the DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol). DHCP can be run at an internet service provider,
which will assign a public IP address to a particular device. A public IP
address is one that is accessible via the public internet.
A local IP address can be generated via DHCP running on a local network
router, providing an address that can only be accessed by users on the same
local area network.
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6
47
The most widely used version of IP for most of the internet's existence has
been Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4).
IPv4 provides a 32-bit IP addressing system that has four sections. For
example, a sample IPv4 address might look like 192.168.0.1, which
coincidentally is also commonly the default IPv4 address for a consumer
router. IPv4 supports a total of 4,294,967,296 addresses.
A key benefit of IPv4 is its ease of deployment and its ubiquity, so it is the
default protocol. A drawback of IPv4 is the limited address space and a
problem commonly referred to as IPv4 address exhaustion. There aren't
enough IPv4 addresses available for all IP use cases. Since 2011, IANA
(Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) hasn't had any new IPv4 address
blocks to allocate. As such, Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) have had
limited ability to provide new public IPv4 addresses.
In contrast, IPv6 defines a 128-bit address space, which provides
substantially more space than IPv4, with 340 trillion IP addresses. An IPv6
address has eight sections. The text form of the IPv6 address is
xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx, where each x is a
hexadecimal digit, representing 4 bits.
The massive availability of address space is the primary benefit of IPv6 and
its most obvious impact. The challenges of IPv6, however, are that it is
complex due to its large address space and is often challenging for network
administrators to monitor and manage.
IP network protocols
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IP is a connectionless protocol, which means that there is no continuing
connection between the end points that are communicating. Each packet
that travels through the internet is treated as an independent unit of data
without any relation to any other unit of data. The reason the packets are
reassembled in the right order is because of TCP, the connection-oriented
protocol that keeps track of the packet sequence in a message.
In the OSI model (Open Systems Interconnection), IP is in layer 3, the
networking layer.
At the core of what is commonly referred to as IP are additional transport
protocols that enable the actual communication between different hosts.
One of the core protocols that runs on top of IP is the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP), which is often why IP is also referred to as TCP/IP.
However, TCP isn't the only protocol that is part of IP.
2.2.2. Components of Protocol
There are three key components of a protocol: Syntax, Semantics, and
Timing.
i. Syntax: It means the structure or format of the data. It is the
arrangement of data in a particular order.
ii. Semantics: It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the
interpretation of each section. It also tells what action/decision is to be
taken based on the interpretation.
49
iii. Timing: It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to receive
the data. It tells the sender at what rate the data should be sent to the
receiver to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
2.3. Review Question
1. Define three key elements of protocol.
2. Justify the need for standards in computer networking.
3. Highlights five (5) International Standard Creation Committees
4. Give three examples of Nigeria Government Regulatory Agencies
directly or indirectly responsible for maintain standard in Computer
Networking and communication.
5. Explain briefly network protocol
6. Justify the statement “TCP is a connection-oriented protocol”?
Hence highlights five (5) major actions TCP performs.
7. Which layers of OSI model does TCP function.
8. Describe the role of TCP when a web server sends an HTML file to
a client.
9. Define two types of standards.
10. Describe the role of the following standards creation committee.
i. International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
ii. International Telecommunication Union
iii. American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
iv. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
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C
HAPTER THREE
NETWORKING DEVICES
3.1. What are Computer Networking Devices?

Computer Networking Devices, also known as network hardware or
network equipment is electronic devices which are required for
communication and interaction between devices on a computer network.
They mediate data transmission in a computer network.
3.2. Modem
Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals
over analog telephone lines. Thus, digital signals are converted by the
modem into analog signals of different frequencies and transmitted to a
modem at the receiving location.
The receiving modem performs the reverse transformation and provides a
digital output to a device connected to a modem, usually a computer. The
digital data is usually transferred to or from the modem over a serial line
through an industry standard interface, RS-232. Many telephone companies
offer DSL services, and many cable operators use modems as end terminals
for identification and recognition of home and personal users. Modems
work on both the Physical and Data Link layers
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3.3. Gateway
Gateways normally work at the Transport and Session layers of the OSI
model. At the Transport layer and above, there are numerous protocols and
standards from different vendors; gateways are used to deal with them.
Gateways provide translation between networking technologies such as
Open System Interconnection (OSI) and Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Because of this, gateways connect two
or more autonomous networks, each with its own routing algorithms,
protocols, topology, domain name service, and network administration
procedures and policies.
Gateways perform all of the functions of routers and more. In fact, a router
with added translation functionality is a gateway. The function that does the
translation between different network technologies is called a protocol
converter.
3.4. Network Interface Card
A network interface controller (NIC, also known as a network interface
card, network adapter, LAN adapter or physical network interface and by
similar terms) is a computer hardware component that connects a computer
to a computer network. Early network interface controllers were commonly
implemented on expansion cards that plugged into a computer bus.
The low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means that most newer
computers have a network interface built into the motherboard. NIC allows
both wired and wireless communications. NIC allows communications
52
between computers connected via local area network (LAN) as well as
communications over large-scale network through Internet Protocol (IP).
3.5. Repeaters
A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. You
can think of repeater as a device which receives a signal and retransmits it
at a higher level or higher power so that the signal can cover longer
distances, more than 100 meters for standard LAN cables. Repeaters work
on the Physical layer.
3.6. Hubs
Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also
acts as a repeater in that it amplifies signals that deteriorate after traveling
long distances over connecting cables. A hub is the simplest in the family
of network connecting devices because it connects LAN components with
identical protocols.
A hub can be used with both digital and analog data, provided its settings
have been configured to prepare for the formatting of the incoming data.
For example, if the incoming data is in digital format, the hub must pass it
on as packets; however, if the incoming data is analog, then the hub passes
it on in signal form.
Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing functions; they just send
data packets to all connected devices. Hubs operate at the Physical layer of
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
53
3.7. Bridges
Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments
together. The basic role of bridges in network architecture is storing and
forwarding frames between the different segments that the bridge connects.
They use hardware Media Access Control (MAC) addresses for transferring
frames. By looking at the MAC address of the devices connected to each
segment, bridges can forward the data or block it from crossing. Bridges
can also be used to connect two physical LANs into a larger logical LAN.
Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model.
Bridges are used to divide larger networks into smaller sections by sitting
between two physical network segments and managing the flow of data
between the two.
Bridges are like hubs in many respects, including the fact that they connect
LAN components with identical protocols. However, bridges filter
incoming data packets, known as frames, for addresses before they are
forwarded. As it filters the data packets, the bridge makes no modifications
to the format or content of the incoming data. The bridge filters and
forwards frames on the network with the help of a dynamic bridge table.
The bridge table, which is initially empty, maintains the LAN addresses for
each computer in the LAN and the addresses of each bridge interface that
connects the LAN to other LANs. Bridges, like hubs, can be either simple
or multiple ports.
54
Bridges have mostly fallen out of favor in recent years and have been
replaced by switches, which offer more functionality. In fact, switches are
sometimes referred to as “multiport bridges” because of how they operate.
3.8. Switches
Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a
multiport device that improves network efficiency. The switch maintains
limited routing information about nodes in the internal network, and it
allows connections to systems like hubs or routers. Strands of LANs are
usually connected using switches. Generally, switches can read the
hardware addresses of incoming packets to transmit them to the appropriate
destination.
Using switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because
of the virtual circuit capability and it also improve network security.
A switch can work at either the Data Link layer or the Network layer of the
OSI model. A multilayer switch is one that can operate at both layers, which
means that it can operate as both a switch and a router. A multilayer switch
is a high-performance device that supports the same routing protocols as
routers.
Switches can be subject to distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks;
flood guards are used to prevent malicious traffic from bringing the switch
to a halt. Switch port security is important so be sure to secure switches:
Disable all unused ports and use DHCP snooping, ARP inspection and
MAC address filtering.
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3.9. Routers
Routers help transmit packets to their destinations by charting a path
through the sea of interconnected networking devices using different
network topologies. Routers are intelligent devices, and they store
information about the networks they’re connected to. Most routers can be
configured to operate as packet-filtering firewalls and use access control
lists (ACLs). Routers, in conjunction with a channel service unit/data
service unit (CSU/DSU), are also used to translate from LAN framing to
WAN framing. This is needed because LANs and WANs use different
network protocols. Such routers are known as border routers. They serve as
the outside connection of a LAN to a WAN, and they operate at the border
of your network.
Routers are also used to divide internal networks into two or more
subnetworks. Routers can also be connected internally to other routers,
creating zones that operate independently. Routers establish communication
by maintaining tables about destinations and local connections. A router
contains information about the systems connected to it and where to send
requests if the destination isn’t known. Routers usually communicate
routing and other information using one of three standard protocols:
Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) or
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).
Routers are your first line of defense, and they must be configured to pass
only traffic that is authorized by network administrators. The routes
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themselves can be configured as static or dynamic. If they are static, they
can only be configured manually and stay that way until changed. If they
are dynamic, they learn of other routers around them and use information
about those routers to build their routing tables.
Routers are general-purpose devices that interconnect two or more
heterogeneous networks. They are usually dedicated to special-purpose
computers, with separate input and output network interfaces for each
connected network. Because routers and gateways are the backbone of large
computer networks like the internet, they have special features that give
them the flexibility and the ability to cope with varying network addressing
schemes and frame sizes through segmentation of big packets into smaller
sizes that fit the new network components. Each router interface has its own
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) module, its own LAN address (network
card address) and its own Internet Protocol (IP) address.
The router, with the help of a routing table, has knowledge of routes a packet
could take from its source to its destination. The routing table, like in the
bridge and switch, grows dynamically. Upon receipt of a packet, the router
removes the packet headers and trailers and analyzes the IP header by
determining the source and destination addresses and data type, and noting
the arrival time. It also updates the router table with new addresses not
already in the table. The IP header and arrival time information is entered
in the routing table. Routers normally work at the Network layer of the OSI
model.
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3.10. Brouters
A bridge router or brouter is a network device that works as a bridge and as
a router. The brouter routes packets for known protocols and simply
forwards all other packets as a bridge would. Brouters operate at both the
network layer for routable protocols and at the data link layer for non-
routable protocols. As networks continue to become more complex, a mix
of routable and non-routable protocols has led to the need for the combined
features of bridges and routers.
Brouters handle both routable and non-routable features by acting as routers
for routable protocols and bridges for non-routable protocols. Bridged
protocols might propagate throughout the network, but techniques such as
filtering and learning might be used to reduce potential congestion. Brouters
are used as connecting devices in the networking system, so it acts as a
bridge in a network and as a router in an internet
3.11. Access Point
While an access point (AP) can technically involve either a wired or
wireless connection, it commonly means a wireless device. An AP works at
the second OSI layer, the Data Link layer, and it can operate either as a
bridge connecting a standard wired network to wireless devices or as a
router passing data transmissions from one access point to another.
Wireless access points (WAPs) consist of a transmitter and receiver
(transceiver) device used to create a wireless LAN (WLAN). Access points
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typically are separate network devices with a built-in antenna, transmitter
and adapter.
APs use the wireless infrastructure network mode to provide a connection
point between WLANs and a wired Ethernet LAN. They also have several
ports, giving you a way to expand the network to support additional clients.
Depending on the size of the network, one or more APs might be required
to provide full coverage. Additional APs are used to allow access to more
wireless clients and to expand the range of the wireless network. Each AP
is limited by its transmission range the distance a client can be from an AP
and still obtain a usable signal and data process speed. The actual distance
depends on the wireless standard, the obstructions and environmental
conditions between the client and the AP. Higher end APs have high-
powered antennas, enabling them to extend how far the wireless signal can
travel.
APs might also provide many ports that can be used to increase the
network’s size, firewall capabilities and Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP) service. Therefore, we get APs that are a switch, DHCP
server, router and firewall.
To connect to a wireless AP, you need a service set identifier (SSID) name.
802.11 wireless networks use the SSID to identify all systems belonging to
the same network, and client stations must be configured with the SSID to
be authenticated to the AP. The AP might broadcast the SSID, allowing all
wireless clients in the area to see the AP’s SSID. However, for security
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reasons, APs can be configured not to broadcast the SSID, which means that
an administrator needs to give client systems the SSID instead of allowing
it to be discovered automatically. Wireless devices ship with default SSIDs,
security settings, channels, passwords and usernames. For security reasons,
it is strongly recommended that you change these default settings as soon
as possible because many internet sites list the default settings used by
manufacturers.
Access points can be fat or thin. Fat APs, sometimes still referred to as
autonomous APs, need to be manually configured with network and
security settings; then they are essentially left alone to serve clients until
they can no longer function. Thin APs allow remote configuration using a
controller. Since thin clients do not need to be manually configured, they
can be easily reconfigured and monitored. Access points can also be
controller-based or stand-alone.
1) Explain briefly Computer Networking Devices
2) Highlights and gives function of any five Computer Networking
Devices
3) At what layer(s) does the following NETWORK DEVICEs function (a)
Modem (b) Gateway (c) Hub (d) Bridge (e) Switch
4) Describe how a hub can be used with both digital and analog data when
its settings have been configured to prepare for the formatting of the
incoming data.
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5) Compare Hub and Switch
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C
HAPTER FOUR
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
10.1. Description of Network Topology

Geometric representation of how the computers are connected to each other
is known as topology. Network topology refers to the manner in which the
links and nodes of a network are arranged to relate to each other. A network
topology diagram helps visualize the communicating devices, which are
modeled as nodes, and the connections between the devices, which are
modeled as links between the nodes. There are five types of topology Mesh,
Star, Bus, Ring and Hybrid.
Figure 7: Network Topology categories

4.2. Bus Topology
4.2.1. What is Bus Topology
In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to
this main cable through drop lines. There is a device called tap that connects
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the drop line to the main cable. Since all the data is transmitted over the
main cable, there is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main cable can
have.
Terminator
Terminator
Backbone
Figure 8: Bus Topology

Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data to
a particular computer and putting that data on the cable in the form of
electronic signals. To understand how computers communicate on a bus you
need to be familiar with three concepts:
1. Sending the signal: Network data in the form of electronic signals
is sent to all of the computers on the network; however, the
information is accepted only by the computer whose address
matches the address encoded in the original signal. Only one
computer at a time can send messages.
Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network,
network performance is affected by the number of computers
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attached to the bus. The more computers on a bus, the more
computers there will be waiting to put data on the bus, and the
slower the network.
There is no standard measure for the impact of numbers of
computers on any given network. The amount the network slows
down is not solely related to the number of computers on the
network. It depends on numerous factors including:
i. Hardware capacities of computers on the network
ii. Number of times computers on the network transmit data
iii. Type of applications being run on the network
iv. Types of cable used on the network
v. Distance between computers on the network
The bus is a passive topology. Computers on a bus only listen for data being
sent on the network. They are not responsible for moving data from one
computer to the next. If one computer fails, it does not affect the rest of the
network. In active topology computers regenerate signals and move data
along the network.
2. Signal Bounce: Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the
entire network, it will travel from one end of the cable to the other.
If the signal were allowed to continue uninterrupted, it would keep
bouncing back and forth along the cable and prevent other
computers from sending signals. Therefore, the signal must be
stopped.
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3. The Terminator: To stop the signal from bouncing, a component
called a terminator is placed at each end of the cable to absorb free
signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other
computers can send data. Every cable end on the network must be
plugged into something. For example, a cable end could be plugged
into a computer or a connector to extend the cable length. Any open
cable ends-ends not plugged into something must be terminated to
prevent signal bounce.
In bus topology nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
See figure that follows. A drop line is a connection running between the
device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the
main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels
farther and farther. For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a
bus can support and on the distance between those taps.
Figure 9: Bus Topology with three stations

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4.2.2. Advantages of Bus Topology
i. It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.
ii. Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other
networks.
iii. Bus topology costs very less.
iv. Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks.
4.2.3. Disadvantages of Bus Topology
i. There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can
be connected.
ii. Dependency on central cable in this topology has its disadvantages.
If the main cable (i.e. bus) encounters some problem, whole
network breaks down.
iii. Proper termination is required to dump signals. Use of terminators
is must.
iv. It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.
v. Maintenance costs can get higher with time.
vi. Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices
connected to it increases.
vii. It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.
viii. Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal
from the source
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4.3. Ring Topology
4.3.1. What is Ring Topology?
In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either
side of it. There are two dedicated point to point links a device has with the
devices on the either side of it. This structure forms a ring thus it is known
as ring topology. If a device wants to send data to another device then it
sends the data in one direction, each device in ring topology has a repeater,
if the received data is intended for other device then repeater forwards this
data until the intended device receives it.
There are two types of the Ring Topology based on the data flow:
Unidirectional and Bidirectional. A Unidirectional ring topology handles
data traffic in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction. This data
network, thus, can also be called as a half-duplex network. A Unidirectional
ring topology is thus easy to maintain compared to the bidirectional ring
topology.
A ring topology connects one host to the next and the last host to the first.
The signal travels around the loop in one direction and pass through each
computer. Unlike the passive bus topology, each computer acts like a
repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer. Because the
signal passes through each computer, the failure of one computer can impact
the entire network.
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Figure 10: Ring Topology
4.3.2. Advantages of Ring Topology
i. This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to
send the data when it receives an empty token. This helps to reduces
chances of collision. Also in ring topology all the traffic flows in
only one direction at very high speed.
ii. Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is
better than that of Bus topology.
iii. There is no need for network server to control the connectivity
between workstations.
iv. Additional components do not affect the performance of network.
v. Each computer has equal access to resources.
4.3.3. Disadvantages of Ring Topology
i. A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel
forward due to failure.
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ii. Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.
iii. Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between
source and destination. This makes it slower than Star topology.
iv. If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
v. Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different
components.
vi. MAU’s and network cards are expensive as compared to Ethernet
cards and hubs.
4.4. Star Topology
4.4.1. What is Star Topology
In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device
called hub. Unlike Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct
communication between devices; a device must have to communicate
through hub. If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first
send the data to hub and then the hub transmit that data to the designated
device. In the star topology, computers are connected by cable segments to
centralized component, called a hub or switch. Signals are transmitted from
the sending computer through the hub or switch to all computers on the
network.
This topology originated in the early days of computing with computers
connected to a centralized mainframe computer. It is now a common
topology in microcomputer networking. Each device has a dedicated point-
to-point link only to a central controller, usually called a hub. The devices
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are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star
topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts
as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data
to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.
The star network offers centralized resources and management. However,
because each computer is connected to a central point, this topology
requires a great deal of cable in a large network installation. Also, if the
central point fails, the entire network goes down.
Figure 11: Star Topology

4.4.2. Advantages of Star Topology
i. As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance,
signals don’t necessarily get transmitted to all the workstations. A
sent signal reaches the intended destination after passing through no
more than 3-4 devices and 2-3 links. Performance of the network is
dependent on the capacity of central hub.
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ii. Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology new nodes
can be added easily without affecting rest of the network. Similarly
components can also be removed easily.
iii. Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
iv. Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network. At the
same time it is easy to detect the failure and troubleshoot it.
4.4.3. Disadvantages of Star Topology
i. Too much dependency on central device has its own drawbacks. If
it fails whole network goes down.
ii. The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the
overall cost of the network.
iii. Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in
such topology is depended on capacity of central device.
4.5. Mesh Topology
4.5.1. What is Mesh Topology
In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the
network through a dedicated point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it
means that the link only carries data for the two connected devices only.
Let’s say we have n devices in the network then each device must be
connected with (n-1) devices of the network. Number of links in a mesh
topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2. To accommodate many links,
every device on the network must have (n – 1) input/output (I/O) ports to
be connected to the (n – 1) stations as shown in Figure 11, for these reasons
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a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, as a backbone
connecting the main computers of a hybrid network that can include several
other topologies. One practical example of a mesh topology is the
connection of telephone regional offices in which each regional office needs
to be connected to every other regional office.
Figure 12: Mesh Topology

