Unit-2 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR

Aircraft Material Science
Unit 2
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
Material:
It is something that consists of matter. It is the stuff of which something is made. To
understand the material property is essential because without this information and knowledge,
the manufacturing process may be an expensive and complex task, which negates the profit and
utility of the product.
Material Science:
- Based on the physics and chemistry of the internal structure of material.
- Investigates relationship existing between the structure of materials and their properties.
- Nature & behaviour of only solid material.
Metallurgy:
- It is the science & Technology of metals.
- It is the science of
(i) Extracting metals from the ores.
(ii) Refining of crude metal
(iii) Production of alloys & the study of their constitution, structure and properties
(iv) Relationship & mechanical treatment of metals and alloys.
Choice of right material for the given requirement the proper use of that material and
even the production of that new material are all the direct responsibility of engineer.
Metallurgy Extractive Mechanical Physical It is the process of chemical reduction.
Crystallography:
It is that branch of science in which the internal structure of crystals, their properties,
external (or) internal symmetries of crystals is studied.
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It is the study of the shape and defects of crystal, crystal formation of solids.
Crystal:
It is a solid whose constituent atoms (or) molecules are arranged in a systematic geometry
patern structure.
Structure:
Arrangement and disposition of the atoms within a crystal.
Crystalline Materials:
It consist of atoms (or) molecules arranged in a regular and orderly manner in a 3
Dimensional pattern.
Crystalline solids are

1) Crystal solids
2) Amorphous solids
Crystalline Solids:
Basic structural unit is crystal. Number of crystal come together to form a crystalline
solid.
Each of these crystals contain a number of repetitive blocks called unit cells which are
arranged neatly in an order.
Density of crystalline solids are generally high & their structure is stable. Ex: All metals,
salts like Nacl, Many oxides.
Amorphous solids (or) Non-crystalline materials:

The basic structural unit is molecule and chains of these molecules come together to form
an amorphous solid.
These chains of molecules are random within the solid and occur no particular order.
Density is low and structure is unstable. Ex: Glass, Polymers, Elastomers.
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Aggregates:
Some materials, Ex: silicate can occur as a crystalline solid (quartz) (or) as a non-
crystalline solid (silicate glass). Ex: Concrete, rocks & Minerals.
Unit Cell:
It is the smallest group of atoms possessing the symmetry of the crystal. It is the smallest
volume that contains the full pattern of repetition is called a Unit cell.
Space Lattice:
It is the distribution of atoms in three dimensions such that every atom as identical
surroundings as shown in figure 2.1.
In 3D pattern, where the atoms arrange themselves in an orderly manner along various
directions. It is the 3D network of imaginary lines connecting the atoms.
Fig. 2.1. Cube (https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/simple-cubic-space-lattice-

1192087726)
A unit cell with x, y and z coordinate axis, showing axial lengths (a, b, &c) and inter axial
angles (α, β and γ).
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Atom Structure:
It implies the system of electrons, protons, neutrons, etc., making upon individual atom.
Nucleus :
Atom having a small central part. It consists mass and fixed positive potential value i.e.
proton & neutron.
Around the nucleus the negative charge of fixed value is spinning its own axis i.e. some
electrons. Atoms are electrically neutral because that having equal no.of protons and electrons.
Number of either protons / electrons are called atomic number. Total no. of protons and neutrons
are called atomic weight.
Atomic/crystallographic planes:
Layers of atoms/planes along which atoms are arranged.
Miller indices:
System of rotation for designating crystallographic planes and directing of crystals.
Co-ordinate number:
No. of nearest atoms directly surrounding a given atom in a crystal i.e. nearest neighbours
to an atom in a crystal.
Atomic packing factor (APF):