4.5.2.Advantages of Mesh topology
i. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices
which means the link is only available for those two devices.
ii. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t
affect other links and the communication between other devices on the
network.
iii. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus
unauthorized access is not possible.
iv. Fault detection is easy.
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ii. Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This
topology can withstand high traffic.
iii. Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative
present. So data transfer doesn’t get affected.
iv. Expansion and modification in topology can be done without
disrupting other nodes.
4.5.3. Disadvantages of Mesh topology
i. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and
headache.
ii. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number
of I/O ports required must be huge.
iii. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large
number of devices with a dedicated point to point link.
iv. There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network
connections.
v. Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other
network topologies.
vi. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even
administration of the network is tough.
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4.6. Hybrid Topology
4.6.1. What is Hybrid Topology
Before starting about Hybrid topology, we saw that a network topology is a
connection of various links and nodes, communicating with each other for
transfer of data.
We also identified various advantages and disadvantages
of Star, Bus, Ring, and Mesh. Hybrid, as the name suggests, is mixture of
two different things. Similarly in this type of topology we integrate two or
more different topologies to form a resultant topology which has good
points (as well as weaknesses) of all the constituent basic topologies rather
than having characteristics of one specific topology.
This combination of topologies is done according to the requirements of the
organization. For example, if there is an existing ring topology in one office
department while a bus topology in another department, connecting these
two will result in Hybrid topology. Remember connecting two similar
topologies cannot be termed as Hybrid topology. Star-Ring and Star-Bus
networks are most common examples of hybrid network. (See figure 13).
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Backbone
Figure 13: Hybrid Network

4.6.2. Advantages of Hybrid Topology
i. Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting
is easy in this type of topology. The part in which fault is detected
can be isolated from the rest of network and required corrective
measures can be taken, WITHOUT affecting the functioning of rest
of the network.
ii. Scalable: It’s easy to increase the size of network by adding new
components, without disturbing existing architecture.
iii. Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization and by optimizing the available
resources. Special care can be given to nodes where traffic is high
as well as where chances of fault are high.
iv. Effective: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more
topologies, so we can design it in such a way that strengths of
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constituent topologies are maximized while there weaknesses are
neutralized. For example we saw Ring Topology has good data
reliability (achieved by use of tokens) and Star topology has high
tolerance capability (as each node is not directly connected to other
but through central device), so these two can be used effectively in
hybrid star-ring topology.
4.6.3. Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
i. Complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawbacks of hybrid
topology is its design. It is not easy to design this type of architecture
and it’s a tough job for designers. Configuration and installation
process needs to be very efficient.
ii. Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are
very expensive. These hubs are different from usual hubs as they
need to be intelligent enough to work with different architectures
and should be function even if a part of network is down.
iii. Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in
scale, they require a lot of cables; cooling systems, sophisticate
network devices, etc.
1) Explain briefly Network Topology
2) Name the four basic network topologies, and mention an advantage
of each type.
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3) Apart from number of computer on network, identify any five
factors that may contribute to network go-slow.
4) Compare security in Bus, Ring, and Star Network Topologies.
5) Why is Ring network topology is been refer to as very organized
6) For n devices in a network, what is the number of cable links
required for a mesh, ring, bus, and star topology?
7) What are some of the factors that determine whether a
communication system is a LAN or WAN?
8) Assuming you get a job as a network engineer in a multinational
company that has five (5) regional station that must be
interconnected with others for smooth operation of the organization.
The company is about to network the regional offices together. Each
physical link must allow communication in both directions. Use the
knowledge acquired in this course to advice the management of the
company based on the following:
a) Recommend the most suitable Network topology for the
organization.
b) Give detail explanation of the recommended Topology.
c) Illustrate the explanation in (b) with a diagram to show the
interconnectivity of the five (5) regional offices.
d) Explain four (4) major advantages of the topology named in (a)
over other network topology.
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C
HAPTER FIVE
NETWORK & DATA COMMUNICATION LAB
5.1. Network Cabling and Testing (RJ45)

5.1.1. Theory: Description of Network Cable and Modular
Connection Plug
Network Cables: Network cables are the carrier or media through which
data flows, they are used mainly to connect and transfer data and
information between computers, routers, switches and storage area
networks. There are two kinds of RJ45 cables.
i. Straight through cables: these are the standard cable used for almost
all purposes, and are often called "patch cables".
ii. Crossover Cables cable: this is used to directly connect one
computer to another computer (or device) without going through a
router, switch or hub. Crossover cable is also used to wiring together
two Hubs.
The cables could be made from CAT-5, CAT-5e or CAT-6 Ethernet cables.
The maximum cable length of CAT-5, CAT-5e or CAT-6 Ethernet cable is
328 feet or 100 meters. There are four pairs of wires in an Ethernet cable,
and an Ethernet connector (8P8C) has eight pin slots. Each pin is identified
by a number, starting from left to right, with the clip facing away from the
designer. The main difference between CAT5e and CAT6 cable lies within
78
the bandwidth, the cable can support for data transfer. CAT6 cables are
designed for operating frequencies up to 250 MHz, compared to 100 Mhz
for CAT5e. This means that a CAT6 cable can process more data at the
same time.
Figure 14. Internal Cable Structure and Color Coding

Modular Connector Plugs and Jacks: The 8P8C modular connectors for
Ethernet are often called RJ45 due to their physical resemblance. The plug
is an 8-position modular connector that looks like a large phone plug. There
are a couple variations available. The primary variation you need to pay
attention to is whether the connector is intended for braided or solid wire.
For braided/stranded wires, the connector has sharp pointed contacts that
actually pierce the wire. For solid wires, the connector has fingers which
cut through the insulation and make contact with the wire by grasping it
from both sides.
Modular connector jacks come in a variety styles intended for several
different mounting options. The choice is one of requirements and
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preference. Jacks are designed to work only with solid Ethernet cable. Most
jacks come labeled with color coded wiring diagrams for T568A, T568B or
both, figure 13 shows a wiring diagram and pin out.
Figure 15: wiring diagram and pin out for RJ45

5.1.2. Making and Testing of Patch cable
5.1.2.1. Required Tool and Materials
1. Ethernet Cable (CAT5e or CAT6)
2. RJ-45 Crimping Tool
3. RJ45 Crimp Cable Connectors
5.1.2.2. Procedure to make RJ45 Cable
Step 1: Cut into the plastic sheath about 1 inch (2.5 cm) from the end of the
cut cable. Do not cut deep which may cause damage the insulation of core.
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Step 2: Unwind and pair the similar colors. Pinch the wires between your
fingers and straighten them out in a sequence of color as u want to make
cable (Straight cable or cross over cable). The color order is important to
get correct.
Step 3: A straight cut across the 8 wires to shorten them to 1/2 Inch (1.3
cm) from the cut sleeve to the end of the wires by crimping tool. Carefully
push all 8 unstrapped colored wires into the connector. Plastic sleeve should
be inserted proper in connector.
Step 4: Crimping the cable: Carefully place the connector into the Ethernet
Crimper and cinch down on the handles tightly. The copper splicing tabs on
the connector will pierce into each of the eight wires. There is also a locking
tab that holds the plastic sleeve in place for a tight compression fit. When
you remove the cable from the crimper, that end is ready to use.
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Step 5: Test the cable: Check the continuity of both connectors each other.
Check the cable threw a cable tester or ping from a computer. To check the
cable through computer connects both connector in two computers for cross
cable and straight cable connect through a switch then ping the computer.
5.1.2.3. Testing Network Cable
There are three primary types of network cable issues.
i. Performance issue
ii. Continuity issue
iii. Connectivity issue
The issues i-iii, can be identify using any of the following methods.
a) Using Switches or a switch with computer: we can confirm
whether a network cable is good or not by plugging the cable into
two working switches or a switch and a nearby autonomous
computer network port. The LINK light at the computer and the link
light at the switch will light up otherwise there is problem with the
cable.
b) Using Ethernet Cable Tester: Ethernet cable tester is invaluable at
identifying and highlighting issues related to network cable. When
sizing Ethernet cables remember that an end to end connection
should not extend more than 100m (~328ft). Try to minimize the
Ethernet cable length, the longer the cable becomes, the more it may
affect performance. This is usually noticeable as a gradual decrease
in speed and increase in latency.
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5.1.3. Punch Down Tools
5.1.3.1. Description Punch down Tool
A punch down tool, also called a krone tool, is a hand tool used to connect
telecommunications and network wires to a patch panel, punch down block,
keystone module, or surface mount box. The "punch down" part of the name
comes from punching a wire into place using an impact action. Punch down
tool is commonly used for the termination works in the copper network. It
is used to terminate the Ethernet cables (Cat5/5e/6/6a) by inserting the
cables wires into the insulation-displacement connectors (IDC) on the
punch down blocks, patch panels, keystone modules, and surface mount of
boxes.
Network performance and reliability are the foundation of a robust and
sound communication system. Therefore, to ensure a successful connection
between the computers and the data center, network technicians need the
right assistance tools, punch down tool among which, is extremely essential
for the smooth networks running.
5.1.3.2. RJ-45 Jack Punch Down
Objective
i. Learn the correct process for terminating or punching down an RJ-
45 jack
ii. Learn the correct procedure for installing the jack in a wall plate
Equipment Required
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In this lab, the student will learn to wire an RJ-45 data jack for installation
in a wall plate using a punch-down tool. These skills are useful when it is
necessary to install a small amount of cabling in an office or residence. A
punch tool is a device that uses spring-loaded action to push wires between
metal pins, while at the same time skinning the sheath away from the wire.
This ensures that the wire makes a good electrical connection with the pins
inside the jack. The punch tool also cuts off any extra wire.
Category 5 or Category 5e cabling and Category 5 or 5e rated T568B jacks
will be used. A Category 5/5e straight-through patch cable with an RJ-45
connector will normally plug into this data jack or outlet to connect a PC in
a work area to the network. It is important to use Category 5 or 5e rated
jacks and patch panels with Category 5 or 5e cabling in order to support
Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps) and Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps). The process
of punching down wires into a data jack in an office area is the same as
punching them down in a patch panel in a wiring closet. The following
resources are required:
1) 60 - 90 cm (2 - 3 feet) length of Category 5/5e cabling, which can be
one per person or one per team
2) Two Category 5/5e RJ-45 data jacks (one extra for spare) – If RJ-45
data jacks are installed on both ends of the cable, the installation can
be tested by inserting cable with RJ-45 connectors and a simple cable
continuity tester.
3) Category 5/5e wall plate
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4) 110 type punch-down tool
5) Wire cutters
Procedure
Use the following procedure and diagram to punch down the wires into the
RJ-45 jack and install the jack into the wall plate:
Step 1
Remove the jacket 2.54 cm (1 inch) from the end of the cable.
Step 2
Position wires in the proper channels on the jack maintaining the twists as
closely as possible. The diagram below shows an example of how to place
the wires on one type of jack. Most jacks will have the channels color-coded
to indicate where the wires go. The photo of the jack on the next page shows
one variety of jack. Jacks are typically stamped to indicate whether they are
T568A or B as shown in the photo.
Step 3
Use the 110 punch-down tool shown below to push conductors into the
channels. Make sure to position the cut side of the punch-down tool so that
it faces the outside of the jack. If this is not done, it will cut the wire being
punched down. Try tilting the handle of the punch tool a little to the outside,
so it will cut better. If any wire remains attached after using the punch tool,
simply twist the ends gently to remove them. Then place the clips on the
jack, and tighten them. Make sure that no more than 1.27 cm (one half inch)
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of untwisted wire is between the end of the cable jacket and the channels on
the jack.
Step 4
Snap the jack into its faceplate by pushing it in from the back side. Make
sure when this is done, that the jack is right-side up so the clip faces down
when the wall plate is mounted.
Step 5
Use the screws to attach the faceplate to either the box or to the bracket. If
there is a surface mounted box, keep in mind that it might hold 30 - 60 cm
(1 - 2 feet) of excess cable. Then it will be necessary to either slide the cable
through its tie-wraps or pull back the raceway that covers it in order to push
the rest of the excess cable back into the wall. If there is a flush-mounted
jack, all that is needed is to push the excess cable back into the wall.
Hold the jack with the 8-pin jack receptacle, which is the part that the RJ-
45 connector goes into, facing up or away from the body while looking at
the wire channels or slots. There should be four wire channels on each side.
Match the wiring colors to the codes on the jack.
5.2. Building a Peer-to-Peer Network
Objective
Create a simple peer-to-peer network between two PCs as shown in figure
15.
i. Identify the proper cable to connect the two PCs
ii. Configure workstation IP address information
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iii. Test connectivity using the ping command
Network Cable
COMPUTER A COMPUTER B
Figure 16. Peer-to-Peer Network
Equipment Required
The following resources will be required
• Two workstations with an Ethernet 10/100 NIC installed
• Several Ethernet cables, which are both straight-through and crossover, to
choose from for connecting the two workstations.
Procedure
This lab focuses on the ability to connect two PCs to create a simple peer-
to-peer Ethernet LAN between two workstations. The workstations will be
directly connected to each other without using a hub or switch. In addition
to the Layer 1 physical and Layer 2 data link connections, the computers
must also be configured with the correct IP network settings, which is Layer
3, so that they can communicate. A basic Category 5/5e UTP crossover
cable is all that is needed. A crossover cable is the same type that would be
used as backbone or vertical cabling to connect switches together.
Connecting the PCs in this manner can be very useful for transferring files
at high speed and for troubleshooting interconnecting devices between PCs.
If the two PCs can be connected with a single cable and are able to
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communicate, then any networking problems are not with the PCs
themselves. Start this lab with the equipment turned off and with cabling
disconnected. Work in teams of two with one person per PC.
Step 1 Identify the proper Ethernet cable and connect the two PCs
The connection between the two PCs will be accomplished using a Category
5 or 5e crossover cable. Locate a cable that is long enough to reach from
one PC to the other.
Quiz
i. What kind of cable is required to connect from NIC to NIC?
ii. What is the category rating of the cable?
iii. What is the AWG wire size designation of the cable?
Step 2 Verify the physical connection
Plug in and turn on the computers. To verify the computer connections,
insure that the link lights on both NICs are lit.
Quiz: Are both link lights lit?
Step 3 Access the IP settings window
Note: Be sure to write down the existing IP settings, so that they can be
restored at the end of the lab. These include IP address, subnet mask, default
gateway, and DNS servers. If the workstation is a DHCP client, it is not
necessary to record this information.
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i. Click on Start > Settings > Control Panel and then click the
Network Connection icon.
ii. Select the Local Area Network Connection and click on Change
settings of this connection.
iii. Select the TCP/IP protocol icon that is associated with the NIC in
this PC.
iv. Click on Properties and click on Use the following IP address.
Step 4 Access the Command or MS-DOS prompt
Step 5 Configure TCP/IP settings for the two PCs
i. Set the IP address information for each PC according to the
information in the table.
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ii. IP address is not required because the two computers are directly
connected. The default gateway is only required on local area
networks that are connected to a router.
PC IP SUBNET DEFAULT
ADDRESS NASK GATEWAY
A 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0 N/A
B 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0 N/A
Step 6 Verify that the PCs can communicate
Test connectivity from one PC to the other by pinging the IP address of the
opposite computer. Use the following command at the command prompt.
C:>ping 192.168.1.1 (or 192.168.1.2)
Look for results similar to screen print in fig 16. If not, check the PC
connections and TCP/IP settings for both PCs. What was the ping result?
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Figure 17. Ping result for 2 PCs on peer-to-peer network
Step 7 Confirm the TCP/IP network settings
i. Type the winipcfg command from the MS-DOS Prompt. Record the
results.
ii. Type the ipconfig command from the Command Prompt. Record the
results
Step 8 Restore the PCs to their original IP settings, disconnect the
equipment, and store the cables
5.2.1. Direct Connection of 2-Computers to share internet
Step 1: Connect two Computers using an ethernet cable.
Step 2: Click on Start->Control Panel->Network and Internet->Network
and Sharing Center.
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Step 3: Click on option Change Adapter Setting in the upper-left side of the
window.
Step 4: Select both the Wi-Fi connection and the Ethernet connection and
Right-click the Wi-Fi connections.
Step 5: Click on Bridge Connections. After some time your computer’s Wi-
Fi will be shared with the other computer.
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5.2.2.Share files from Windows to Windows
Follow these steps to connect two computers having a Windows Operating
system to share the files between them:
Step 2: Click on Start->Control Panel->Network and Internet->Network
and Sharing Center.
Step 3: Click on option Change Advanced Sharing Settings in the upper-
left side of the window.
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Step 4: Turn on file sharing. Check the Turn on file and printer sharing.
Step 5: To Share a folder follow these steps-

 Go to the folder’s location.
 Select the folder you want to share.
 Click on the Share tab and then on specific people
 Select everyone from the drop-down menu.
 Click Share
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 Click Done
Step 6: Open the File Explorer on another computer.

Step 7: On the left side below the Network heading you will find your first
computer name. Click on the name.
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Step 8: Copy the shared folder onto your second computer.
5.2.3. Sharing Internet from Mac
Following steps to connect two MAC to share the internet
Step 2: Click on Apple Menu->System Preferences->Sharing->Internet
Sharing box.
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Step 3: Click the Share your connection from the drop-down box. It’s in the
middle of the window. A drop-down menu will appear.
Step 4: Select the Wi-Fi option from the drop-down menu.

Step 5: Select the Ethernet box. Doing so shares your MAC’s Internet
connection with the computer to which it is currently connected.
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5.2.4. Sharing Files from One MAC system to Another MAC
System
Follow these steps to connect two MAC to share files.
Step 2: Click on Go->Connect to Server->Browse.
Step 3: Double Click on the Second MAC’s name.
Step 4: A dialogue box will appear. Enter the second computer’s password
to connect to the second computer.
Step 5: Click Connect. It’s in the lower-right side of the pop-up window.
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Step 6: Open Finder.
Step 7: Move files onto the other MAC. Find a file that you want to move
onto the second MAC, copy it by clicking it and pressing Command+C,
click the other MAC’s name in the lower-left side of the Finder window,
open your preferred folder, and press Command+V.
5.2.5. Sharing Files from Mac to Windows
Follow these steps to connect MAC to Windows to share files.
Step 2: Enable file sharing on windows computer. Click on Start->Control
Panel->Network and Internet->Network and Sharing Center. Click
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Advanced Share Settings and Check the Turn on file and printer sharing
box.
Step 3: Share a folder. Click on Start-> Select the folder to share->Click on
Share tab->Click Specific people->Select Everyone->Click Share and then
Done.
Step 4: Enable file sharing on the MAC computer. Click on Apple Menu-
>System Prefrences->Sharing->File Sharing box->Change the Everyone
permissions from Read Only to Read and Write.
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Step 5: Share a folder from your MAC. Click the icon below the list of
shared folders, then double-click the folder that you want to share.
Step 6: Access MAC’s files from the Windows computer.Click on Start-
>File Explorer->MAC name on left below Network. Open shared folder-
>Select files->Press Ctrl+C->Go to the folder on your computer then press
Ctrl+V.
Step 7: Access the Windows computer’s files from the MAC. Open Finder-
>Click your Windows computer’s name in the lower-left side of the window.
Open shared folder->Select files then press Command+C->Go to the folder
on your MAC then press Command+V.
5.3. Building Home Network
5.3.1. Wired or Wireless Home Network
Wired networks use Ethernet over UTP cable and tend to be faster than
wireless networks, which is an important consideration if you are a gamer.
The simple wired home network diagram below shows a minimum setup
with a switch and broadband router.
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Figure 18. Simple Wired Home Network diagram
Wired Network Advantages
 Fast typically 100 Mbps to 10Gbps
 Secure and reliable.
Wired Network Dis-Advantages
 Doesn’t work with devices that don’t have an Ethernet port e.g.
tablets and smart phones.
 Not so easy and fast to setup as it requires running cables.
However Homeplug or powerline adapters can be used instead.
 Not so easy for visitors and mobile devices (laptops) to connect
to.
Home Wireless Networks
Wireless networks use Wi-Fi. and are quick and easy to install, but are
generally slower than wired networks. See Wi-Fi and Wireless networks for
more details.
Wireless Network Advantages
 Easy to setup from an end user perspective.
 Allows easy access to smart phones, Tablets and mobile devices.
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 No cables to run.
Wireless Network Dis-Advantages
 Not as Secure as wired networks without proper configuration,
and easy to setup insecurely.
 Not as fast as wired networks.
 Not as reliable as wired networks.
5.3.2. Setting up a Home Network
Today however most home and small home office networks will use a
wireless network or mixed network, as most people use Smart phones, and
tablets which don’t have Ethernet support.
The main components required to build a typical home/small office network
are:
1. Router or Wireless router – Connects the network to the Internet.
2. Wireless Access Point – Used to Connect Wi-Fi equipped devices
to the network.
3. Ethernet HUB or Switch -Used to Connect Ethernet equipped
devices.
4. Cable cat 5, cat5e or cat 6 with RJ45 connectors.
5. Telephone Cable with RJ 10 connectors.
6. Broadband Filters.
5.4. Configuring IP Address
IP address must be configured on computer in order to communicate with
other computers, because this IP address. is the standard address understood
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by computers and other networking devices in networking world. We can
configure IP address, subnet mask, gateway and DNS servers manually on
computer, we can also configure computer to obtain IP address and other
network information from DHCP server (most of the time is configured on
router).
5.5. Physical Network Set-up
We will use D-Link's DI-604 broadband router as an example see figure 80.
We can use other type of router according to your needs. Make available
some straight network cable as well. Connect the WAN port on router to
your cable/DSL modem using straight cable, then connect computers‟
network card to router’s LAN ports using straight cable also. You can
connect up to 4 computers to this router. Power on the router after finish
connecting, you should be able to see the WAN and LAN lights on the
router. Also you need to ensure that your DSL/Cable modem is configured
in bridge mode, so that it can work well after connecting to router. Here is
how to configure DSL/Cable modem in bridge mode.
This is very common setup after you have subscribed new DSL broadband
service, you just need to configure the modem as a bridge, and after that
configure PPPoE dialer in microsoft Windows by providing
username/password or other network information for accessing Internet.
If you plan to connect the modem to router and set up a home network, you
must set bridge mode on modem too.
Procedure
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i. Connect DSL modem’s LAN port to computer’s network card by
using straight through network cable.
ii. Read the modem manual, find out the default modem IP address, after
that you need to set computer with the IP address in same network
with modem, so you can access and configure it. As an example, if the
modem IP is 192.168.1.1, I set computer IP as 192.168.1.10 (you can
set 192.168.1.X, X= number between 2 and 254), netmask as
255.255.255.0 and gateway as 192.168.1.1.
iii. Open a web browser and key in http://DSL-modem-default-
IP(example: http://192.168.1.1) into the address bar, after that hit
Enter key.
iv. The modem logon screen will appear, type in default username and
password you found in modem manual. You will then log on to the
modem management page.
v. Go to the correct configuration page by referring to modem manual,
and then set the operation mode to Bridge mode. Here is an example:
vi. The other important info for modem to work well is Virtual Path
Identifier (VPI) and Virtual Circuit Identifier (VCI), you need to set
these numbers correctly. If you get the modem from ISP, most likely
it’s been pre-configured correctly.
vii. Ok, at this stage you have done the modem configuration, you can
then proceed to configure PPPoE dialer on connected computer. If you
need help, here is PPPoE dialer setup in Windows 7, Vista and XP. If
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this modem is connected to router (wireless or wired), you can then
proceed to configure that wireless router or Ethernet wired route.
Figure 19. Physical Network Setup with D-Link's DI-604 broadband

router
5.6. IP Logical Network Design
This is one of the task which we need to do is do after we have set up a
network (wired or wireless) at home. This is the process to decide the IP
addresses, netmask for computers, router and other network devices. Since
each IP address assigned to your computer must be unique, you can’t simply
assign an IP address to your computer.
Here are 3 recommended IP ranges we can used in our network. These 3
blocks of private IP address space are reserved by Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA) for private network, such as home network.
The three (3) Private IP address space: 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255;
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172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255; and 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255. We can
use the private IP address space in our network without worrying of conflict
with the IP addresses in Internet.
After deciding the IP addresses to be used, the next is to decide what
netmask to be used. Netmask will decide how many IP addresses available
to be used in our network. Let use 255.255.255.0 for having 254 addresses
to be assigned. There is a network address and broadcast address which
can‟t be used for IP assigning. Network address is used to represent that
particular created network, whereas broadcast address is used to talk to all
computers in that particular network. Below are some examples for
assigning IP addresses in on network.
Example 1: 5 computers and a router on network
Let us assign 10.0.0.1 to the router, 10.0.0.2 – 10.0.0.6 to other 5 computers.
We use netmask 255.255.255.0 for this network, so that we can assign IP
addresses 10.0.0.1 - 10.0.0.254 in the network. Network address is 10.0.0.0,
broadcast address is 10.0.0.255.
Example 2: 8 computers, 2 notebooks and a router on network
Let us assign 172.16.10.1 to the router, 172.16.10.2 – 172.16.10.9 to other
8 computers and 172.16.10.10 – 172.16.10.11 to other 2 notebooks. We will
use netmask 255.255.255.0 for this network, so that we can assign IP
addresses 172.16.10.1 – 172.16.10.254 in the network.
Network address is 172.16.10.0, broadcast address is 172.16.10.255.
Example 3: 8 computers, a router and a network printer on network
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Let us assign 192.168.1.1 to the router, 192.168.1.2 to the network printer
and 192.168.1.3 –192.168.1.10 to other 8 computers. we use netmask
255.255.255.0 for this network, so that we can assign IP addresses
192.168.1.1 –192.168.1.254 in the network. Network address is
192.168.1.0, broadcast address is 192.168.1.255.
1. Enumerate and give function of any five network implementation
device.
2. Explain three configuration types of Network Interface Cards.
3. Discuss the important of Ethernet cable tester.
4. Describe the Procedures for making network patch cable with Rj45.
5. Compare T-568A and T-568B
6. Enlist materials required for making network patch cable for a LAN.
7. Describe the procedure to connect two computer systems with only
network card and cross over cable.
8. Under what condition can we use straight through network cable for
connecting two computer systems.
9. Describe procedure for Configuring of IP Address on window 7
10. Describe how you can setup IP Logical Network Design for (1) 10
computers, 2 notebooks and a router on network; (2) 12 computers,
a router and a network printer on network. Private IP addresses
space: 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255.
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11. Why is it important to configure modem in bridge mode when
setting up network? Hence describe the procedure to configure
modem in bridge mode.
12. Why is it advisable to minimize the Ethernet cable length for
computer network?
13. Identify three primary types of network cable issues
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C
HAPTER SIX
NETWORK TROUBLESHOOTING
6.1. Description of Network Troubleshooting

When problems occurred in our network setting, there are one or more steps
to follow in other to identify problem and proffer solution. The procedures
and methodology to troubleshoot network problems are discussed in this
chapter.
6.2. Networking Troubleshooting Steps
6.2.1. Check the Cords & Power
The first thing you should always do is check to make sure everything is
plugged in: your computer, router, device, etc. Many laptops have a button
to turn off the wireless connection; the icon looks like a signal tower. When
in doubt, read the manual.
6.2.2. Ping Yourself
You want to test that your machine is working properly. To do this, you
want to ping yourself. You use the loop-back address (127.0.0.1) to do this.
Pinging the loop-back address tests to make sure software on your computer
is working properly. Typically, if something is not working at this stage,
you may just need to restart your computer.
6.2.3. Ping Your Router (AKA: the Default Gateway)
The next step would be to ping your router. You can find your router’s IP
address with ipconfig as well (it should be on the bottom of the unit and
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listed in the manual too). Remember that ipconfig lists your router as the
“Default Gateway.” It is very likely to be 192.168.1.1 or a similar number.
This is done to test if your router is responding. If it is not, and you have
already checked to make sure it is on, then it may need to be turned off and
turned on. Every once in a while it may need a refresh. If the problem
continues, contact you ISP for assistance to see if they can help.
6.2.4. Ping Yourself with Your IP Address
We want to test to make sure everything is working correctly between your
router and your computer. To do this, ping your IP address. It is listed in the
ipconfig command at the same time the router IP number is. If this works,
you can be confident that a problem is outside your network.
6.2.5. Ping and Tracert outside Your Network
From here, you want to test something outside your network. In a medium
or larger network setting, a server on another branch of the network will do.
For a home network, the Internet is often your only option. Since chances
are the problem is that one or more websites are (or seem) down, this is a
logical thing to check. You can use a few different tools. First try the ping
command because it is the fastest. It will only tell you if the site is working
or not. For more detailed information, use tracert and pathping. They can
give a better idea of what is going on. For instance, if you can reach your
router, but no further, the node that connects you to the Internet may be
down: an ISP issue. If you can reach only a couple (one or two) steps past
your router, then it still is probably an ISP issue. Your Internet is down.
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6.3. Ways to check if a website is down
Some of the ways to check if a website is down are.
6.3.1. Ping
A ping basically sends a Hello to a server waiting for a response. If the
response takes too long a timeout will occur. Ping is measured in ms, if it is
incredibly high something is wrong with either your computer, the route in
between or the destination. The command is similar in Windows and Linux,
just enter ping destination, with destination being an IP or domain name,
and wait for the response.
6.3.2. Traceroute
You can compare Tracerouter with a list of all the roads that you travel until
you reach your destination. Only that the roads are the servers in this case
that your data is send through to reach their destination. If everything is fine
the destination server should appear at the end, if it is not you could get
timeouts for instance. Tracert is the command that you can use in Windows
to trace the route between your computer and the destination. Use the
command “tracert IP” or “tracert domain” to achieve this. Traceroute is the
equivalent in Linux.
6.3.3. Domain Name System (DNS)
DNS errors most of the time occur when a website is freshly registered or
moving to another server. It usually takes some time to update the DNS
records to point at the new server. DNS is providing information much like
your phone book is. Domain names are for us puny humans who have
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troubles remembering those server IP addresses (64.233.161.18 for Google
for instance). Problems occur when the Nameservers who translate the
human entered domain names into IP addresses have still the old IP in their
records while the website is already up and running on the new IP. You can
use the online script DNS Report to receive a detailed report. Green results
are fine, red ones point to failures and yellow ones are warnings.
6.3.4. Proxies
Proxy’s can be used to establish connections to websites even if the direct
route from your computer to theirs is somehow blocked. You can compare
that to visiting a friend and using his computer to connect to a server that
you cannot connect to. If it works it is somehow related to your computer
or connection.
6.4. Troubleshoot Network Problem With “ping” Command
Ping is a program used to check whether a host is up and active in network.
It is commonly used to troubleshoot network problem. Figure 18 is typical
home wired network design, let's explore how to use this ping tool to
troubleshoot network problem and find the root cause. We do the following:
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Figure 20: A typical home wired network
i. First thing you need to do is to make sure there is light on network
card with cable connected. Sometimes network down is due to
disconnected network cable or loose cable connection. If you notice
no light on your network card after connecting with network cable,
make sure the network cable is working and router that connected
by this computer is up and active. If you see the light, then proceed
to step 2.
Note: You need to make sure the network cable is connected to
router's LAN port
ii. Go to Start and click on Run. Run window will appear. Type in cmd
on Run window and click OK.
iii. Key in ping 127.0.0.1 in Command Prompt window. This is network
card loopback address. If you receive Reply from 127.0.0.1, it
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works. If you receive Request timed out, it means network card
doesn’t work properly. Unplug and re-seat the network card,
connect with network cable then ping loopback address again. If still
fails, check the network card driver status in Windows 7, Vista or
XP to troubleshoot network card and make sure the card works well.
If still fails, most probably the network card cannot be used
anymore. Try again by using other network cards. However if you
just cannot install network card driver correctly on this computer but
it works on other computer, then maybe there is problem on
Microsoft Windows OS or its TCP/IP function.
iv. Ok, now you can proceed to ping your computer IP address. If you
are not sure about computer IP, use ipconfig to find out. If you fail
to ping this IP or no IP is configured on computer, check network
configuration such as IP address (assigned manually or
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automatically?), subnet mask, gateway on network card to make
sure it's configured correctly.
v. If you able to ping loopback address and your computer IP, proceed
to ping router LAN IP address. If you receive Request timed out,
make sure router is up and configured properly with correct IP,
subnet mask, DHCP and other network settings.
Note: Ensure that your DSL/Cable modem is configured in bridge
mode (not routing mode), so that it can work well after connecting
to router. Even if router is up and it's configured properly, you need
to check and ensure the computer is connected to correct and
working router LAN port too, sometimes it might be connected to
faulty port or incorrect port (such as uplink port). If you have
enabled firewall on router, make sure firewall is configured
correctly without dropping legitimate network packets.
vi. If you can ping the router IP, then you should be able to ping the
other computers or notebook in your network. If you still fail to ping
the router IP or other computers, then you can take a look on this
wired home network setup tutorial in order to get more helps.
vii. If you have successfully done above steps and all are working
properly, but you still fail to connect to Internet, then check your
DSL, cable or wireless modem and router to make sure all cables are
connected correctly. Reboot your DSL, cable or wireless modem
and router and try internet access after that.
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viii. If still no Internet connection after that, connect computer to modem
directly with network cable and test Internet connection. If this
works, then I think the problem is on wired router configuration. If
this fails too, contact your ISP for getting more helps to troubleshoot
this network problem. This might due to some problems at your ISP
side sometimes or the modem is broken.
6.5. Using nslookup command

Sometimes you might find out your computer is connected to network, but
just cannot browse Internet websites. So what to do next? Just use nslookup
to try resolving the domain name problem. If you wish to know what the IP
address is resolved from domain name, you can use nslookup command to
find out. This command is also useful to check whether the DNS servers
configured in Microsoft Windows work well. If the configured DNS server
doesn’t work well, the webpage will not be displayed on your web browser
since the domain names will not be translated to IP addresses successfully.
Type in nslookup in command prompt window, you will enter interactive
mode with > symbol. It also shows the DNS server (202.188.0.133) is being
used to serve the system used in this case (different DNS IP address will be
displayed in your command prompt). You can then enter the domain name
which you want to check its IP address. For example, enter www.cisco.com
and press Enter key, it will be resolved to 198.133.219.25. In another
example, www.dlink.com will be resolved to 64.7.210.132. If the domain
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name can be resolved successfully, that means the configured DNS server
works well on your computer. See figure 81.
Figure 21: Command Prompt window for nslook

Don't feel surprise if sees multiple IP addresses share same domain name.
Those domain names are usually popular domain names, such as
www.yahoo.com, www.aol.com, www.microsoft.com, www.ebay.com,
etc. Usually the main reason of having multiple IP addresses is to load
balance the user access to those popular websites.
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If you enter invalid domain name, the Non-existent domain message will be
shown.
If you receive DNS request timed out messages which are shown as below,
that means the domain name is failed to be resolved at the time being. The
DNS server might be down or not valid, in this case you should try to
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resolve the domain name by configuring other DNS servers on your
computer. If you are not sure which DNS servers to configure, feel free to
use these free DNS servers from OpenDNS or Google to resolve domain
names.
If you wish to check address translation by other DNS servers, such as your
secondary DNS server, just enter this command server new-DNS-server-IP.
I changed to DNS server 216.28.158.11.
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1. What are Steps towards Networking Troubleshooting
2. Describe Troubleshooting with Ping Commands
3. Describe the procedure for Troubleshoot Network Problem With “ping”
Command.
4. On which condition can we require the use of nslookup command in
network problem troubleshooting?
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C
HAPTER SEVEN
COMPUTER NETWORK SECURITY
7.1. Network Security Issues

Network security has become increasingly important with the growth in the
number and importance of networks. Network security issues include
protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses. Network security is expensive. It is also very
important. An institution network would possibly be subject to more
stringent security requirements than a similarly-sized corporate network,
because of its likelihood of storing personal and confidential information of
network users, the danger of which can be compounded if any network users
are minors. A great deal of attention must be paid to network services to
ensure all network content is appropriate for the network community it
serves.
7.2. Security Requirements and Attacks
7.2.1. Network Security Requirements
To understand the types of threats to security that exist, we need to have a
definition of security requirements. Computer and network security address
four requirements:
1. Confidentiality: Requires that data only be accessible by authorized
parties. This type of access includes printing, displaying, and other
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forms of disclosure, including simply revealing the existence of an
object.
2. Integrity: Requires that only authorized parties can modify data.
Modification includes writing, changing, changing status, deleting,
and creating.
3. Availability: Requires that data are available to authorized parties.
4. Authenticity: Requires that a host or service be able to verify the
identity of a user.
7.2.2. Network Security Threats and Attacks
Some of the network security threat and attacks are discussed below
7.2.2.1.Attacks against IP
An attack against IP includes:
1. IP Spoofing: This is where one host claims to have the IP address of
another. Since many systems (such as router access control lists) define
which packets may and which packets may not pass based on the
sender's IP address, this is a useful technique to an attacker: he can send
packets to a host, perhaps causing it to take some sort of action.
2. IP Session Hijacking: IP Session Hijacking is an attack whereby a
user's session is taken over, being in the control of the attacker. If the
user was in the middle of email, the attacker is looking at the email, and
then can execute any commands he wishes as the attacked user. The
attacked user simply sees his session dropped, and may simply login
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again, perhaps not even noticing that the attacker is still logged in and
doing things.
7.2.2.2. Denial-of-Service (DoS)
The premise of a DoS attack is simple: send more requests to the machine
than it can handle. There are toolkits available in the underground
community that make this a simple matter of running a program and telling
it which host to blast with requests. The attacker's program simply makes a
connection on some service port, perhaps forging the packet's header
information that says where the packet came from, and then dropping the
connection. Some things that can be done to reduce the risk of being stung
by a denial of service attack include
i. Not running your visible-to-the-world servers at a level too close to
capacity
ii. Using packet filtering to prevent obviously forged packets from
entering into your network address space.
iii. Keeping up-to-date on security-related patches for your hosts'
operating systems.
7.2.2.3. Unauthorized Access
Unauthorized access is a very high-level term that can refer to a number of
different sorts of attacks. The goal of these attacks is to access some
resource that your machine should not provide the attacker. For example, a
host might be a web server, and should provide anyone with requested web
pages. However, that host should not provide command shell access without
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being sure that the person making such a request is someone who should
get it, such as a local administrator.
7.2.2.4. Executing Commands Illicitly
It's obviously undesirable for an unknown and untrusted person to be able
to execute commands on your server machines. There are two main
classifications of the severity of this problem.
i. Normal user access
ii. Administrator access
A normal user can do a number of things on a system (such as read files,
mail them to other people, etc.) that an attacker should not be able to do.
This might, then, be all the access that an attacker needs. On the other hand,
an attacker might wish to make configuration changes to a host (perhaps
changing its IP address, putting a start-up script in place to cause the
machine to shut down every time it's started, or something similar). In this
case, the attacker will need to gain administrator privileges on the host.
7.2.2.5. Destructive Behavior
Among the destructive sorts of break-ins and attacks, there are two major
categories.
i. Data Diddling: The data diddler is likely the worst sort, since the
fact of a break-in might not be immediately obvious. Perhaps he's
toying with the numbers in your spreadsheets, or changing the dates
in your projections and plans. Maybe he's changing the account
numbers for the auto-deposit of certain paychecks.
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ii. Data Destruction: Some of those perpetrate attacks are simply
twisted jerks who like to delete things. In these cases, the impact on
your computing capability and consequently your business can be
nothing less than if a fire or other disaster caused your computing
equipment to be completely destroyed.
7.3. Prevention of Network Security Threats