Atomic packing is defined as the packing of atoms in a unit cell of the crystal structure of
a material. Packing arrangement of atom depends on the following factors: (i) The relative radius
of the atoms involved (ii) Character of bonding between atoms.
APF = Volume of atoms contained in each unit cell/volume of the unit cell.
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APF gives % of space within each unit cell of a crystal structure which is packed with
atoms. On the other hand it also gives us information on the free space available within unit cell.
It determines density of packing in crystal.
Simple Cubic (SC):
Fig 2.2 Simple Cube
It having one atom at each of 8 corners as shown in figure 2.2 at the side of cube is “a” Ex: Nacl,
Manganese.
Let “A” be lattice constant “r” be atomic radius.
The center of each atom coincides with the different corners of the cube and the atoms
touch each other at their periphery.
Let us take a = 2r.
There are 8 corners of the cube and at each corner there is an atom. Each corner atom is
shared by 8 adjoining cubes.
The shape of the cube (or) No. of atoms in one sc unit cell = 1/8X8 =1
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APF = Volume of atoms /volume of the unit cell
= no. of atoms X volume of each unit cell/ volume of the unit cell
3
= 1X1.33 /a3 (because atom shape is sphere therefore volume of sphere is
3
v=1.33 )
= 0.52.
APF = 52 %. i.e 52 % of space inside the unit cell of a SC is packed with atoms.
Remaining 48 % is empty space.
Body Centered Cubic (BCC):
It has one atom at the center of the cube along with atoms at each corner of the cube as
shown in figure 2.3 . Ex: Cr, W, Na.
Fig. 2.3 Body Centered Cubic
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No. of atoms in B.C.C:

Each corner atom is shared by 8 adjoining cubes and the new center atom is not shared by
any adjoining cube.
8 atoms at the corner X 1/ 8=1 atom
1 center atom = 1 atom
Total = 2 atoms.
To find “a” in terms of “r”
From fig,
xy = (a2+a2)½= (2a)½ =(2)½ X a
Similarly, (xz)2 = (4r)2 = ( (2) ½ X a)2 + a2

= 2a2 + a2 = 3a2
4r = (3) ½ X a.
a = 4r/(3) ½
= 2 X 1.33 r3/ a3
= 0.68.
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Face Centered cubic (FCC):

It has an atom at each corner of the cube and in addition, it has one atom at (the
intersection of the diagonals of) each f the six faces of the cube as shown in figure 2.4. Ex: Al,
Cu, Ag, Pb,
Fig. 2.4 Face Centered cubic
No. of atoms in FCC:

Each corner atom is shared by 8 adjoining cubes and each face atom is shared by only
two cubes (i.e.) one this cube and the second adjacent one).
The unit cell contains 8 atoms at the corner X 1/8 = 1 atom
6 face centered atom X ½ = 3 atom
Total = 4 atoms
To find “a” in terms of “r”:
(4r)2= a2+a2
4r= (a2+a2) = (2a2) ½
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a= 4r/(2) ½
= 4 X1.33 r3/3(4/(2) ½)3
= 0.74
Hexagonal Closed Packed (HCP):

An HCP structure is as shown in figure 2.5.
Fig. 2.5 Hexagonal Closed Packed
Ex: Zn, Cd, Mg, Beryllium.
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It consists
(i) One atom at each corner of the hexagon
(ii) One atom at the centre of the two hexagonal faces
(iii) 3 atoms are mounted in between 2 faces of the hexagon.
No.of atoms:
Each of the 12 atoms at the corner of the top faces base are shared by 6 HCP Unit cells=
12 X 1/6 = 2 atoms.
The atoms at the center of the top face and base are each shared by only two unit cells = 2
X ½ = 1 atom. The top face of the HCP structure is as shown in figure 2.6
3 full atoms within the unit cells = 3 = 3 atoms
Total = 6 atoms
Fig. 2.6 Top face of HCP
“a” in terms of “r”:
The corner of atoms touch their neighboring atoms are periphery, a = 2r.
Height of the hexagonal prism/ side of the hexagonal face, [C] = 1.633 a.
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APF: Area of triangle DFH = ½ X base X height
= ½ X a X a sin 60o
Totally 6 triangles are there
So area of hexagon = 6 X ½ a2 sin 60o = 3a2 sin 60o
Volume of the HCP unit cell = Area of base height
= 3a2 sin 60oX C.
= 3a2sin 60oX 1.633 a.
= 6X1.33 r3 / 3a2sin 60oX 1.633 a
APF = 0.74.
In all, HCP & FCC are more densely packed. SC is the least densely packed.
BCC will come in between SC & FCC.