7.3.1. Encryption Method
The universal technique for providing confidentiality for transmitted data is
symmetric encryption. A symmetric encryption scheme has five
components.
i. Plaintext: This is the original message or data that is fed into the
algorithm as input.
ii. Encryption algorithm: The encryption algorithm performs various
substitutions and transformations on the plaintext.
iii. Secret key: The secret key is also input to the encryption algorithm.
The exact substitutions and transformations performed by the
algorithm depend on the key.
iv. Cipher text: This is the scrambled message produced as output. It
depends on the plaintext and the secret key. For a given message,
two different keys will produce two different cipher texts.
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v. Decryption algorithm: This is essentially the encryption algorithm
run in reverse. It takes the cipher text and the secret key and
produces the original plaintext.
There are several ways of classifying cryptographic algorithms, in this book
algorithm will be categorized based on the number of keys that are
employed for encryption and decryption, and further defined by their
application and use.
i. Secret Key Cryptography (SKC): Uses a single key for both
encryption and decryption.
ii. Public Key Cryptography (PKC): Uses one key for encryption and
another for decryption.
iii. Hash Functions: Uses a mathematical transformation to irreversibly
"encrypt" information
So, why are there so many different types of cryptographic schemes? Why
can't we do everything we need with just one? The answer is that each
scheme is optimized for some specific application(s).
i. Hash functions, for example, are well-suited for ensuring data
integrity because any change made to the contents of a message will
result in the receiver calculating a different hash value than the one
placed in the transmission by the sender. Since it is highly unlikely
that two different messages will yield the same hash value, data
integrity is ensured to a high degree of confidence.
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ii. Secret key cryptography, on the other hand, is ideally suited to
encrypting messages, thus providing privacy and confidentiality.
The sender can generate a session key on a per-message basis to
encrypt the message; the receiver, of course, needs the same session
key to decrypt the message.
iii. Public-key cryptography asymmetric schemes can also be used for
non-repudiation and user authentication; if the receiver can obtain
the session key encrypted with the sender's private key, then only
this sender could have sent the message.
7.3.2. Firewall
A firewall is simply a group of components that collectively form a barrier
between two networks. A firewall is a hardware or software system that
prevents unauthorized access to or from a network. They can be
implemented in both hardware and software, or a combination of both.
Firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from
accessing private networks connected to the Internet. All data entering or
leaving the Intranet pass through the firewall, which examines each packet
and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria.
7.3.2.1. Types of Firewall
Firewalls can be divided into five basic types: Stateful Inspection, Proxys,
Packet filters, Dynamic, Kernel firewall. The divisions however are not
quite well defined as most modern firewalls have a mix of abilities that place
them in more than one of the categories listed. To simplify the most
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commonly used firewalls, expert breaks them down into three categories:
Application firewalls, Network layer firewalls, and Proxy firewall.
7.3.2.1.1. Network Layer Firewalls
Network layer firewalls generally make their decisions based on the source
address, destination address and ports in individual IP packets. A simple
router is the traditional network layer firewall, since it is not able to make
particularly complicated decisions about what a packet is actually talking to
or where it actually came from. Modern network layer firewalls have
become increasingly more sophisticated, and now maintain internal
information about the state of connections passing through them at any time.
7.3.2.1.2. Application Layer Firewalls
Application layer firewalls defined, are hosts running proxy servers, which
permit no traffic directly between networks, and they perform elaborate
logging and examination of traffic passing through them. Since proxy
applications are simply software running on the firewall, it is a good place
to do lots of logging and access control.
Application layer firewalls can be used as network address translators, since
traffic goes in one side and out the other, after having passed through an
application that effectively masks the origin of the initiating connection.
7.3.2.1.3. Proxy Firewalls
Proxy firewalls offer more security than other types of firewalls, but this is
at the expense of speed and functionality, as they can limit which
applications your network can support. Why are they more secure? Unlike
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other firewalls, which allow or block network packets from passing to and
from a protected network, traffic does not flow through a proxy. Instead,
computers establish a connection to the proxy, which serves as an
intermediary, and initiate a new network connection on behalf of the
request.
1. Describe briefly any 5 network security threats you know
2. What are the precautions to reduce the risk of being stung by a denial
of service in computer Network?
3. Describe briefly the term cryptograph
4. Describe briefly firewall and it 3 major types
5. What are the major security requirements in network environment?
6. What are the basic rules use to generate public and private keys in RSA
algorithm.
7. For RSA algorithm we have p = 5, q=11, n = 55 and (p-q) (q-1) = 40.
Find the public and private key, resulting ciphertext and verify the
decryption.
8. Describe with diagram the use of hybrid cryptograph algorithm that
combines secret, public, and harsh function for Mr. A to send
information to B.
9. Compare the strength of secret, public, and harsh function cryptograph
algorithm.
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C
HAPTER EIGHT
DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
8.1. Data Representation

Data is a fact about something that exists in a variety of forms, such as
numbers or text on pieces of paper, as bits and bytes stored in electronic
memory, or as facts stored in a person's mind.
In electronics data is a digital bit or digitized analog signal. Signals are
physical quantity that changes with time. When data is formatted for one
purpose or the other it becomes information.
Information in the context of this book is basically analog or digital
information that can be moved from one data communication device or
system to another.
In data communication system information are put together in analog or
digital form and broken into group or segment of data called packets. Each
packet consists of the following.
i. the actual data being sent
ii. header
iii. information about the type of data
iv. where the data came from
v. where it is going, and
vi. How it should be reassembled so the message is clear and in order
when it arrives at the destination.
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8.2. Data Representation in Computers
8.2.1. Description of Data Representation
Data representation is defined as the methods used to represent information
in computers. Different types of data can be stored in the computer system.
This includes numeric data, text, executable files, images, audio, video, etc.
all these will look different to us as human. However, all types of
information or data stored in the computer are represented as a sequence of
0s and 1s.
8.2.2. Decimal Numbers
As human we are used to writing numbers using digits 0 to 9. This is called
base 10. This number system has been widely adopted, in large part because
we have 10 fingers. However, other number systems still persist in modern
society.
8.2.3. Binary Numbers
Any positive integer (whole number) can be represented by a sequence of
0s and 1s. Numbers in this form are said to be in base two, and are called
binary numbers. Computers are based on the binary (base 2) number system
because electrical wire can only be of two states (on or off).
8.2.4. Hexadecimal Numbers
Writing numbers in binary is tedious since this representation uses between
3 to 4 times as many digits as the decimal representation. The hexadecimal
(base 16) number system is often used as shorthand for binary. Base 16 is
useful because 16 is a power of 2, and numbers have roughly as many digits
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as in the corresponding decimal representation. Another name for
hexadecimal numbers is alphadecimal because the numbers are written
from 0 to 9 and A to F. where A is 10, B is 11 up to F that is 15.
8.2.5. Text
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII code) defines
128 different symbols. The symbols are all the characters found on a
standard keyboard, plus a few extra. Unique numeric code (0 to 127) is
assigned to each character. In ASCII, “A” is 65, “B” is 66, “a” is 97, “b” is
98, and so forth. When a file is save as “plain text”, it is stored using ASCII.
ASCII format uses 1 byte per character 1 byte gives only 256 (128 standard
and 128 non-standard) possible characters. The code value for any character
can be converter to base 2, so any written message made up of ASCII
characters can be converted to a string of 0s and 1s.
8.2.6. Graphics
Graphics on computer screen are consists of pixels. The pixels are tiny dots
of color that collectively paint a graphic image on a computer screen. It is
physical point in a raster image, or the smallest addressable element in an
all points addressable display device. Hence it is the smallest controllable
element of a picture represented on the screen.
The address of a pixel corresponds to its physical coordinates. LCD pixels
are manufactured in two-dimensional grid, and are often represented using
dots or squares, but CRT pixels correspond to their timing mechanism and
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sweep rates. The pixels are organized into many rows and columns on the
screen.
8.3. Data Flow or Transmission Modes
8.3.1. Description of Data flow or Transmission modes
This describes the way in which data moves from one point to another in a
data communication system. There are two basic movement directions; it is
either from source system to destination system or both. These could be
simple or duplex. Duplex can further be divided into either half duplex or
full duplex. General data moves from sender to receiver, but in a special
situation data can also move from receiver to the sender, for example there
may be needs for acknowledge from the receiver that data has been received
in other for it to prepare to send another data. In data communication we
call that handshaking. The types of data communication we have are as
follows.
8.3.2. Types of Transmission modes
8.3.2.1. Simplex Data Flow
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way
street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only
receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex
devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept
output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send
data in one direction. Examples are Radio and Television broadcasts. They
go from the TV station to your home television.
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Figure 22. Simplex Transmission Mode
8.3.2.2.Half Duplex Data Flow
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa.
The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both
directions. When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other
way must wait. In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a
channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the
time.
Figure 23. Half Duplex transmission Mode

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8.3.2.3. Full Duplex Data Flow
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
The full-duplex mode is like a two way street with traffic flowing in both
directions at the same time.
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone
network. When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can
talk and listen at the same time.
Figure 24. Full Duplex Transmission Mode

8.4. Data Communication System and it Components
8.4.1. Data Communication and Data Communication System
The description of data communication depends on the perception of
individual or expert.
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- Data communication can be seen as the movement of encoded
information from one point to another by means of electronic
transmission system.
- It can also be defined as the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium which can be wired or
wireless.
- In digital world, data communications simply mean the transferring
of digital information (usually in binary form) between two or more
points (terminals). In this case at both the source and destination,
data are in digital form. However, during transmission data can be
in digital or analog form.
8.4.2. Purpose of Data Communication
The fundamental purpose of data communication is to exchange
information which is done by adhering to certain rules and regulations
called protocols and standards. However communications between devices
are justified for the following reasons:
i. Reduces time and effort required to perform business task
ii. Captures business data at its source
iii. Centralizes control over business data
iv. Effect rapid dissemination of information
v. Reduces current and future cost of doing business
vi. Supports expansion of business capacity at reasonably incremental
cost as the organization
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vii. Supports organization’s objective in centralizing computer system
viii. Supports improved management control of an organization.
8.4.3. Data Communication Components
Basic Components of data communication are:
i. Source System: It is the data source and transmitter of data, which
includes but not limited to the followings Terminal equipment’s like
computers.
ii. Medium: The communications stream through which the data is
being transmitted from one point to another. Examples are: Cabling,
Microwave, Fiber optics, Radio Frequencies (RF), Infrared Wireless
etc.
iii. Destination system: Destination system is made up of two
components, the receiver of the data transmitted and it destination.
Sometimes the receiver can also be destination devices.
The diagram below depicts the organization of data communication system
and it components.
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Figure 25. Organization of Data Communication System
8.4.4. Data Communication Criteria
The major criteria that a Data Communication Network must meet are:
Performance, Consistency, Reliability, Recovery and Security.
8.4.4.1. Performance
Performance is the defined as the rate of transferring error free data. It is
measured by the Response Time. Response Time is the elapsed time
between the end of an inquiry and the beginning of a response. Request a
file transfer and start the file transfer. Factors that affect Response Time are:
i. Number of Users: More users on a network - slower the network
will run
ii. Transmission Speed: speed that data will be transmitted measured
in bits per second (bps)
iii. Media Type: Type of physical connection used to connect nodes
together
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iv. Hardware Type: Slow computers such as XT or fast such as
Pentiums
v. Software Program: How well is the network operating system
(NOS) written
8.4.4.2. Consistency
Consistency is the predictability of response time and accuracy of data.
Users prefer to have consistent response times; they develop a feel for
normal operating conditions. For example: if the "normal" response time is
3 sec. for printing to a Network Printer and a response time of over 30 sec
happens, we know that there is a problem in the system. Accuracy of Data
determines if the network is reliable! If a system loses data, then the users
will not have confidence in the information and will often not use the
system.
8.4.4.3. Reliability
Reliability is the measure of how often a network is useable. This involves
measure of the average time a component is expected to operate between
failures (MTBF Mean Time Between Failures).
8.4.4.4. Recovery
Recovery is the ability to return to a prescribed level of operation after a
failure. This level is where the amount of lost data is nonexistent or at a
minimum. Recovery is based on having Back-up Files.
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8.4.4.5. Security
Security is the protection of Hardware, Software and Data from
unauthorized access and attacks. This includes restricted physical access to
data communication systems.
8.4.5. Data Communication Equipment (DCE) & Data Terminal
Equipment (DTE)
8.4.5.1. Data Communication Equipment (DCE)
Data communications equipment (DCE) refers to computer hardware
devices used to establish maintain and terminate communication network
sessions between a data source and its destination. DCE is connected to the
data terminal equipment (DTE) and data transmission circuit (DTC) to
convert transmission signals.
Data communication Equipment (DCE) is the interface between the Source
& the Medium, and the Medium & the Receiver is called the DCE (Data
Communication Equipment) and is a physical piece of equipment. Data
Communications Equipment (DCE) can be classified as equipment that
transmits or receives analogue or digital signals through a network.
DCE works at the physical layer of the OSI model taking data generated by
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and converting it into a signal that can
then be transmitted over a communications link. A common DCE example
is a modem which works as a translator of digital and analog signal other
examples are ISDN adapters, satellites, microwave stations, base station,
and network interface cards.
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8.4.5.2. Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) Data Terminal Equipment is the
Telecommunication name given to the Source and Receiver's equipment.
Data Terminal Equipment is equipment which acts as source or destinations
in digital communication and which is capable of converting information to
signals and also reconverting received signals.
Figure 26. DTE & DCE Representation

1) Compare Data, Data representation, and Signal.
2) Describe briefly three types of data flow techniques.
3) Define Data Communication System.
4) Highlights five points to justify communications between devices.
5) Describe with aid of diagram components of data communication
system.
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6) Performance in data communication system is measured by the
Response Time. Hence highlights five factors that affect Response
Time.
7) Mention and briefly explain major criteria that a Data
Communication Network must meet.
8) Compare Data communication Equipment (DCE) and Data
Terminal Equipment (DTE), and give any three example of each
DTE and DCE.
9) How is data been stored or processed in data communication
system? Hence list component of data packet.
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C
HAPTER NINE
ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
9.1. Analog Data and Signal

9.1.1. Description of Analog Data and Signal
A signal is an electromagnetic or electrical current that is used for carrying
data from one system or network to another. The signal is a function that
conveys information about a phenomenon.
In electronics and telecommunications, it refers to any time-varying voltage
that is an electromagnetic wave which carries information. A signal can also
be defined as an observable change in quality such as quantity.
Analog signal is a continuous signal in which one time-varying quantity
represents another time-based variable. These kind of signals works with
physical values and natural phenomena such as earthquake, frequency,
volcano, speed of wind, weight, lighting, etc.
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Figure 27. Description of Analog Signal
9.1.2. Characteristics of Analog Signal
Characteristics of Analog Signal are listed but not limited to the following.
i. These type of electronic signals are time-varying
ii. Minimum and maximum values which is either positive or negative.
iii. It can be either periodic or non-periodic.
iv. Analog Signal works on continuous data.
v. The accuracy of the analog signal is not high when compared to the
digital signal.
vi. It helps you to measure natural or physical values.
vii. Analog signal output form is like Curve, Line, or Graph, so it may not
be meaningful to all.
9.1.3. Advantages of Analog Signals
Here, are pros/benefits of Analog Signals
i. Easier in processing
ii. Best suited for audio and video transmission.
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iii. It has a low cost and is portable.
iv. It has a much higher density so that it can present more refined
information.
v. Not necessary to buy a new graphics board.
vi. Uses less bandwidth than digital sounds
vii. Provide more accurate representation of a sound
viii. It is the natural form of a sound.
9.1.4. Disadvantages of Analog Signals
Here is cons/drawback of Analog Signals:
i. Analog tends to have a lower quality signal than digital.
ii. The cables are sensitive to external influences.
iii. The cost of the Analog wire is high and not easily portable.
iv. Low availability of models with digital interfaces.
v. Recording analog sound on tape is quite expensive if the tape is
damaged
vi. It offers limitations in editing
vii. Offers poor multi-user interfaces
9.1.5. Fundamental Components of Analog Signals
Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or non-periodic. A periodic
signal is one that repeats the sequence of values exactly after a fixed length
of time (period).
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Non-periodic signals are also known as aperiodic signal, this type of signal
does not have just one particular frequency, and the signals are spread out
over a continuous range of frequencies.
In data communications, we frequently use periodic analog signals because
it requires less bandwidth and nonperiodic digital signals because it can
represent variation in data.
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite. A simple
periodic analog signal cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A
composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
There are three fundamental components of analog signal representation
which are:
i. Frequency
ii. Amplitude
iii. Phase
9.1.5.1.Frequency
The frequency (f) of a sine wave is the number of complete cycles that
happen every second. A cycle is the same as the period.
Mathematically
f = 1/T
f = c/λ
9.1.5.2. Amplitude
The amplitude of a sine wave is the maximum distance it ever reaches from
zero. Since the sine function varies from +1 to -1, the amplitude is one.
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9.1.5.3. Phase
The phase involves the relationship between the position of the amplitude
crests and troughs of two waveforms. Phase can be measured in distance,
time, or degrees. If the peaks of two signals with the same frequency are in
exact alignment at the same time, they are said to be in phase.
Given that a circle has 360°, one cycle of a sine wave has 360°, Using
degrees, you can refer to the phase angle of a sine wave when you want to
describe how much of the period has elapsed. Phase shift describes the
difference in timing between two otherwise similar signals.
- A sine wave with a phase of 0° is not shifted.
- A sine wave with a phase of 90° is shifted to the left by 1/4 cycle.
However, note that the signal does not really exist before time O.
- A sine wave with a phase of 180° is shifted to the left by 1/2 cycle.
However, note that the signal does not really exist before time O.
Example
A sine wave is offset 1/4 cycle with respect to time O. What is its phase in
degrees and radians?
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/4 cycle is
1/4 x 360 = 90° =90 x 2π
360rad = (2π/4)rad = 1.57rad
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9.1.6. Composite Signal
A composite signal can be periodic or nonperiodic. A periodic composite
signal can be decomposed into a series of simple sine waves with discrete
frequencies that have integer values (1, 2, 3, and so on). Composite signal
can be decomposed into a combination of an infinite number of simple sine
waves with continuous frequencies, frequencies that have real values.
- If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series
of signals with discrete frequencies
- If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition gives a
combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.
If we had only one single sine wave to convey a conversation over the
phone, it would make no sense and carry no information. We would just
hear a buzz.
We send a composite signal to communicate data. A composite signal is
made of many simple sine waves. French mathematician Jean-Baptiste
Fourier shows that any composite signal is actually a combination of simple
sine waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. Fourier
analysis will be discuss in chapter 11 of this book.
Example: A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with
a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20v. The two extreme
frequencies have amplitude of 0. Calculate the highest frequency and draw
the frequency domain of the signal.
Solution
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Let F1 = lowest frequency, and F2 = highest frequency.
Therefore
F1 - F2 = 200 kHz ---- eqn1
F1 + F2 = 140 kHz ---- eqn2
Solve for f1 and f2 from eqn1 and eqn2
Then the lowest frequency is 40 kHz and the highest is 240 kHz.
9.1.7. Digital Signal

9.1.7.1. Description of Digital Signals
A digital signal is a signal that is used to represent data as a sequence of
separate values at any point in time. It can only take on one of a fixed
number of values. This type of signal represents a real number within a
constant range of values.
9.1.7.2.Characteristics of Digital Signals
Here, are essential characteristics of Digital signals
i. Digital signal are continuous signals
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ii. This type of signals can be processed and transmitted better
compared to analog signal.
iii. Digital signals are versatile, so it is widely used.
iv. The accuracy of the digital signal is better than that of the analog
signal.
9.1.7.3. Advantages of Digital Signals
Here, are pros/advantages of Digital Signals:
i. Digital data can be easily compressed.
ii. Any information in the digital form can be encrypted.
iii. Equipment that uses digital signals is more common and less
expensive.
iv. Digital signal makes running instruments free from observation
errors like parallax and approximation errors.
v. A lot of editing tools are available
vi. You can edit the sound without altering the original copy
vii. Easy to transmit the data over networks
9.1.8. Digital Signal Level
Information in a digital signal can be represented in the form of voltage
levels. In the signal shown below, a ‘1‘ is represented by a positive voltage
and a ‘0‘ is represented by a Zero voltage.
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Figure 28. Fig: A digital signal with Two levels. „1‟ represented by a
positive voltage and „0‟ represented by a negative voltage
Figure 29: A digital signal with four levels

In general, if a signal has L levels then, each level need Log2L bits
Example: Consider a digital Signal with four levels, how many bits are
required per level?
Answer: Number of bits per level = Log2L = Log24 = 2 Hence, 2 bits are
required per level for a signal with four levels.
9.1.9. Bit Length or Bit Interval (Tb)
It is the time required to send one bit. It is measured in seconds.
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9.1.10. Bit Rate
It is the number of bits transmitted in one second. It is expressed as bits per
second (bps). Relation between bit rate and bit interval can be as follows
Bit rate = 1 / Bit interval
9.1.11. Baud Rate
The baud rate is the rate at which information is transferred in a
communication channel. Baud rate is commonly used when discussing
electronics that use serial communication. The higher a baud rate goes, the
faster data is sent/received, but there are limits to how fast data can be
transferred.
9.1.12. Transmission Channel & Composite Signal
Each composite signal has a lowest possible (minimum) frequency and a
highest possible (maximum) frequency. From the point of view of
transmission, there are two types of channels:
Lowpass Channel: This channel has the lowest frequency as ‘0‘ and highest
frequency as some non-zero frequency f1‘. This channel can pass all the
frequencies in the range 0 to f1.
Bandpass Channel: This channel has the lowest frequency as some non-zero
frequency f1‘and highest frequency as some non-zero frequency f2‘. This
channel can pass all the frequencies in the range f1 to f2.
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Fig: Lowpass Channel & Bandpass Channel
9.1.13. Transmission of Digital Signal
Digital signal can be transmitted in two ways:
Baseband Transmission
The signal is transmitted without making any change to it (ie. without
modulation). In baseband transmission, the bandwidth of the signal to be
transmitted has to be less than the bandwidth of the channel.
Consider a Baseband channel with lower frequency 0Hz and higher
frequency 100Hz; hence its bandwidth is 100. We can easily transmit a
signal with frequency below 100Hz, such a channel whose bandwidth is
more than the bandwidth of the signal is called Wideband channel.
Logically a signal with frequency say 110Hz will be blocked resulting in
loss of information, such a channel whose bandwidth is less than the
bandwidth of the signal is called Narrowband channel
Broadband Transmission
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Given a bandpass channel, a digital signal cannot be transmitted directly
through it. In broadband transmission we use modulation, i.e we change the
signal to analog signal before transmitting it. The digital signal is first
converted to an analog signal, since we have a bandpass channel we cannot
directly send this signal through the available channel.
Ex. Consider the bandpass channel with lower frequency 50Hz and higher
frequency 80Hz, and the signal to be transmitted has frequency 10Hz.
To pass the analog signal through the bandpass channel, the signal is
modulated using a carrier frequency. Ex. The analog signal (10Hz) is
modulated by a carrier frequency of 50Hz resulting in an signal of frequency
60Hz which can pass through our bandpass channel. The signal is
demodulated and again converted into an digital signal at the other end as
shown in the figure below.
1. Define analog and digital signals
2. Explain Composite analog signals.
3. Explain Time and Frequency Domain Representation of signals
4. Explain the characteristics of an Analog signal
5. Explain the characteristics of an Digital signal
6. Explain the difference between Lowpass and Bandpass channel
7. Explain why a digital signal requires undergoing a change before
transmitting it through a bandpass channel.
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HAPTER TEN
DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION METHODS
10.1. What is Digital Data Transmission Methods

Data is transmitted between two digital devices on the network in the form
of bits. The transmission medium may be capable of sending only a single
bit in unit time or multiple bits in unit time. Transmission methods describe
the way and manner in which the bits are transfer from sender to receiver.
10.2. Categories of Digital Data Transmission Methods
When a single bit is transmitted in unit time the transmission mode used is
Serial Transmission and when multiple bits are sent in unit time the
transmission mode used is called Parallel transmission. This implied that
we have two types or categories of digital data transmission methods which
are serial and parallel transmission. Serial transmission is divided into
Synchronous, Asynchronous, and Isochronous.
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Figure 30. Category of Digital Data Transmission
10.2.1. Serial Transmission
When a single bit is transmitted in unit time the transmission mode used is
Serial Transmission. In Serial Transmission, as the name suggests data is
transmitted serially, i.e. bit by bit, one bit at a time. Since only one bit has
to be sent in unit time only a single channel is required. Depending upon
the timing of transmission of data there are two types of serial transmission.
10.2.1.1. Synchronous Transmission
In Synchronous Serial Transmission, the sender and receiver are highly
synchronized. No start, stop bits are used. Instead a common master clock
is used for reference. In this transmission method data is sent block (chunks
or frames) by block from one device to another with even time interval
between two block transfers.
Data is stored in memory before sending to divide it into several blocks.
Then it is transmitted block by block with regular interval. A block consist
of several characters (Normally 128, 256, 512, 1024 characters) having
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header information (16 bits) at the beginning and trailer information (16
bits) at the end.
Advantages-
i. Efficiency is comparatively very high.
ii. Speed of data transmission is very high.
iii. No need to transmit start and stop bit.
iv. In case of transmitting a lot of data, this method is suitable.
Disadvantages-
i. Primary storage device is required.
ii. Comparatively expensive.
iii. Synchronization between the source and target is required.
It is applicable in Computer to Computer data transmission
Efficiency of Synchronous transmission E.
E = (Actual Data bits/Total bits)*100
Actual data bits = Normal amount of data to be sent

Total bits = Overhead plus actual data bits
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Overhead = header information (16bits), trailer information (16bits)
Example: Determine the efficiency of 20KB data transmission using

Synchronous transmission method.
Solution:
Actual data = 20KB=20×8Kb=160Kb=1000×160b=160000 bit
Suppose, a block having 80 characters, So block size = 80×8 bit = 640 bit
Overhead data bit required for each block of 640 bit group = 32 bit
So Total overhead data bits required for 160000 bit data transmission =
(32/640)× 160000 = 8000 bit
Total bits = Actual data bit + overhead data bits = 160000 bit + 8000 bit =
168000 bit
Therefore, Efficiency = (160000/168000) × 100% = 95%
10.2.1.2. Asynchronous Transmission
In asynchronous serial transmission the sender and receiver are not
synchronized. In this transmission method one byte data or a character is
sent from one device to another with uneven time interval between two
character transfers.
Whenever data is propagated it is sent at once. Thus no memory is required
for storing data. Normally a start bit and a stop bit is added with the data
and total 10 bit data is sent. Sometimes a parity bit is added before stop bit
for error checking. Data bits can be sent at any time. Stop bits and start bits
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are used between data bytes to synchronize the transmitter and receiver and
to ensure that the data is transmitted correctly. The time between sending
and receiving data bits is not constant, so gaps are used to provide time
between transmissions.
Advantages
i. No synchronization is required between the transmitter and receiver
devices. Sender can directly transmit data and the receiver can
receive that data.
ii. The sender does not require any primary storage device.
iii. Cost is very low to implement this method.
iv. It is convenient while transmitting a little amount of data.
Disadvantages
i. Data transmission speed is very low.
ii. Efficiency is comparatively less.
Uses-
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i. Computer to Printer
ii. Card reader to computer
iii. Computer to card reader
iv. Keyboard to computer
Efficiency of Synchronous transmission E.
E = (Actual Data bits/Total bits)*100
Actual data bits = Normal amount of data to be sent

Total bits = Overhead plus actual data bits
Overhead = start bit (1bit0, Stop bit (1bit), and parity bit (1bit)
Example: Determine the efficiency of 20KB data transmission using

Asynchronous transmission method.
Solution:
Actual data = 20KB=20×8Kb=160Kb=1000×160b=160000 bit
Overhead data bit required for each group of 8 bit = 3 bit
So Total overhead data bits required for 160000 bit data transmission
=(3/8)× 160000 = 60000 bit
Total bits = Actual data bit + overhead data bits = 160000 bit + 60000 bit =
220000 bit
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So, Efficiency = (160000/220000) × 100% = 73%
10.2.1.3. Isochronous
Isochronous Transmission is a form of synchronous transmission designed
to accept and send data at a fixed rate. Isochronous transmission is similar
to synchronous transmission but the time interval between blocks is almost
zero.
In this transmission synchronous and asynchronous data is collected from
several devices within a time slot (125 micro-second) and then passed those
collected data as time frame through a synchronous data link one after
another.
Advantages-
i. Transmission speed is much higher.
ii. There is no need to pause between each character.
iii. Start bit at the beginning of each character and Stop bit at the end is
not required.
Disadvantages-
i. A primary storage device is required at the sender station.
ii. It is not possible to check whether the data block has received the
correct recipient and there is no error correction.
iii. Relatively expensive.
Uses
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i. This method is usually used for data transfer in real time
applications.
ii. This method is used for data transmission for various multimedia
communications such as audio or video calls.
10.2.2. Parallel Transmission
When multiple bits are sent in unit time the transmission mode used is called
Parallel transmission. It involves simultaneous transmission of N bits over
N different channels Parallel Transmission increases transmission speed by
a factor of N over serial transmission. Disadvantage of parallel transmission
is the cost involved.
Parallel transmission is used when:

i. A large amount of data is being sent;
ii. The data being sent is time-sensitive;
iii. And the data needs to be sent quickly.
Parallel transmission is used to send data in video streaming. Because video
streaming requires the transmission of large volumes of data. The data being
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sent is also time-sensitive as slow data streams result in poor viewer
experience.
1. Give brief description of Digital Data Transmission Method.
2. Categorize Digital Data Transmission Methods with aid of diagram.
3. Compare and contrast serial and parallel transmission to bring out
their advantages, disadvantages, and area of application.
4. What is the cost benefit analysis of transmitting digital data using
serial compare to parallel transmission method? Hence if it cost sixty
naira #60.00 to transmit one kilobyte of data using serial transmission,
the cost is in ratio 2:3:4 for personnel, logistic, and transmission
channel respectively. How much will it cost to transmit same quantity
using parallel transmission?
5. Which transmission method is most suitable to send data in video
streaming? Give reason for your answer.
6. A 40kb is to be sent from system A to system B. Calculate the
efficiency of transmission for asynchronous and synchronous
transmission.
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C
HAPTER ELEVEN
BANDWIDTH
11.1. What is Bandwidth

Bandwidth is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by the
signal. It may also be seen as the frequency range over which a signal is
transmitted. Bandwidth of analog and digital signals is calculated in
separate ways; analog signal bandwidth is measured in terms of its
frequency (Hz) but digital signal bandwidth is measured in terms of bit rate
(bits per second, bps). Bandwidth has a variety of meanings in different
contexts. In signal processing, it is the difference in frequency (Hertz)
between the upper and lower limits in a continuous frequency band. In
instrumentation, such as an oscilloscope, it is the range of frequencies above
0 Hz in which the instrument exhibits a specified level of performance.
Bandwidth of signal is different from bandwidth of the medium/channel.
11.2. Fourier analysis and It Application
11.2.1. What is Fourier analysis
Fourier analysis is a type of mathematical analysis that attempts to identify
patterns or cycles in a time series data set which has already been
normalized. It seeks to simplify complex or noisy data by decomposing it
into a series of trigonometric or exponential functions, such as sine waves.
The Analysis converts a single set of data points into a second, equal size
set of data points.
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The Fourier series has many such applications in electrical engineering,
vibration analysis, acoustics, optics, signal processing, image processing,
quantum mechanics, econometrics, shell theory, etc.
In data Communication system Fourier analysis showed that any composite
signal is actually a combination of simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
11.2.2. Fourier series
A Fourier series is an infinite series expansion in terms of trigonometric
functions

f(x) = ao +  ( a n cos( nx )  b n sin( nx ))

n 1
(2.1-1)
Any piecewise smooth function defined on a finite interval has a Fourier
series expansion.
For a Periodic Functions, A function satisfying the identity f(x) = f(x + T)
for all x, where T > 0, is called periodic or T-periodic as shown in Figure
29.
y
T
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Figure 31: A T-periodic function.
For a T-periodic function
f(x) = f(x + T) = f(x + 2T) = f(x + 3T) = … = f(x + nT)
If T is a period then nT is also a period for any integer n > 0. T is called a
fundamental period. The definite integral of a T-periodic function is the
same over any interval of length T. Example 2.1-1 will use this property to
integrate a 2-periodic function shown in Figure 2.1-2.
Example Let f be the 2-periodic function and N is a positive integer.
N
 if f(x) =  x + 1 on the interval 0  x  2

2
Compute f ( x ) dx
N
y
1
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-1
A 2-periodic function.
Solution
N  N 2  N 4 N
   ++ 
2 2 2 2
f ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx + f ( x ) dx f ( x ) dx
N N N 2 N 2
2
N N 2  1 3 
 = N = N  (  x  1 ) dx = N   (  x  1) 
2 2 2
f ( x ) dx f ( x ) dx
N N 2 0
 3  0
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N
 = N
[ 1  1] = 2
2
f ( x ) dx N
N
3 3
NB: The most important periodic functions are those in the (2-period)
trigonometric system
1, cos x, cos 2x, cos 3x, , cos mx, ,
sin x, sin 2x, sin 3x, , sin nx, ,
11.3. Bandwidth of Analog Signal
Bandwidth of an analog signal is expressed in terms of its frequencies. It is
defined as the range of frequencies that the composite analog signal carries.
It is calculated by the difference between the maximum frequency and the
minimum frequency. Consider the signal shown in the diagram below:
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The signal shown in the diagram is a composite analog signal with many
component signals.
It has a minimum frequency of F1 = 30Hz and maximum frequency of F2
= 90Hz.
Hence the bandwidth is given by F2 – F1 = 90 – 30 = 60 Hz
The definition of bandwidth (B) for a scope. Here f0 is the center frequency,
fH is the higher cut-off frequency, and fL is the lower cut-off frequency. The
0 dB level is the level of the peak of the scope response.
11.4. Bandwidth of Digital Signal
It is defined as the maximum bit rate of the signal to be transmitted. It is
measured in bits per second.
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In digital systems, bandwidth is the same as the digitization rate of the
signal. What is sometimes called the dwell time (td) is the interval between
digitized samples. Dwell time, in turn, is defined by the sampling time (ts)
and the number of samples (ns).
A band of a given width can carry a specific maximum amount of
information regardless of where it sits in the frequency spectrum.
Modulating the band at a high frequency does not affect this inherent
limitation, which is not based on the frequency of the carrier.
Data rate or bit rate (and the related concept of bit error rate) is the number
of bits that are conveyed or processed over a unit of time, usually one
second. One byte per second (1 B/sec) is equivalent to 8 bit/sec.
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11.5. Bandwidth of Channel
A channel is the medium through which the signal carrying information will
be passed. In terms of analog signal, bandwidth of the channel is the range
of frequencies that the channel can carry.
In terms of digital signal, bandwidth of the channel is the maximum bit rate
supported by the channel i.e. the maximum amount of data that the channel
can carry per second.
The bandwidth of the medium should always be greater than the bandwidth
of the signal to be transmitted else the transmitted signal will be either
attenuated or distorted or both leading in loss of information.
The channel bandwidth determines the type of signal to be transmitted i.e.
analog or digital. Data rate depends on three factors: The bandwidth
available; The level of the signals we use; The quality of the channel (the
level of noise) The quality of the channel indicates two types:
a) A Noiseless or Perfect Channel
An ideal channel with no noise. The Nyquist Bit rate derived by Henry
Nyquist gives the bit rate for a Noiseless Channel.
It defines the theoretical maximum bit rate for a noiseless channel:
Bitrate = 2 x Bandwidth x Log2 L.
The Nyquist formula gives the upper bound for the data rate of a
transmission system by calculating the bit rate directly from the number of
signal levels and the bandwidth of the system.
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Unambiguously, in a noise-free channel, Nyquist tells us that we can
transmit data at a rate of up to.
C = 2*Blog2L
Where,
Bitrate is the bitrate of the channel in bits per second
Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
L is the number of signal levels.
Example: What is the maximum bit rate of a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 5000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels?
Solution:
The bit rate for a noiseless channel according to Nyquist Bit rate can be
calculated as follows: BitRate = 2 x Bandwidth x Log2 L = 2 x 5000 x log2
2 =10000 bps
b) A Noisy Channel
The Shannon Capacity formulated by Claude Shannon gives the bit rate for
a Noisy Channel.
R = BLog2(1+SNR)bps,
where SNR is the received signal-to-noise power ratio.
The Shannon capacity is a theoretical limit that cannot be achieved in
practice, but as link level design techniques improve, data rates for this
additive white noise channel approach this theoretical bound
Where,
Capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second
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Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
SNR is the Signal to Noise Ratio
Shannon Capacity for calculating the maximum bit rate for a noisy channel
does not consider the number of levels of the signals being transmitted as
done in the Nyquist bit rate.
The Shannon capacity theorem defines the maximum amount of
information, or data capacity, which can be sent over any channel or
medium (wireless, coax, twister pair, fiber etc.). What this says is that higher
the signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio and more the channel bandwidth, the higher
the possible data rate.
Example: Calculate the bit rate for a noisy channel with SNR 300 and
bandwidth of 3000Hz Solution: The bit rate for a noisy channel according
to Shannon Capacity can be calculated as follows:
R = B X log2 (1 +SNR)
= 3000 x log2 (1 + 300)
= 3000 x log2 (301) = 3000 x 8.23
= 24,690bps
1. What is Shannon capacity formula explain it?
2. How is bandwidth related to Shannon channel capacity?
3. Compare Bandwidth of Signal and Channel.
4. Compare bandwidth of Analog and Digital Signal.
5. Explain briefly Nyquist formula?
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HAPTER TWELVE
OSI MODEL
12.1. What is OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI) is a conceptual model that
characterizes and standardizes the internal functions of a communication
system by partitioning it into abstraction layers. The model is a product of
the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identification ISO/IEC 7498-
1. The model group’s communication functions into seven logical layers
and a layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it.
12.2. OSI Model Layers
Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model has seven layers. The layers are
stacked as follows:
1. Application
2. Presentation
3. Session
4. Transport
5. Network
6. Data Link
7. Physical
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12.3. Physical Layer
The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the
transmission and reception of the unstructured raw bit stream over a
physical medium. It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and
functional interfaces to the physical medium, and carries the signals for all
of the higher layers. It provides:
1. Data encoding: modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s)
used by the PC to better accommodate the characteristics of the physical
medium, and to aid in bit and frame synchronization. It determines:
- What signal state represents a binary 1
- How the receiving station knows when a "bit-time" starts
- How the receiving station delimits a frame
2. Physical medium attachment, accommodating various possibilities in
the medium:
- Will an external transceiver (MAU) be used to connect to the
medium?
- How many pins do the connectors have and what is each pin
used for?
3. Transmission technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be
transmitted by baseband (digital) or broadband (analog) signaling.
4. Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical
signals appropriate for the physical medium, and determines:
- What physical medium options can be used
176
- How many volts/db should be used to represent a given signal
state, using a given physical medium
12.4. Data Link Layer
The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node
to another over the physical layer, allowing layers above it to assume
virtually error-free transmission over the link. To do this, the data link layer
provides:
1. Link establishment and termination: establishes and terminates the
logical link between two nodes.
2. Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-off" when no
frame buffers are available.
3. Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially.
4. Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame acknowledgments.
Detects and recovers from errors that occur in the physical layer by
retransmitting non-acknowledged frames and handling duplicate frame
receipt.
5. Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
6. Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.
7. Media access management: determines when the node "has the right" to
use the physical medium.
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12.5. Network Layer
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which
physical path the data should take based on network conditions, priority of
service, and other factors. It provides:
1. Routing: routes frames among networks.
2. Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate systems) can
instruct a sending station to "throttle back" its frame transmission when
the router's buffer fills up.
3. Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's
maximum transmission unit (MTU) size is less than the frame size, a
router can fragment a frame for transmission and re-assembly at the
destination station.
4. Logical-physical address mapping: translates logical addresses, or
names, into physical addresses.
5. Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of
frames forwarded by subnet intermediate systems, to produce billing
information.
12.6. Transport Layer
The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered error-free, in
sequence, and with no losses or duplications. It relieves the higher layer
protocols from any concern with the transfer of data between them and their
peers. The size and complexity of a transport protocol depends on the type
of service it can get from the network layer. For a reliable network layer
178
with virtual circuit capability, a minimal transport layer is required. If the
network layer is unreliable and/or only supports datagrams, the transport
protocol should include extensive error detection and recovery.
The transport layer provides:
1. Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer
above it, splits the message into smaller units (if not already small
enough), and passes the smaller units down to the network layer. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
2. Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message
delivery with acknowledgments.
3. Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when
no message buffers are available.
4. Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message streams, or sessions
onto one logical link and keeps track of which messages belong to which
sessions.
12.7. Session Layer
The session layer allows session establishment between processes running
on different stations. It provides:
1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two
application processes on different machines to establish, use and
terminate a connection, called a session.
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2. Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to
communicate over the network, performing security, name recognition,
logging, and so on.
12.8. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the application
layer. It can be viewed as the translator for the network. This layer may
translate data from a format used by the application layer into a common
format at the sending station, then translate the common format to a format
known to the application layer at the receiving station.
The presentation layer provides:
1. Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.
3. Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted
on the network.
4. Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example,
password encryption.
12.9. Application Layer
The application layer serves as the window for users and application
processes to access network services. This layer contains a variety of
commonly needed functions:
1. Resource sharing and device redirection
2. Remote file access
3. Remote printer access
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4. Inter-process communication
5. Network management
6. Directory services
7. Electronic messaging (such as mail)
8. Network virtual terminals
1. What is the difference between a port address, a logical address, and a
physical address?
2. Name some services provided by the application layer in the Internet
model.
3. How do the layers of the Internet model correlate to the layers of the
OSI model?
4. How are OSI and ISO related to each other?
5. Match the following to one or more layers of the OSI model:
a) Route determination
b) Flow control
c) Interface to transmission media
d) Provides access for the end user
9. Match the following to one or more layers of the OSI model:
a) Reliable process-to-process message delivery
b) Route selection
c) Defines frames
d) Provides user services such as e-mail and file transfer
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e) Transmission of bit stream across physical medium
10. Match the following to one or more layers of the OSl model
a) Communicates directly with user's application program
b) Error correction and retransmission
c) Mechanical, electrical, and functional interface
d) Responsibility for carrying frames between adjacent nodes
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HAPTER THIRTEEN
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
13.1. Description of Transmission Media