Imperfections in metal Crystals:
Crystal: Atoms, ions, molecules arranged in a pattern which is repetitive three
dimensions.
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Ideal Crystal: Atomic arrangement is perfectly regular and continuous throughout.
Real Crystal: Cast/ welded objects are never perfect. The lattice distortion, various
imperfections, irregularities/ defects are generally present in them. Due to the imperfections of
the crystal the physical and mechanical properties of engineering metals and alloys are affected.
Crystal Imperfections
1)Point Defects (i) Vacancy, (ii) Interstitialcies , (iii) Impurities and (iv) Electronic
defects
2) Line Defects (i) Edge dislocation and (ii) Screw dislocation
3)Planner, surface, interfacial grain boundaries defects (i) Grain boundaries (ii) Tilt
boundaries and (iii) Twin boundaries
4) Volume Defects
Point Defects:
- Imperfect point like regions in the crystal.

- Completely local in its effect e.g Vacant lattice site.
- Point defect increases the internal energy as compared to the perfect crystal
a) Vacancy:
- Unoccupied atom position within a crystal lattice.

- Vacancies are simply empty atom sites
- Vacancies may occur as a result of imperfect packing during the original crystallization
(or) they may arise from thermal vibrations of atoms at elevated temperature, because as thermal
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energy is increased there is a higher probability that individual atoms will jump out of their
position of lowest energy. The vacancy defect is as shown in figure 2.7.
Industrial process of annealing, homogenization, precipitation, sintering, surface

hardening, oxidation and creep, the transport of atoms through the lattice with the help of
vacancies.
Fig. 2.7 Vacancy
Schottky defect:
Fig. 2.8 Schottky defect
It is closely related to vacancies and is formed when an atom/ ion is removed from a
normal lattice site and replaced in an average position on the surface of the crystal.
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When vacancies are created by movement of atoms from positions inside the crystal to
positions on the surface of the crystal as shown in figure 2.8.
b) Interstitialcies:
Fig 2.9 Interstitialcies

A small sized foreign atom occupies the space in between the atoms of a crystal without
dislodging any of the parent atoms as shown in figure 2.9.
The interstitial atom may be lodged within a crystal structure, particularly if the atomic
packing factor is low.
Interstitially produces atomic distortion because interstitial atom tends to push the
surrounding atoms further apart, unless the interstitial atom is smaller than the rest of the atoms
of the crystal.
Frankel’s defect:
Fig 2.10 Frankel’s defect
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- It is closely related to interstitialices

- An ion displaced from the lattice into an interstitial site
- Frankel’s defect is as shown in figure 2.10
The ions of two different kinds of atoms are known as cations and anions. Cations are
smaller ions while anions are the larger ions.
Cations may easily get displaced into the void. Anions, on account of their larger size,
donot displace in small sized voids. The presence of this defect does not change the overall
electrical neutrality of the crystal. Ex: Imperfections in CaF2 & silver halides.
c) Impurities:
- Impurities are compositional Defects.
- It may be small particles in the structure (or) foreign atoms in the lattice. It has atomic
radius and electronic structure differing from the host atoms.
Impurity is of 2 types
1) Substitutional
2) Interstitial
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Fig. 2.11 Impurities
Substitutional:
It is created when a foreign atom substitutes a parent atom in the lattice structure as
shown in figure 2.11(a). Zn atom replaces a Cu atom in the FCC statement of Cu.
Interstitial Impurity:
Foreign atoms occupy positions between the atoms of the ideal crystal as shown in figure
2.11(b). Impurity defect occur in metallic, covalent, ionic solids and processes such as diffusion,
phase transformation.
d) Electronic Defects:
Result of errors in charge distribution in solids. Ex: An Impurity atom, whether
interstitial (or) substitutional may have a charge quite different from that of the host atoms and
hence may produce local electronic disturbances.
These all are called electronic imperfections and is necessary to explain electrical
conductivity and related phenomena in solids.
Line Defects:
- Most important two dimensional/line defect is the dislocation.
- It is a line defect where an uniform alignment of atoms is broken to form a
discontinuity.
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- It is a disturbed region between two substantially (solid strong) perfect parts of a crystal.
- Dislocation is a defect in a crystal structure whereby a part plane of atoms is displaced
from its symmetrically stable position in the array.
- It is responsible for the phenomenon of slip (All atoms in one block move over the same
distance).
- It is the region of localized lattice disturbance separating the slipped and unslipped
regions of a crystal.
- It is intimately connected with strain hardening (metal becomes harder & stronger when
it is plastically deformed (Ex) rolling), yield point (point at plastic deformation), fatigue
(Components have to withstand different kinds of load at different times), creep, brittle fracture.
Types: a. Edge Dislocation:

In edge dislocation as shown in figure 2.12 the Burger’s vector lies at an angle to the line
of dislocation, along the axis of rows of atoms in the same plane. In this edge dislocation, the
starting point and end point both won’t coincide. So the vector “b” connecting the end point with
starting point is the burger’s vector of the dislocation.
Fig. 2.12 Edge Dislocation
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Due to presence of extra row means that adjacent atoms are displaced elastically and
consequently from both sides elastic forces are exerted on the dislocation.
These forces balance out, so that it is easy to move dislocation from one position to
another as shown in figure 2.13.
Fig. 2.13 Dislocation
Under shear stress a positive dislocation (┴) moves to right and negative dislocation (T)
moves to left. Edge dislocation used for slip in plastic flow during mechanical working. It moves
in the direction of burger’s vector.
Burger’s vector: The magnitude and direction of displacement of atoms in a dislocation is

defined by a vector called burger’s vector.
It lies perpendicular to the edge dislocating line.
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b) Screw Dislocation:
Fig. 2.14 Screw Dislocation
Burger’s vector lies parallel to the dislocation line along the axis of a line of atoms in the
same plane.
To form the screw dislocation as shown in figure 2.14, more forces are required and
speed of movement is low compared to the edge dislocation.
Generally the dislocations arise in crystal due to
(i) Thermal stress

(ii) External stress causing plastic flow
(iii) Phase transformation
(iv) Segregation of solute atoms causing mistakes.
The mechanism of screw dislocation is as shown in figure 2.15
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Fig. 2.15 Mechanism of screw dislocation
Surface Defects:
Due to finite size of crystals, bonds are broken on the surfaces for want of neighboring
atoms. Lines joining various atoms is called grain boundary as shown in figure 2.16.
Fig. 2.16 Grain boundary
Grain: Growth of crystals in a direct consequence of addition of atom. The crystal growth
randomly so impinge together, some atoms will be between the crystals. Those atoms won’t join
due to the opposing forces. These atoms occupy positions at the junctions of adjoin crystal that
junction will differ in non crystalline materials by one boundary region. That region is called
grain boundary.
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1. Grain boundaries:
It is formed when two growing grain surfaces meet. It is a transition region and it is a
three dimensional surface. In Grain Boundary the atomic packing is imperfect. All the grain
boundary between two adjacent grains there is a transition done which is not aligned with either
grain.
b. Tilt boundaries:
Tilt boundary condition is as shown in figure 2.17.
Fig. 2.17 Tilt Boundary
It is the low angle grain boundary where the orientation grain 1 difference between two
neighbouring crystals is less than 10o. Limited to a ten edge dislocations, located one below the
other.
c. Twin boundaries:
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Fig. 2.18 Twin Boundaries
Where the atomic arrangement on one side of the twin boundary as shown in figure 2.18.
It separate two parts of crystal having the same orientation and they look like mirror
image of each other. It will be form only annealing and mechanical working of metals.
Volume Defects:
These are like cracks, foreign inclusions, blowholes etc which are three dimensional and
much larger than other type of defects.
It will come mainly into solids during processing, fabrication techniques and have a considerable
effective of a material.
Effect of Imperfections:
1. Larger foreign atom induces the compressive. Stress and strain smaller atom induces
the tensile stress & strain.
2. Inertial atom induces strains around its surroundings.
3. Stability of crystal is affected
4. Imperfections mainly affect the
(i) Flow & fracture characteristics
(ii) Crystal growth
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(iii) Electrical properties including semi-conductor behavior

(iv) Diffusion mechanism
(v) Creep of metals and alloys
(vi) Annealing, precipitation
(vii) Oxidation, corrosion
Need the study of Imperfections:

(i) Better understanding of them & how they affect metal properties
(ii) Possibilities of minimizing.
Atomic diffusion:
Diffusion:
- It is the movement of atoms & molecules between different regions in a solid, liquid
(or) gas.
- It is the movement of atoms and molecules to new sites within a material, tending to
make the composition of all parts uniform. Ex: Homogenization of a cast alloy)
- It is the result of thermal agitation. Diffusion becomes more as temperature rises.
- When the concentration of atoms of one element is higher at one point than the another,
(in an alloy) the atoms will diffuse from the region of higher concentration to that of lower
concentration.
- It is the migration of atoms from their original lattice in a structure to other sites.
- It is in gases state is very rapid because there is hardly any obstruction from other
atoms/ molecules. Diffusion takes place in liquids also where the atoms are more closely spaced.
But in solids, although diffusion in present, the rate of diffusion is very slow.
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Region of higher Region of lower