Transmission media is a pathway through which a communication signal is
carried from one system to another or as anything that can carry information
from a source to a destination. The transmission medium is usually free
space, metallic cable or fiber optic cable. The diagram that follows
illustrates the categories or classification of Transmission media. In data
communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path
between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which
data is sent from one place to another.
183
Figure 32. Categories of Transmission Media
13.2. Guided (Wired) Transmission Media
Guided Transmission media uses a cabling system that guides the data
signals along a specific path. Guided media also known as bounded media,
which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another. It is also
referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical
links. Features of guided transmission media are: High Speed; Secure;
and Used for comparatively shorter distances.
Examples of guided transmission media are:
- Open wire medium
- Twisted-pair cable
- Coaxial cable
- Fiber-optic cable
13.3. Open Wire medium
Open wire is by tradition used to describe the electrical wire strung along
power poles. There is a single wire strung between poles. No shielding or
protection from noise interference is used.
In data communication system open wire include any data signal path
without shielding or protection from noise interference.
This can include multiconductor cables or single wires. This media category
is susceptible to a large degree of noise and interference and consequently
not acceptable for data transmission.
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13.3.1. Twisted Pair Medium
The wires is twisted together in pairs, each pair consist of wire used for the
+ve data signal and a wire used for the -ve data signal. Any noise that
appears on +ve/-ve wire of the pair would occur on the other wire. Since the
wires are opposite polarities, they are 180 degrees out of phase (180 degree
phases or definition of opposite polarity) when the noise appears on both
wires, it cancels or nulls itself out at the receiver ends.
Twisted pair cables are most effectively used in a system that uses a
balanced line method of transmission.
Cables with the shield are called shielded twisted pair and commonly
abbreviated STP while cables without a shield are called unshielded twisted
pair or UTP. Twisting the wires together results in characteristics
impedance for the cable.
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data
channels.
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each
other. Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective
sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is
of two types:
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Figure 33: Shielded and Unshielded Twisted pair cable
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another.
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend
on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages of UTP
i. Least expensive
ii. Easy to install
iii. High-speed capacity
iv. Susceptible to external interference
v. Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
vi. Short distance transmission due to attenuation
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a
foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet
and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages STP
186
i. Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
ii. Eliminates crosstalk
iii. Comparatively faster
iv. Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
v. More expensive
vi. Bulky
13.3.2. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of 2 conductors. It has an outer plastic covering
containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2 parallel
conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial
cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode (dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode (cable bandwidth is split into separate
ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial
cables. The inner conductor is contained inside the insulator with the other
conductor weaves around it providing a shield. An insulating protective
coating called a jacket covers the outer conductor. The outer shield protects
the inner conductor from outside electrical signals. There are two factors
that determine coaxial cable properties or impedance.
i. Distance between the outer conductor (Shield) and inner conductor.
ii. Type of material used for insulating the inner conductor
The excellent control of the impedance characteristics of the cable allow
higher data rates to be transferred than twisted pair cable.
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Figure 34. Coaxial Cable
Advantages of coaxial cable
i. High Bandwidth
ii. Better noise Immunity
iii. Easy to install and expand
iv. Inexpensive
Disadvantage coaxial cable
Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
13.3.3. Optical Fiber
13.3.3.1. What is Optical Fiber
Optical fiber consists of thin glass fiber that can carry information at
frequencies in the visible light spectrum. The typical optical fiber consists
of a very narrow strand of glass called cladding with a typical core diameter
of 62.5 microns and diameter of 125 minors.
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It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering
called the cladding. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength

Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and
bidirectional mode.
Coating the cladding is a protective coating consisting of plastic, it is called
the jacket. The device generating the message has it in electromagnetic form
(electrical signal) that has to be converted into light (i.e. optical signal) to
send it on optic fiber cable.
The process of converting light to electric signal is done on the receiving
side.
Figure 35: Optical fiber cable

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13.3.3.2. Advantages & Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Advantages
1. Small size and light weight: The size of the optical fibers is very
small. Therefore a large number of optical fibers can fit into a cable
of small diameter.
2. Easy availability and low cost: The material used for the
manufacturing of optical fibers is Silica glass, this material is easily
available. So the optical fibers cost lower than the cables with
metallic conductors.
3. No electrical or electromagnetic interference: the transmission takes
place in the form of light rays the signal is not affected due to any
electrical or electromagnetic Interference.
4. Large Bandwidth: As the light rays have a very high frequency in
GHz range, the bandwidth of the optical fiber is extremely large.
5. Cross talk: No cross talk inside the optical fiber cable. Signal can
be sent up to 100 times faster.
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Disadvantages of optical fiber cable include the following.
1. Physical vibration will show up as signal noise.
2. Limited physical arc of cable. Bend it too much & it will break.
3. Difficult to splice
13.3.3.3. Optical Transmission Modes

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There are 3 primary types of transmission modes using optical fiber.
1. Step Index Mode: Step Index has a large core the light rays tend to
bounce around, reflecting off the cladding, inside the core. This
causes some rays to take a longer or shorted path through the core.
Some take the direct path with hardly any reflections while others
bounce back and forth taking a longer path. The result is that the
light rays arrive at the receiver at different times. The signal
becomes longer than the original signal. LED light sources are used.
Typical Core: 62.5 microns.
Figure 36. Step Index Mode

2. Grade Index Mode: Grade Index has a gradual change in the
Core's Refractive Index. This causes the light rays to be gradually
bent back into the core path. This is represented by a curved
reflective path in the attached drawing. The result is a better receive
signal than Step Index. LED light sources are used. Typical Core:
62.5 microns.
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Figure 37. Grade Index Mode
Note: Both Step Index and Graded Index allow more than one light
source to be used (different colors simultaneously). Multiple
channels of data can be run simultaneously.
3. Single Mode: Single Mode has separate distinct Refractive Indexes
for the cladding and core. The light ray passes through the core with
relatively few reflections off the cladding. Single Mode is used for
a single source of light (one color) operation. It requires a laser and
the core is very small: 9 microns.
Figure 38: Single Mode
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13.4. Unguided (Wireless) Transmission Media
13.4.1. What is Wireless Media
Unguided media transport data without using a physical conductor. This
type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. It
uses wireless electromagnetic signals to send data. It features are Features:
i. The signal is broadcasted through air
ii. Less Secure
iii. Used for larger distances
There are three types of Unguided Media
i. Radio waves
ii. Micro waves
iii. Infrared
13.4.2. Wireless Signal Propagation
Before understanding the different types of wireless transmission medium,
let us first understand the ways in which wireless signals travel. These
signals can be sent or propagated in the following three ways:
1. Ground-wave propagation: Ground-wave propagation: Ground Wave
Propagation follows the curvature of the Earth. Ground Waves have
carrier frequencies up to 2MHz. AM radio is an example of Ground
Wave Propagation.
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Figure 39. Grounded Wave transmission
2. Sky-wave or Ionospheric propagation: Propagation bounces off of the
earth’s ionospheric layer in the upper atmosphere. It is sometimes called
Double Hop Propagation.
It operates in the frequency range of 30 - 85MHz. Because it depends
on the Earth's ionosphere, it changes with weather and time of day. The
signal bounces off of the ionosphere and back to earth. Ham radios
operate in this range. Characteristics of Sky Propagation are as follows:
Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to earth;
Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between ionosphere
and earth‘s surface; Reflection effect caused by refraction.
Figure 40. Sky wave propagation
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3. Line-of-sight propagation: Line-of-sight propagation: Line of Sight
Propagation transmits exactly in the line of sight. The receive station
must be in the view of the transmit station. It is sometimes called Space
Waves or Tropospheric Propagation. It is limited by the curvature of the
Earth for ground based stations (100 km: horizon to horizon). Reflected
waves can cause problems. Examples of Line of Sight Propagation are:
FM Radio, Microwave and Satellite. Transmitting and receiving
antennas must be within line of sight.
Figure 41. Line of sight Propagation

13.4.3. Radio Wave
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending
and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range: 3 KHz –
1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for
transmission. Radio waves are omni-directional when an antenna transmits
radio waves they are propagated in all directions.
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This means that sending and receiving antenna do not have to be aligned. A
sending antenna can send waves that can be received by any receiving
antenna.
Radio waves particularly those waves that propagate in sky mode, can travel
long distances.
This makes radio waves a good choice for long-distance broadcasting such
as AM radio. Radio waves particularly those of low and medium
frequencies can penetrate walls. It is an advantage because; an AM radio
can receive signals inside a building. It is the disadvantage because we
cannot isolate a communication to first inside or outside a building.
Figure 42: Radio waves transmission

Radio waves are categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite. In terrestrial
radio broadcasting the radio waves are broadcast by a land-based radio
station, while in satellite radio the radio waves are broadcast by a satellite
in Earth orbit
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13.4.4. Microwave
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are
called microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional; when an antenna transmits microwaves they
can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving
antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious
advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with
another pair of aligned antennas.
Microwaves propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted
antennas needs to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart
need to be very tall, the curvature of the earth as well as other blocking
obstacles do not allow two short towers to communicate using microwaves,
Repeaters are often needed for long distance communication very high
frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. Parabolic dish antenna and
horn antenna are used for this means of transmission.
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Figure 43: Microwaves transmission
13.4.5. Infra-Red
Infrared signals with frequencies ranges from 300 GHz to 400 GHz can be
used for short range communication. Infrared signals, having high
frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This helps to prevent interference
between one system and another. Infrared Transmission in one room cannot
be affected by the infrared transmission in another room.
Infrared band, has an excellent potential for data transmission and transfer
digital data with a high speed and frequency. There are number of computer
devices which are used to send the data through infrared medium e.g.
keyboard mice, PCs and printers. There are some manufacturers provide a
special part called the IrDA port that allows a wireless keyboard to
communicate with a PC. Infrared waves are used for very short distance
communication. They cannot penetrate through obstacles. This prevents
interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is
used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
Figure 44: Infrared Transmission

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13.5. Transmission Media Impairments
Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from
the transmitted signal. As we know, a signal can be transmitted as Analog
signal or it can be transmitted as a digital signal. In Analog signals due to
transmission impairment the resulting received signal gets different
amplitude or the shape. In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the
receiver side we get changes in bits (0's or 1's). Data is transmitted through
transmission medium which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal
impairment. Due to the imperfection error is introduced in the transmitted
data i.e. the original signal at the beginning of the transmission is not the
same as the signal at the Receiver. Some of the transmission
media/impairments are discussed as follow.
13.5.1. Distortion
This kind of impairment is mainly appearing in case of composite signals
in which a composite signal has various frequency components in it and
each frequency component has some time constraint which makes a
complete signal. However while transmitting this composite signal, if a
certain delay happens between the frequencies components, then there may
be the chance that the frequency component will reach the receiver end with
a different delay constraint from its original which leads to the change in
shape of the signal. The delay happens due to environmental parameters or
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from the distance between transmitter and receiver etc.
Figure 45: Distortion impairment

13.5.2. Attenuation
Attenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by which the received
signal will be difficult to receive at the receiver end. This attenuation
happens due to the majority factor by environment as environment imposes
a lot of resistance and the signal strength decreases as it tries to overcome
the resistance imposed. Attenuation results in loss of energy. When a signal
travels through a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the
resistance of the medium. The electrical energy in the signal may convert to
heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.
The loss of signal or attenuation is measured at the receiving end and
compared to a standard reference frequency.
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Figure 46: Attenuation impairment
13.5.3. Crosstalk
Crosstalk is when one line induces a signal into another line. In voice
communications, we often hear this as another conversation going on in the
background. In digital communication, this can cause severe disruption of
the data transfer. Cross talk can be caused by overlapping of bands in a
multiplexed system or by poor shielding of cables running close to one
another. There are no specific communications standards applied to the
measurement of crosstalk.
13.5.4. Echo or Signal Return
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All media have a preferred termination condition for perfect transfer of
signal power. The signal arriving at the end of a transmission line should be
fully absorbed otherwise it will be reflected back down the line to the sender
and appear as an Echo. Echo Suppressors are often fitted to transmission
lines to reduce this effect. Normally during data transmission, these
suppressors must be disabled or they will prevent return communication in
full duplex mode. Echo suppressors are disabled on the phone line if they
hear carrier for 400ms or more. If the carrier is absent for 100 mSec, the
echo suppressor is re-enabled. Echo Cancellers are currently used in
Modems to replicate the echo path response and then combine the results to
eliminate the echo. Thus no signal interruption is necessary.
13.5.5. Noise
Noise is any unwanted signal that is mixed or combined with the original
signal during transmission. Due to noise the original signal is altered and
signal received is not same as the one sent. Noise is sharp quick spikes on
the signal caused from electromagnetic interference, lightning, sudden
power switching, electromechanical switching, etc. These appear on the
telephone line as clicks and pops which are not a problem for voice
communication but can appear as a loss of data or even as wrong data bits
during data transfers. Impulse noise has duration of less than 1 mSec and
their effect is dissipated within 4mSec. Noise is the major factor for the
transmission distortion as any unwanted signal gets added to the transmitted
signal by which the resulting transmitted signal gets modified and at the
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receiver side it is difficult to remove the unwanted noise signal. These
noises are various kinds like shot noise, impulse noise, thermal noise etc.
Figure 47: Noise impairment

1. Explain briefly the following:
a. Attenuation
b. Propagation delay
c. Crosstalk
d. Echo
2. Compare Guided and Unguided transmission with relevant examples
3. Compare coaxial and twisted pair cable transmission based on the
following:
a. Attenuation
b. Propagation delay
c. Crosstalk
d. Echo
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4. Describe with diagram the following transmission mode in optical fiber
a. Grade index
b. Step index
c. Single mode
5. What are the reasons why Telecommunication Companies are investing
in Optical fiber transmission?
6. Describe with diagram
a. Ground wave propagation
b. Ionospheric
c. Line of sight
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C
HAPTER FOURTEEN
ERROR DETECTION & CORRECTION
14.1. What are Errors Data Communication System

Data can be corrupted during transmission from source to receiver. It may
be affected by external noise or some other physical imperfections. In this
case, the input data is not same as the received output data. This mismatched
data is called “Error”. The data errors will cause loss of important/secured
data. Even one bit of change in data may affect the whole system’s
performance. Generally the data transfer in digital systems will be in the
form of ‘Bit transfer’. In this case, the data error is likely to be changed in
positions of 0 and 1.
Figure 48. Error in transmission
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14.2. Types of Errors
In a data sequence, if 1 is changed to zero or 0 is changed to 1, it is called
“Bit error”. There are generally 3 types of errors in data transmission from
transmitter to receiver.
14.2.1. Single bit errors
The change in one bit in the whole data sequence is called “Single bit error”.
Occurrence of single bit error is very rare in serial communication system.
This type of error occurs only in parallel communication system, as data is
transferred bit wise in single line, there is chance that single line to be noisy.
14.2.2. Multiple bit errors

If there is change in two or more bits of data sequence of transmitter to
receiver, it is called “Multiple bit error”. This type of error occurs in both
serial type and parallel type data communication networks.
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14.2.3. Burst Errors
The change of set of bits in data sequence is called “Burst error”. The burst
error is calculated in from the first bit change to last bit change.
Here we identify the error form fourth bit to 6th bit. The numbers between
4th and 6th bits are also considered as error. These set of bits are called
“Burst error”. These burst bits changes from transmitter to receiver, which
may cause a major error in data sequence. This type of errors occurs in serial
communication and they are difficult to solve.
14.3. Errors Detection and Correction
In information theory and coding theory with applications in computer
science and telecommunication, error detection and correction or error
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control are techniques that enable reliable delivery of digital data over
unreliable communication channels.
Many communication channels are subject to channel noise, and thus errors
may be introduced during transmission from the source to a receiver. Error
detection techniques allow detecting such errors, while error correction
enables reconstruction of the original data in many cases.
The basic idea in performing error detection is that the information
produced by an application is encoded so that the stream that is input into
the communication channel satisfied a specific condition. The receiver
checks the stream coming out of the communication channel to see whether
the pattern is certified. If not the receiver can be certain that an error has
occur and then set alarm to alert the user
14.4. Types of Detection
14.4.1. Parity Checking
Parity bit means nothing but an additional bit added to the data at the
transmitter before transmitting the data. Before adding the parity bit,
number of 1’s or 0s is calculated in the data. Based on this calculation of
data an extra bit is added to the actual information/data. The addition of
parity bit to the data will result in the change of data string size.
This means if we have an 8 bit data, then after adding a parity bit to the data
binary string it will become a 9 bit binary data string.
Parity check is also called as Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC).
There is two types of parity bits in error detection, they are
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 Even parity
 Odd parity
Even Parity
 If the data has even number of 1’s, the parity bit is 0. Ex: data is
10000001 then parity bit 0
 Odd number of 1’s, the parity bit is 1. Ex: data is 10010001 it parity bit
is 1
Odd Parity
 If the data has odd number of 1’s, the parity bit is 0. Ex: data is 10011101
is parity bit 0
 Even number of 1’s, the parity bit is 1. Ex: data is 10010101 it parity bit
is 1
Note: The counting of data bits will include the parity bit also.
The circuit which adds a parity bit to the data at transmitter is called “Parity
generator”. The parity bits are transmitted and they are checked at the
receiver. If the parity bits sent at the transmitter and the parity bits received
at receiver are not equal then an error is detected. The circuit which checks
the parity at receiver is called “Parity checker”. Messages with even parity
and odd parity.
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14.4.2. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
A cyclic code is a linear (n, k) block code with the property that every cyclic
shift of a codeword results in another code word.
Here k indicates the length of the message at transmitter (the number of
information bits), n is the total length of the message after adding check bits
(actual data and the check bits). n,k is the number of check bits. The codes
used for cyclic redundancy check there by error detection are known as
CRC codes (Cyclic redundancy check codes).
Cyclic redundancy-check codes are shortened cyclic codes. These types of
codes are used for error detection and encoding. They are easily
implemented using shift-registers with feedback connections. That is why
they are widely used for error detection on digital communication. CRC
codes will provide effective and high level of protection.
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CRC Code Generation
Based on the desired number of bit checks, we will add some zeros (0) to
the actual data. This new binary data sequence is divided by a new word of
length n + 1, where n is the number of check bits to be added.
The reminder obtained as a result of this modulo 2- division is added to the
dividend bit sequence to form the cyclic code. The generated code word is
completely divisible by the divisor that is used in generation of code. This
is transmitted through the transmitter.
Example
At the receiver side, we divide the received code word with the same divisor
to get the actual code word. For an error free reception of data, the reminder
is 0. If the reminder is a not 0, that means there is an error in the received
code/data sequence. The probability of error detection depends upon the
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number of check bits (n) used to construct the cyclic code. For single bit
and two bit errors, the probability is 100%.
For a burst error of length n – 1, the probability of error detecting is 100%.
A burst error of length equal to n + 1, the probability of error detecting
reduces to 1 – (1/2) n-1.
A burst error of length greater than n – 1, the probability of error detecting
is 1 – (1/2) n.
14.4.3. Longitudinal Redundancy Check
In longitudinal redundancy method, a BLOCK of bits are arranged in a table
format (in rows and columns) and we will calculate the parity bit for each
column separately. The set of these parity bits are also sent along with our
original data bits.
Longitudinal redundancy check is a bit by bit parity computation, as we
calculate the parity of each column individually.
This method can easily detect burst errors and single bit errors and it fails
to detect the 2 bit errors occurred in same vertical slice.
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14.4.4. Check Sum
Checksums are similar to parity bits except, the number of bits in the sums
is larger than parity and the result is always constrained to be zero. That
means if the checksum is zero, error is detected. A checksum of a message
is an arithmetic sum of code words of certain length. The sum is stated by
means of 1’s compliment and stored or transferred as a code extension of
actual code word. At receiver a new checksum is calculated by receiving
the bit sequence from transmitter.
The checksum method includes parity bits, check digits and longitudinal
redundancy check (LRC). For example, if we have to transfer and detect
errors for a long data sequence (also called as Data string) then we divide
that into shorter words and we can store the data with a word of same width.
For each another incoming bit we will add them to the already stored data.
At every instance, the newly added word is called “Checksum”.
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At receiver side, the received bits checksum is same as that of transmitter’s,
there is no error found.
We can also find the checksum by adding all data bits. For example, if we
have 4 bytes of data as 25h, 62h, 3fh, 52h.
Then, adding all bytes we get 118H
Dropping the carry Nibble, we get 18H
Find the 2’s complement of the nibble, i.e. E8H
This is the checksum of the transmitted 4 bits of data.
At receiver side, to check whether the data is received without error or not,
just add the checksum to the actual data bits (we will get 200H). By
dropping the carry nibble we get 00H. This means the checksum is
constrained to zero. So there is no error in the data. In general, there are 5
types of checksum methods like
i. Integer addition checksum
ii. One’s complement checksum
iii. Fletcher Checksum
iv. Adler Checksum
v. ATN Checksum (AN/466)
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Example
As of now we discussed about the error detection codes. But to receive the
exact and perfect data sequence without any errors, is not done enough only
by detecting the errors occurred in the data. But also we need to correct the
data by eliminating the presence of errors, if any. To do this we use some
other codes.
14.5. Error Correction
The codes which are used for both error detecting and error correction are
called “Error Correction Codes”. The error correction techniques are of two
types. They are,
i. Single bit error correction
ii. Burst error correction
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The process or method of correcting single bit errors is called “single bit
error correction”. The method of detecting and correcting burst errors in the
data sequence is called “Burst error correction”.
Hamming code or Hamming Distance Code is the best error correcting code
we use in most of the communication network and digital systems.
Hamming Code
This error detecting and correcting code technique is developed by R.W.
Hamming. This code not only identifies the error bit, in the whole data
sequence and it also corrects it. This code uses a number of parity bits
located at certain positions in the codeword. The number of parity bits
depends upon the number of information bits. The hamming code uses the
relation between redundancy bits and the data bits and this code can be
applied to any number of data bits.
What is a Redundancy Bit?
Redundancy means “The difference between number of bits of the actual
data sequence and the transmitted bits”. These redundancy bits are used in
communication system to detect and correct the errors, if any.
How the Hamming code actually corrects the errors?
In Hamming code, the redundancy bits are placed at certain calculated
positions in order to eliminate errors. The distance between the two
redundancy bits is called “Hamming distance”.
To understand the working and the data error correction and detection
mechanism of the hamming code, let’s see to the following stages.
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Number of parity bits
As we learned earlier, the number of parity bits to be added to a data string
depends upon the number of information bits of the data string which is to
be transmitted. Number of parity bits will be calculated by using the data
bits. This relation is given below.
2P >= n + P +1
Here, n represents the number of bits in the data string.
P represents number of parity bits.
For example, if we have 4 bit data string, i.e. n = 4, then the number of parity
bits to be added can be found by using trial and error method. Let’s take P
= 2, then
2P = 22 = 4 and n + P + 1 = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7
This violates the actual expression.
So let’s try P = 3, then
2P = 23 = 8 and n + P + 1 = 4 + 3 + 1 = 8
So we can say that 3 parity bits are required to transfer the 4 bit data with
single bit error correction.
Where to Place these Parity Bits?
After calculating the number of parity bits required, we should know the
appropriate positions to place them in the information string, to provide
single bit error correction.
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In the above considered example, we have 4 data bits and 3 parity bits. So
the total codeword to be transmitted is of 7 bits (4 + 3). We generally
represent the data sequence from right to left, as shown below.
bit 7, bit 6, bit 5, bit 4, bit 3, bit 2, bit 1, bit 0
The parity bits have to be located at the positions of powers of 2. I.e. at 1,
2, 4, 8 and 16 etc. Therefore the codeword after including the parity bits will
be like this
D7, D6, D5, P4, D3, P2, P1
Here P1, P2 and P3 are parity bits. D1 —- D7 are data bits.
Constructing a Bit Location Table
In Hamming code, each parity bit checks and helps in finding the errors in
the whole code word. So we must find the value of the parity bits to assign
them a bit value.
By calculating and inserting the parity bits in to the data bits, we can achieve
error correction through Hamming code.
Let’s understand this clearly, by looking into an example.
Ex: Encode the data 1101 in even parity, by using Hamming code.
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Step 1: Calculate the required number of parity bits.
Let P = 2, then
2P = 22 = 4 and n + P + 1 = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7.
2 parity bits are not sufficient for 4 bit data.
So let’s try P = 3, then
2P = 23 = 8 and n + P + 1 = 4 + 3 + 1 = 8
Therefore 3 parity bits are sufficient for 4 bit data.
The total bits in the code word are 4 + 3 = 7
Step 2: Constructing bit location table
Step 3: Determine the parity bits.

For P1: 3, 5 and 7 bits are having three 1’s so for even parity, P1 = 1.
For P2: 3, 6 and 7 bits are having two 1’s so for even parity, P2 = 0.
For P3: 5, 6 and 7 bits are having two 1’s so for even parity, P3 = 0.
By entering / inserting the parity bits at their respective positions, code word
can be formed and is transmitted. It is 1100101.
Note: If the code word has all zeros (ex: 0000000), then there is no error in
Hamming code.
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To represent the binary data in alphabets and numbers, we use alphanumeric
codes.
1. Explain briefly with diagram error in digital data transmission
2. Compare Single bit error, Burst errors, and Multiple errors
3. Which is more efficient for error detection technique? Give reason
for your answer.
4. Itemize four 4 different types of error detection techniques?
5. What is the difference between error prevention error detection
and error control?
6. How is CRC used in error detection?
7. Why is error detection and correction required?
8. Which error detection method uses one's complement arithmetic?
9. Which error detection method can detect a burst error?
10. What is the implication of probability of error of 0.5 during
transmission?
11. Can an error detecting code be used to ensure message integrity?
12. Can CRC correct errors?
13. What is error Detection Technique?
14. How many errors can Hamming code detect?
15. Which error detection method consists of a parity bit for each data
unit?
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C
HAPTER FIFTEEN
SIGNAL CODING & ENCODING
15.1. Digital Data to Digital Signal Conversion

The conversion digital data to signal data involves three techniques which
are line coding block coding, and scrambling.
15.1.1. Line Encoding
Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender,
digital data are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data
are recreated by decoding the digital signal. The process line coding and
decoding is as shown below.
15.1.2. Line Encoding Categories

The following figure shows the classification of Line coding schemes.
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Figure 49: Classification of Line Coding Schemes
15.1.2.1. Unipolar NRZ
All signal levels are either above or below the time axis. NRZ - Non Return
to Zero scheme is an example of this code. The signal level does not return
to zero during a symbol transmission.
15.1.2.2. Polar
NRZ-voltages are on both sides of the time axis.
Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two voltages. E.g. +V for 1
and -V for 0. There are two variations:
i. NZR - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one symbol and
negative for the other
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ii. NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of change in polarity
determines the value of a symbol. E.g. a ―1‖ symbol inverts the
polarity a ―0‖ does not.
Polar – RZ
The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage values. +, 0, -. Each
symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from high to zero or from low
to zero
More complex as it uses three voltage level. It has no error detection
capability
Figure 50: Unipolar (NRZ) & Polar (RZ & NRZ) Encoding
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Polar - Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester
Manchester coding is a combination of NRZ-L and RZ schemes.
Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from high to low or low
to high.
It uses only two voltage levels.
Differential Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-I and RZ
schemes.
Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But the level at the
beginning of the symbol is determined by the symbol value. One symbol
causes a level change the other does not.
Figure 51: Polar biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester
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Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from high to zero or from
low to zero. More complex as it uses three voltage level. It has no error
detection capability
15.1.2.3. Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary
This coding scheme uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to represent the symbols
Voltage level for one symbol is at ―0‖ and the other alternates between +
& -.
Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the ―0‖ symbol is represented
by zero voltage and the ―1‖ symbol alternates between +V and -V.
Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI
Figure 52: Bipolar coding schemes – AMI and Pseudometry

15.1.2.4. Multilevel
Here the number of data bits is increased per symbol to increase the bit rate,
2 types of data element a 1 or a 0 are available, it can be combined into a
pattern of n elements to create 2m symbols.
225
Using L signal levels we can have n signal elements to create Ln signal
elements. The following possibilities can occur:
With 2m symbols and Ln signals:
If 2m > Ln then we cannot represent the data elements, we don‘t have enough
signals.
If 2m = Ln then we have an exact mapping of one symbol on one signal.
If 2m < Ln then we have more signals than symbols and we can choose the
signals that are more distinct to represent the symbols and therefore have
better noise immunity and error detection as some signals are not valid
These types of codings are classified as mBnL schemes. In mBnL schemes,
a pattern of m data elements is encoded as a pattern of n signal elements in
which 2m≤ Ln.
2B1Q (two binary, one quaternary)
Here m = 2; n = 1 ; Q = 4. It uses data patterns of size 2 and encodes the 2-
bit patterns as one signal element belonging to a four-level signal.
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Figure 53: Multilevel coding scheme: 2BIQ
8B6T (eight binary, six ternary)
Here a pattern of 8 bits is encoded a pattern of 6 signal elements, where the
signal has three levels
Here m = 8; n = 6 ; T = 3
So we can have 28 =256 different data patterns and 36 =478 different signal
patterns.
Figure 54: Multilevel coding scheme: 8B6T

4D-PAM5 (Four Dimensional Five-Level Pulse Amplitude Modulation)
4D -means that data is sent over four channels at the same time.
It uses five voltage levels, such as -2, -1, 0, 1, and 2.
15.1.2.5. Multitransition
Because of synchronization requirements we force transitions. This can
result in very high bandwidth requirements more transitions than are bits
(e.g. mid bit transition with inversion).
227
Codes can be created that are differential at the bit level forcing transitions
at bit boundaries. This results in a bandwidth requirement that is equivalent
to the bit rate.
In some instances, the bandwidth requirement may even be lower, due to
repetitive patterns resulting in a periodic signal.
MLT-3
o Signal rate is same as NRZ-I
o Uses three levels (+v, 0, and - V) and three transition rules to move
between the levels.
If the next bit is 0, there is no transition.
If the next bit is 1 and the current level is not 0, the next level is 0.
If the next bit is 1 and the current level is 0, the next level is the opposite of
the last nonzero level.
15.1.2.6. Block Coding
Block coding adds redundancy to line coding so that error detection can be
implemented. Block coding changes a block of m bits into a block of n bits,
where n is larger than m. Block coding is referred to as an mB/nB encoding
technique.
The additional bits added to the original m bits are called parity bits or
check bits
228
Figure 55: Block Coding
15.2. Analog Data to Analog Signal Conversion
15.2.1. Modulation
The Process of converting analog data to analog signal is called Modulation.
Modulation is used to send an information bearing signal over long
distances. Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic of a
periodic wave with an external signal called carrier signal. These carrier
signals are high frequency signals and can be transmitted over the air easily
and are capable of traveling long distances. The characteristics (amplitude,
frequency, or phase) of the carrier signal are varied in accordance with the
information bearing signal (analog data). Modulation is required to achieve:
High range transmission; Quality of transmission; and to avoid the
overlapping of signals. Practically speaking, modulation is required for;
i. High range transmission
ii. Quality of transmission
iii. To avoid the overlapping of signals.
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Figure 56: Types of Modulation
15.2.2. Analog Modulation
If analog audio data is modulated onto a carrier sine wave, then this is
referred to as analog modulation. Analog Modulation can be accomplished
in three ways: Amplitude modulation (AM), Frequency modulation (FM),
and Phase modulation (PM).
15.2.2.1. Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied in accordance with modulating signal. The envelope,
or boundary, of the amplitude modulated signal embeds modulating signal.
Amplitude Modulation is abbreviated AM. Amplitude modulation is a
process by which the wave signal is transmitted by modulating the
amplitude of the signal. It is often called AM and is commonly used in
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transmitting a piece of information through a radio carrier wave. Amplitude
modulation is mostly used in the form of electronic communication. There
are three main types of amplitude modulation. Double sideband-suppressed
carrier modulation (DSB-SC); Single Sideband Modulation (SSB);
Vestigial Sideband Modulation (VSB).
Figure 57: Waveform representation of Amplitude modulated wave

The use of amplitude modulation revolves round the following:
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i. Broadcast Transmissions: AM is used in broadcasting
transmission over the short, medium and long wavebands.
Since AM is easy to demodulate radio receivers for
amplitude modulation are therefore easier and cheaper to
manufacture.
ii. Air-band radio: AM is used in the VHF transmissions for
many airborne applications such as ground-to-air radio
communications or two-way radio links for ground staff
personnel.
iii. HF radio links or point-to-point HF links: Single sideband:
Amplitude modulation in this form is used for HF radio links
or point-to-point HF links. AM uses a lower bandwidth and
provides more effective use of the transmitted power.
iv. Quadrature amplitude modulation: AM is used extensively
in transmitting data in several ways including short-range
wireless links such as Wi-Fi to cellular telecommunications
and others.
15.2.2.2. Frequency Modulation
Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the frequency of the
carrier is varied in accordance with the modulating signal. The amplitude of
the carrier remains constant. The information-bearing signal (the
modulating signal) changes the instantaneous frequency of the carrier. Since
the amplitude is kept constant, FM modulation is a low-noise process and
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provides a high quality modulation technique which is used for music and
speech in hi-fidelity broadcasts.
Figure 58: Frequency Modulation

There is a variety of different methods that can be used to generate
frequency modulated signals.
i. Varactor diode oscillator: This method simply requires the use of
a varactor diode placed within the tuned circuit of an oscillator
circuit. It is even possible to use a varactor diode within a crystal
oscillator circuit. Typically when crystal oscillators a re used the
signal needs to be multiplied in frequency, and only narrow band
FM is attainable.
ii. Phase locked loop: Phase locked loops provide an excellent
method of generating frequency modulation. It is often necessary to
manage the constraints within the loop carefully but once done it
provides and excellent solution.
Advantages of frequency modulation
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IN view of the many advantages of frequency modulation it has been widely
used for high quality audio broadcasting as well as two way radio
communications as well as a number of other applications.
i. Resilience to noise: One particular advantage of frequency
modulation is its resilience to signal level variations. The
modulation is carried only as variations in frequency. This means
that any signal level variations will not affect the audio output,
provided that the signal does not fall to a level where the receiver
cannot cope. As a result this makes FM ideal for mobile radio
communication applications including more general two-way radio
communication or portable applications where signal levels are
likely to vary considerably. The other advantage of FM is its
resilience to noise and interference. It is for this reason that FM is
used for high quality broadcast transmissions.
ii. Easy to apply modulation at a low power stage of the
transmitter: Another advantage of frequency modulation is
associated with the transmitters. It is possible to apply the
modulation to a low power stage of the transmitter, and it is not
necessary to use a linear form of amplification to increase the power
level of the signal to its final value.
iii. It is possible to use efficient RF amplifiers with frequency
modulated signals: It is possible to use non-linear RF amplifiers
to amplify FM signals in a transmitter and these are more efficient
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than the linear ones required for signals with any amplitude
variations (e.g. AM and SSB). This means that for a given power
output, less battery power is required and this makes the use of FM
more viable for portable two-way radio applications.
Disadvantages of frequency modulation
i. FM has poorer spectral efficiency than some other modulation
formats: Some phase modulation and quadrature amplitude
modulation formats have a higher spectral efficiency for data
transmission than frequency shift keying, a form of frequency
modulation. As a result, most data transmission system use PSK and
QAM.
ii. Requires more complicated demodulator: One of the minor
disadvantages of frequency modulation is that the demodulator is a
little more complicated, and hence slightly more expensive than the
very simple diode detectors used for AM. However this is much less
of an issue these days because many radio integrated circuits
incorporate a built in frequency demodulator .
iii. Some other modes have higher data spectral efficiency: Some
phase modulation and quadrature amplitude modulation formats
have a higher spectral efficiency for data transmission that
frequency shift keying, a form of frequency modulation. As a result,
most data transmission system use PSK and QAM.
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iv. Sidebands extend to infinity either side: The sidebands for an FM
transmission theoretically extend out to infinity. They are normally
significant for wideband frequency modulation transmissions,
although small for narrow band FM. To limit the bandwidth of the
transmission, filters are often used, and these introduce some
distortion of the signal. Normally this is not too much of an issue
although care has to be taken to include these filters for wideband
FM and to ensure they are properly designed.
Frequency modulation index
The frequency modulation index is the equivalent of the modulation index
for AM, but obviously related to FM. In view of the differences between
the two forms of modulation, the FM modulation index is measured in a
different way.
The FM modulation index is equal to the ratio of the frequency deviation to
the modulating frequency.
From the formula and definition of the modulation index, it can be seen that
there is no term that includes the carrier frequency and this means that it is
totally independent of the carrier frequency.
To give an example of the FM modulation index, take the example where a
signal has a deviation of ±5kHz, and the modulating frequency is 1kHz,
then the modulation index for this particular instance is 5 / 1 = 5.
Similarly, if the deviation is ±10 kHz and the modulating frequency is s
kHz, then this also has a deviation ratio of 5.
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As normal audio has a variety of different frequencies contained within the
audio sound, the deviation ratio is normally calculated using the maximum
audio frequency and maximum deviation. This figure will then be used to
determine the bandwidth and other characteristics of the signal.
Carson's Rule for FM bandwidth