concentration concentration
Applications of Diffusion:
1. Metal bonding i) Welding, ii) Brazing, iii) Soldering iv) Metal Cladding v) Galvanizing
2. Homogenizing treatment e.g. annealing of castings.
3. Recovery and Recrystallization.
4. Phase changes e.g. α - γ iron
5. Precipitation of phases in age hardening
6. Powder metallurgy (formation of bonds between metals)
7. Oxidation of metals
8. Surface treatment of steels (Carburizing, Nitriding etc).
Types of Diffusion:
1. Self Diffusion:
- It is the migration of atoms in pure materials.
- Here a particular atom does not remain at one equilibrium site indefinitely rather it
moves from place to place in the material. In a pure material such movement is known as self
diffusion.
- It can be detected experimentally by radioactive tracers
- (Ex) Radioactive Ni (Ni59) can be plated on to the surface of normal Ni.
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2. Inter Diffusion:
- It occurs in binary metallic alloys
- i.e. Diffusion of one component through the lattice of the other. Eg) Ni-Cu system. The
diffusion of Cu through the lattice of Ni.
3. Surface Diffusion:
It is the atomic migration along the surface of a phase (Ex) solid – vapour interface.
4. Grain boundary diffusion:
Atomic migration along the grain boundaries.
5. Volume diffusion:
Atomic migration through the bulk of the material.
Mechanisms of Diffusion:
1. Atomic diffusion by Vacancy mechanism:
If vacancy (or) other crystal defects are present in a crystalline lattice then atoms can
move in these lattice from one atomic site to another provided that sufficient activation energy is
present produced by the thermal vibration of atoms as shown in figure 2.19.
Diffusion rate is directly proportional to temperature.
Fig. 2.19. Atomic diffusion
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The atom has sufficient activation energy to overcome energy barrier (above shown in
fig) then it can move into the vacant site.
Diffusion of this type known as self diffusion.
Activation energy of Activation energy + Activation energy to move self diffusion = to form a
vacancy the vacancy
Activation Energy:
In any diffusion mechanism, work must be done if the atoms are to move from one place
to another. To do this work, an energy barrier must be overcome for atoms to begin jump from
one site to another site.
The minimum energy is required by the atoms to overcome this energy barrier is called
the activation of energy of diffusion. In a vacancy mechanism, energy is required to pull the
atoms from their original positions to vacant atomic sites. It depends on no. of factors
(i) A small atom has a lower activation energy than a large atom.
(ii) Interstitial movement require more energy than a vacancy movements.
(iii) High activation energy required for atomic diffusion for those materials which are
strongly bonded and have higher melting point.
Ex: W, SiC, Boron Carbide.
Atomic diffusion by interstitial mechanism:
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Fig. 2.20 Atomic diffusion by interstitial
The interstitial diffusion of atoms in crystal lattices takes place when atoms move from
one interstitial site to another neighbouring interstitial site without permanently displacing any of
the atoms in the matrix crystal lattice as shown in figure 2.20.
The activation energy is required to force the atoms between other atoms to different
interstitial position.
Diffusion by interchange of atoms:
Fig 2.21 Diffusion by interchange of atoms
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Atoms exchange their positions and hence movement of atoms take place as shown in figure
2.21.
Fick’s first law of diffusion (Steady state diffusion):

The flux of atoms [J] moving across a unit surface area ion unit time is proportional to
the concentration gradient dx/dc.
Under steady State flow:
J = - D dx/dc
J = - D[C2-C1/ x2-x1]
J : No.of atoms/ unit area of diffusion per unit time (atoms/m 2.sec)
C: Volume concentration of atoms (atoms/m 3)
X: Distance between the planes in the direction of flow of atoms (m)
D: Diffusion coefficient (or) diffusivity (m2/sec)
Diffusivity :
The amount of material transport per unit area in unit time, having unit concentration
gradient is called diffusivity.
Positive sign indicates that movements of atoms from higher concentration to lower
concentration.
Fick’s Second law of diffusion (Non-steady state diffusion):