The bandwidth of an FM signal is not as straightforward to calculate as that
of an AM signal.
A very useful rule of thumb used by many engineers to determine the
bandwidth of an FM signal for radio broadcast and radio communications
systems is known as Carson's Rule. This rule states that 98% of the signal
power is contained within a bandwidth equal to the deviation frequency,
plus the modulation frequency doubled. Carson's Rule can be expressed
simply as a formula:
Where:
Δf = deviation
BT = total bandwidth (for 98% power)
fm = modulating frequency
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To take the example of a typical broadcast FM signal that has a deviation
of ±75kHz and a maximum modulation frequency of 15 kHz, the bandwidth
of 98% of the power approximates to 2 (75 + 15) = 180kHz. To provide
conveniently spaced channels 200 kHz is allowed for each station.
The rule is also very useful when determining the bandwidth of many two
way radio communications systems. These use narrow band FM, and it is
particularly important that the sidebands do not cause interference to
adjacent channels that may be occupied by other users.
15.2.2.3. Pulse Modulation
In phase modulation, the instantaneous phase of a carrier wave is varied
from its reference value by an amount proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal. Phase Modulation is abbreviated PM.
Pulse modulation is a type of modulation in which the signal is transmitted
in the form of pulses. It can be used to transmit analogue information. In
pulse modulation, continuous signals are sampled at regular intervals.
Pulse modulation can be classified into two major types.
i. Analogue: Indication of sample amplitude is infinitely variable
ii. Digital: Indicates sample amplitude at the nearest predetermined
level.
Types of Pulse modulation
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
It is the simplest form of Pulse Modulation. In this type of modulation, each
sample is made proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the instant of
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sampling. The PAM signal follows the amplitude of the original signal, as
the signal traces out the path of the whole wave. Here a signal which is
sampled at Nyquist rate can be reconstructed by passing it through an
efficient Low Pass Filter (LPF) with exact cutoff frequency. It is very easy
to generate and demodulate PAM. This technique transmits the data by
encoding in the amplitude of a series of signal pulses.
There are two types of PAM.
1. Single Polarity PAM: A fixed DC level is added to the signal so
that the signal is always positive.
2. Double Polarity PAM: Here the pulses are both positive and
negative.
PAM is illustrated in the figure below.
Advantages of PAM
 Both Modulation and demodulation are simple.
239
 Easy construction of transmitter and receiver circuits.
Disadvantages of PAM
 Large bandwidth is required for transmission.
 More noise.
 Here the amplitude is varying. Therefore, the power required will
be more.
Applications of PAM
 Mainly used in Ethernet communication.
 Many microcontrollers use this technique in order to generate
control signals.
 It is used in Photo-biology.
 It acts as an electronic driver for LED circuits.
Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)

Here the pulses will have the same amplitude. However, one of their timing
characteristics is made proportional to the amplitude of the sampled signal.
This variable characteristic can be either frequency, position or width. This
way pulse time modulation can be classified into three types.
Pulse Width Modulation
Pulse Width Modulation is also known as pulse duration modulation
(PDM). Here, as the name suggests, the width of the pulse is varied in
proportional to the amplitude of the signal. Since the width is changing, the
power loss can be reduced when compared to PAM signals.
240
From the figure, it is clear that the amplitude of the signal is constant.
Amplitude limiters are used for this. Since clipping of amplitude at desired
levels take place, this modulation produces less noise.
Advantages of PTM
 Low power consumption.
 It has an efficiency of about 90 per cent.
 Noise interference is less.
 High power handling capacity.
Disadvantages of PTM
 The circuit is more complex.
 Voltage spikes can be seen.
 The system is expensive as it uses semiconductor devices.
 Switching losses will be more due to high PWM frequency.
241
Applications of PTM
 Used in encoding purposes in the telecommunication system.
 Used to control brightness in a smart lighting system.
 Helps to prevent overheating in LED’s while maintaining it’s
brightness.
 Used in audio and video amplifiers.
Pulse Position Modulation
In this type of modulation, both the amplitude and width of the pulse are
kept constant. We vary the position of each pulse with reference to a
particular pulse. Here a single pulse is transmitted with the required number
of phase shifts. So we can say that pulse position modulation is an analogue
modulation scheme where the amplitude and width of the pulse are kept
constant, while the position of the pulse with respect to the position of a
reference pulse is varied according to the instantaneous value of message
signal.
PPM can be obtained from PWM. This is done by getting rid of leading-
edge and bodies of PWM pulses. The main advantage of pulse position
modulation is that it requires constant transmitter power output while the
major disadvantage is that it depends upon transmitter-receiver
synchronization.
The waveforms of PPM are given below:
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However, the third type, pulse-frequency modulation is not used.
Advantages of PPM
i. As it has constant amplitude noise interference is less.
ii. We can easily separate signal from a noisy signal.
iii. Among all three types, it has the most power efficiency.
iv. Requires less power when compared to pulse amplitude
modulation.
Disadvantages of PPM
i. The system is highly complex.
ii. The system requires more bandwidth.
Applications of PPM
i. It is used in the air traffic control system and telecommunication
systems.
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ii. Remote controlled cars, planes, trains use pulse code modulations.
iii. It is used to compress data and hence it is used for storage.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

This type of modulation is different from all modulations learnt so far. It is
clear from the block diagram given at the top that it is a type of digital
modulation. That is the signals here are sampled and sent in pulse form. A
common feature among other techniques is that pulse code modulation also
uses sampling technique. In this case, instead of sending a pulse train which
is capable of continuously varying parameters, this type of generator
produces a series of numbers or digits. Each digit in it represents the
appropriate length of the sample at a particular instant. Basic block diagram
of its realization is given below:
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Advantages of PCM
i. It is mainly used in long distant communication.
ii. Transmitter efficiency is more.
iii. It has higher noise immunity when compared to other methods.
Disadvantages of PCM
i. More bandwidth is required when compared to analogue systems.
ii. In this method encoding, decoding and quantisation of the circuit
have to be done. This makes it more complex.
Applications of PCM
i. It is used in the satellite transmission system.
ii. It is also used in space communication.
iii. Used in Telephony.
iv. One of the recent applications is the compact disc.
Delta Modulation
In this type of modulation, the sampling rate is very high. Here, stepsize
after quantisation is of the smaller value. In this method, the quantisation
design is very simple. Here the bit rate can be designed by the user.
Block diagram of a delta modulator is given below:
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1. Carrier wave of frequency f = 1mHz with pack voltage of 20V
used to modulate a signal of frequency 1kHz with pack voltage of
10v. Find out the following
(i) μ?
(ii) Frequencies of modulated wave?
(iii) Bandwidth
2. If y = 10cos(1800 πt) + 20 cos 2000 πt + 10 cos 2200 πt. Find the
modulation index (μ) of the given wave.
3. Why carrier waves are of higher frequency compared to modulating
signal?
4. Define modulation index and what happen if modulation index is
greater than 1?
246
5. Highlights four importance of modulation.
6. Why carrier waves are of higher frequency compared to modulating
signal?
247
C
HAPTER SIXTEEN
MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
16.1. Description of Multiplexing

It has been observed that most of the individual data-communicating
devices typically require modest data rate. But, communication media
usually have much higher bandwidth. As a consequence, two
communicating stations do not utilize the full capacity of a data link.
Moreover, when many nodes compete to access the network, some efficient
techniques for utilizing the data link are very essential. When the bandwidth
of a medium is greater than individual signals to be transmitted through the
channel, a medium can be shared by more than one channel of signals. The
process of making the most effective use of the available channel capacity
is called Multiplexing. For efficiency, the channel capacity can be shared
among a number of communicating stations just like a large water pipe can
carry water to several separate houses at once. Most common use of
multiplexing is in long-haul communication using coaxial cable, microwave
and optical fibre.
Figure below depicts the functioning of multiplexing functions in general.
The multiplexer is connected to the demultiplexer by a single data link.
The multiplexer combines (multiplexes) data from these ‘n’ input lines and
transmits them through the high capacity data link, which is being
demultiplexed at the other end and is delivered to the appropriate output
248
lines. Thus, Multiplexing can also be defined as a technique that allows
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.
Figure Basic concept of multiplexing

16.2. Types of Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be categorized into the following three types:
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), Time-division Multiplexing
(TDM), and Statistical TDM
16.2.1. Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
In frequency division multiplexing, the available bandwidth of a single
physical medium is subdivided into several independent frequency
channels. Independent message signals are translated into different
frequency bands using modulation techniques, which are combined by a
linear summing circuit in the multiplexer, to a composite signal. The
resulting signal is then transmitted along the single channel by
electromagnetic means as shown in Fig. 2.7.2. Basic approach is to divide
the available bandwidth of a single physical medium into a number of
smaller, independent frequency channels. Using modulation, independent
message signals are translated into different frequency bands. All the
modulated signals are combined in a linear summing circuit to form a
249
composite signal for transmission. The carriers used to modulate the
individual message signals are called sub-carriers, shown as f1, f2, …, fn
in Fig. 2.7.3 (a).
Figure 59. Basic concept of FDM

At the receiving end the signal is applied to a bank of band-pass filters,
which separates individual frequency channels. The band pass filter outputs
are then demodulated and distributed to different output channels as shown
in Fig. 2.7.3(b).
250
If the channels are very close to one other, it leads to inter-channel cross
talk. Channels must be separated by strips of unused bandwidth to prevent
inter-channel cross talk. These unused channels between each successive
channel are known as guard bands as shown in Fig. below.
FDM are commonly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks. Since, the
frequency band used for voice transmission in a telephone network is 4000
251
Hz, for a particular cable of 48 KHz bandwidth, in the 70 to 108 KHz range,
twelve separate 4 KHz sub channels could be used for transmitting twelve
different messages simultaneously. Each radio and TV station, in a certain
broadcast area, is allotted a specific broadcast frequency, so that
independent channels can be sent simultaneously in different broadcast
area. For example, the AM radio uses 540 to 1600 KHz frequency bands
while the FM radio uses 88 to 108 MHz frequency bands.
16.2.2. Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is conceptually same as the
FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involves light
signals transmitted through fibre-optic channels. The idea is the same: we
are combining different frequency signals. However, the difference is that
the frequencies are very high. It is designed to utilize the high data rate
capability of fibre-optic cable. Very narrow band of light signal from
different source are combined to make a wider band of light. At the receiver
the signals are separated with the help of a demultiplexer as shown in Fig.
below.
252
Multiplexing and demultiplexing of light signals can be done with the help
of a prism as shown in Figure that follows. From the basic knowledge of
physics we know that light signal is bent by different amount based on the
angle of incidence and wavelength of light as shown by different colours in
the figure. One prism performs the role of a multiplexer by combining lights
having different frequencies from different sources. The composite signal
can be transmitted through an optical fibre cable over long distances, if
253
required. At the other end of the optical fibre cable the composite signal is
applied to another prism to do the reverse operation, the function of a
demultiplexer.
16.2.3. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In frequency division multiplexing, all signals operate at the same time with
different frequencies, but in Time-division multiplexing all signals operate
with same frequency at different times. This is a base band transmission
system, where an electronic commutator sequentially samples all data
source and combines them to form a composite base band signal, which
travels through the media and is being demultiplexed into appropriate
independent message signals by the corresponding commutator at the
receiving end. The incoming data from each source are briefly buffered.
Each buffer is typically one bit or one character in length. The buffers are
scanned sequentially to form a composite data stream. The scan operation
is sufficiently rapid so that each buffer is emptied before more data can
arrive. Composite data rate must be at least equal to the sum of the
individual data rates. The composite signal can be transmitted directly or
through a modem. The multiplexing operation is shown in Figure below.
254
As shown in the Fig 2.7.7 the composite signal has some dead space
between the successive sampled pulses, which is essential to prevent
interchannel cross talks. Along with the sampled pulses, one synchronizing
pulse is sent in each cycle. These data pulses along with the control
information form a frame. Each of these frames contain a cycle of time slots
and in each frame, one or more slots are dedicated to each data source. The
maximum bandwidth (data rate) of a TDM system should be at least equal
to the same data rate of the sources.
Synchronous TDM is called synchronous mainly because each time slot is
preassigned to a fixed source. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of
whether the sources have any data to send or not. Hence, for the sake of
simplicity of implementation, channel capacity is wasted. Although fixed
assignment is used TDM, devices can handle sources of different data rates.
This is done by assigning fewer slots per cycle to the slower input devices
than the faster devices. Both multiplexing and demultiplexing operation for
synchronous TDM are shown in Fig. 2.7.8.
255
16.2.4. Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing (STDM)
One drawback of the TDM approach, as discussed earlier, is that m
in the frame are wasted. It is because, if a particular terminal has no data to
transmit at particular instant of time, an empty time slot will be transmitted.
An efficient alternative to this synchronous TDM is statistical TDM, also
known as asynchronous TDM or Intelligent TDM. It dynamically
allocates the time slots on demand to separate input channels, thus saving
the channel capacity. As with Synchronous TDM, statistical multiplexers
also have many I/O lines with a buffer associated to each of them. During
the input, the multiplexer scans the input buffers, collecting data until the
frame is filled and send the frame. At the receiving end, the demultiplexer
receives the frame and distributes the data to the appropriate buffers. The
256
difference between synchronous TDM and asynchronous TDM is illustrated
with the help of Fig. 2.7.9. It may be noted that many slots remain unutilised
in case synchronous TDM, but the slots are fully utilized leading to smaller
time for transmission and better utilization of bandwidth of the medium. In
case of statistical TDM, the data in each slot must have an address part,
which identifies the source of data. Since data arrive from and are
distributed to I/O lines unpredictably, address information is required to
assure proper delivery as shown in Fig below. This leads to more overhead
per slot. Relative addressing can be used to reduce overloading.
Figure 60. Synchronous versus asynchronous TDM
257
16.2.5. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
Orthogonal FDM's (OFDM) spread spectrum technique distributes the data
over a large number of carriers that are spaced apart t precise frequencies.
This spacing provides the “othorgonality” in this technique, which prevents
the demodulators from seeing frequencies other than their own.
The benefits of OFDM are high spectral efficiency, resiliency to RF
interference, and lower multi-path distortion. This is useful because in a
typical terrestrial broadcasting scenario there are multipath-channels (i.e.
the transmitted signal arrives at the receiver using various paths of different
length). Since multiple versions of the signal interfere with each other, it
becomes difficult to extract the original information. OFDM is sometimes
called multi-carrier or discrete multi-tone modulation.
258
1. Explain briefly the term multiplexing
2. With the aid of diagram describe briefly;
i. Wavelength Division multiplexing (WDM)
ii. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
iii. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
3. Suppose that a frequency band W Hz wide into M channels of equal
bandwidth.
a) What bit rate is achievable in each channel? Assume all channels
have the same SNR.
b) What bit rate is available to each M users if the entire frequency
band is used as a single channel and TDM is applied?
c) How does the comparison of (a) and (b) change if we suppose that
FDM require a guard band between adjacent channels? Assume
the guard band is 10%of channel bandwidth
4. Suppose Ray Power FM 100.5, has a large band of available bandwidth,
say 1GHz, which is to be used by central office to transmit and receive
from large number of users. Describe how the following approach can
be use to organizing the system:
a) A single TDM
b) A hybrid TDM/FDM system in which the frequency band is
divided into multiple channel and time division multiplexing is
used within each channel.
259
5. What limitation of TDM is overcome in ATM and how?
6. Outline the four major benefits of Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing.
7. What is the difference between Frequency Division Multiplexing and
Wave Division Multiplexing?
8. How is the wastage of bandwidth in TDM overcome by S-TDM
9. Why sync pulse is required in TDM?
10. Why guard bands are used in FDM?
260
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architecture and Protocol. McGraw-Hill. New York 1993
William Buchanan, Distributed Systems and Networks, McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company, 2000.
Yekini and Lawal 2010, Introduction to ICT and data Processing, Hasfem
Publication Nigeria.
Yekini et al, 2020. Fundamental of Computing, Hasfem Publication
Nigeria.
261
Index
Denial-of-Service, 124
A Digital Signal, 150, 151, 154, 169, 173, 221
Domain Name System (DNS, 112
Access Point, 58, 103
Amplitude, 147, 227, 230 E
Analog Signal, 145, 168, 229
Application Layer, 129, 180 Encryption, 126
Asynchronous Transmission, 159
Attenuation Distortion, 200
F
B Firewall, 128
Fourier series, 166
Bandpass Channel, 153, 154 Frequency, 147, 155, 230, 232, 249, 258, 259, 260
Bandwidth, 165, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 190 Full Duplex Data Flow, 136
Baseband Transmission, 154
Baud Rate, 153
Bit Rate, 153
G
Bridges, 54, 55 Gateway, 52, 56, 60, 110, 111
Broadband Transmission, 154
Brouters, 58
Burst errors, 207 H
Bus Topology, 62, 63, 65, 66
Half Duplex Data Flow, 135
Hardware (Peripherals) Sharing, 24
C Henry Nyquist, 171
Hubs, 53, 78
Client Server Model, 31 Hybrid Topology, 74, 75, 76
Client-based network, 34, 35
Client-based Networks, 34
Composite Signal, 149, 153 I
Computer Network, 23, 26, 35
Information Sharing, 23
Crosstalk, 201, 203
Infra-Red, 198
Cyclic Redundancy Check, 210
Internet, 111
Internetwork, 30
D IP Session Hijacking, 123
IP Spoofing, 123
Data Communication Equipment, 141
Data Destruction, 126
Data Diddling, 125 L
Data Link Layer, 177
Line Encoding, 221
Data Terminal Equipment, 141, 142, 143
Local Area Network, 27, 89
De facto Standard, 36
De jure standard, 36
262
M Ping, 110, 111, 112, 121
Presentation Layer, 180
Mesh Topology, 71, 72 Proxies, 113
Metropolitan Area Network, 28 Proxy, 113
Microwave, 138, 195, 197
Modem, 51, 60
R
Multiple bit errors, 206
Multiplexing, 259 Radio Wave, 195
MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES, 248 Repeaters, 53, 197
Ring Topology, 67, 68, 76
N Routers, 56, 57
Network, 111, 123

S
Network Engineer, 25
Network Interface Card, 52 Security, 123
Network Layer, 129, 178 Serial Transmission, 156, 157
Network Security Treat, 122 Session Layer, 179
Noise, 173, 202 Simplex Data Flow, 134
Noisy Channel, 172 Single bit errors, 206
Star topology, 69, 70, 71, 76
O Switches, 55, 82
Synchronous Transmission, 157
Optical Fiber, 188, 190
Optical Transmission Modes, 190
T
OSI Model, 175
Traceroute, 112
P Transmission Media, 183, 184, 193, 199
Transport Layer, 178
Parallel Transmission, 163
Parity Checking, 208
W
Peer-To-Peer Model, 32
Phase, 147, 148, 230, 238 Wide Area Network, 29, 30
Physical Layer, 176 Wireless Signal Propagation, 193
263
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& DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM Theoretical &

Book · June 2022

TRACKING SYSTEM View project

NETWORK SECURITY View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Engr. Nureni Asafe YEKINI

Printed in Nigeria by:

Nureni Asafe YEKINI

Oyeranmi Adigun PhD

1.1. What Is Computer Network .................................................................. 23

2.1. Standards and Its Type .......................................................................... 36

3.1. What are Computer Networking Devices? ............................................ 51

10.1. Description of Network Topology ........................................................ 62

5.1. Network Cabling and Testing (RJ45) .................................................... 78

6.1. Description of Network Troubleshooting............................................ 110

7.1. Network Security Issues ...................................................................... 122

8.1. Data Representation ............................................................................ 131

9.1. Analog Data and Signal....................................................................... 144

10.2.1. Serial Transmission ............................................................................. 157

11.1. What is Bandwidth .............................................................................. 165

12.1. What is OSI Model .............................................................................. 175

13.1. Description of Transmission Media .................................................... 183

14.1. What are Errors Data Communication System ................................... 205

15.1. Digital Data to Digital Signal Conversion .......................................... 221

16.1. Description of Multiplexing ................................................................ 248

1.1. What Is Computer Network

Figure 1: Local Area Network

Figure 2: Metropolitan area Network

Figure 4: Serve-based network

Figure 6: Client-based network

2.1. Standards and Its Type

a) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP performs the following actions:

b) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP speeds up transmissions by enabling the transfer of data before

UDP is an alternative to Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Both

TCP sends individual packets and is considered a reliable transport

UDP header composition

c) Internet Protocol (IP)?

IP is the defining set of protocols that enable the modern internet.

3.1. What are Computer Networking Devices?

10.1. Description of Network Topology

Figure 7: Network Topology categories

Figure 8: Bus Topology

Figure 9: Bus Topology with three stations

Figure 11: Star Topology

Figure 12: Mesh Topology

Figure 13: Hybrid Network

5.1. Network Cabling and Testing (RJ45)

Figure 14. Internal Cable Structure and Color Coding

Figure 15: wiring diagram and pin out for RJ45

Step 5: To Share a folder follow these steps-

Step 6: Open the File Explorer on another computer.

Step 4: Select the Wi-Fi option from the drop-down menu.

Figure 19. Physical Network Setup with D-Link's DI-604 broadband

6.1. Description of Network Troubleshooting

6.5. Using nslookup command

Figure 21: Command Prompt window for nslook

6.6. Review Questions

7.1. Network Security Issues

7.3. Prevention of Network Security Threats

8.1. Data Representation