The rate of change of composition is proportional to the second derivative of the
concentration gradient. It relates to the change in concentration with time.
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dc/dt = d/dx(Ddc/dx)\
dc/dt = D d2c/dx2
A more general equation is required to take care of non-stationary state of flow i.e., those
in which the concentration in a fixed region changes with time.
dc/dt is the rate of accumulation of the diffusing material at a point where the concentration
gradient dc/dx.
Factors affecting the diffusivity:
1. Temperature:
Arrhenius – type equation:
High temperature provides the necessary activation energy to the atoms to begin
diffusion. So a higher temperature initiates diffusion faster.
2. Pressure:
To break the bond of atoms more pressure is needed.
3. Crystal Structure:
If a crystal structure is distorted. i.e., if there are more imperfections, the rate of
diffusion is increased.
4. Grain Boundaries:
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It process more rapidly along the grain boundaries since it is zone of crystal
imperfections.
5. Concentration:
If concentration will vary, the diffusivity also varying.

6. Grain size:
In fine grained material, the diffusivity is high.

7. Atomic size:
Diffusion occurs more rapidly when the size of the diffusing atom is less. Ex: Carbon
in iron.
Mechanical behavior
Testing of Materials:
Needs of material testing:
 To determine the surface/sub-surface defects in raw material (or) processed parts.
 To check chemical composition
 To determine suitability of a material for a particular application
 To determine date i.e., force Vs deformation
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 To assess numerically the fundamental mechanical properties of ductility, malleability,

toughness.
Mechanical Properties in elastic region:
1) Stiffness:
It is the resistance offered by the material to elastic deformation. Materials having high
stiffness show less deformation under load. The modules of elasticity / Young’s modules itself it
measures is the measure of stiffness of a material. Materials having high value of E show higher
stiffness.
2) Elasticity:
Loading a solid will change its dimensions, but the resulting deformation will
disappear upon unloading.
3) Resilience:
Ability of the material to absorb energy when it is loaded elastically and give back
the same energy when the load is removed. So long as the body remains loaded, it contains
stored energy within itself which is called Strain energy.
Modules of Resilience:
The strain energy stored by a material per unit volume at the elastic limit.
It gives the capacity of the material to withstand shocks & vibrations.
Ur=σ2s/2E
Where σs is stress at elastic limit and E is young’s modules
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Area under the elastic limit of a stress strain curve gives a measure of the elastic
resilience. Materials having high elastic limit have high resilience.
Materials having high resilience are used for springs.
End of elastic region: At the end of elastic region either the specimen has to get break
(brittle material) (or) this specimen might start yielding as in case of ductile material.
Yield point phenomenon:

It is that point during loading of the specimen when it begins plastically deforming.
Mechanical properties in the plastic region:
1.Yield Strength:
Stress at which plastic deformation begins without any appreciable increase in

load. Ability of a material to resist plastic deformation.
Yield Strength (σ y) = Py/Ao
2. Offset yield strength:
Some materials like Mild steel exhibit a definite yield point. But in case of Cast
iron does not have definite yield point. So far such materials, which do not exhibit a
definite yield point, quantity called offset yield strength as shown in figure 2.22.
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Fig. 2.22 Offset yield strength
Offset of 0.2 % is taken on the x-axis. Line is similar to the straight line portion of the
curve is drawn from that point.
3. Ductility:
Capacity of a material to undergo deformation under tension without rupture. We can
drawn large section to small section such as in wire drawing. It is expressed % of Elongation &
% reduction.
% elongation= (lf-lo/ lo) X 100 Where lf is final length and lo is original length.
% area Reducation= (Ao- Af/ Ao) X 100 Where Ao is original area and Af is final area.
4. Malleability:
Ability of the material to undergo plastic deformation under compressive load

without rupture. Ex: Lead
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Ability of a material formed by hammering (or) rolling.
We can flattend the material into thin sheets without cracking.
% of reduction in length= (lo-lf/ lo) X 100
% of excess in area= (Af- Ao/ Ao) X 100
5. Ultimate Tensile Strength:
After the yield point on the stress-strain curve the specimen undergoes continuous
plastic deformation with increasing load. This load reaches a certain maximum value
after which the specimen does not take any more load. At the point of ultimate load, the
area of cross section of the specimen starts reducing considerably is known as necking.
Ultimate Tensile strength: ultimate load/Ao
6. Fracture Strength:
After the load is reached, the load drops at a particular load, fracture takes place.
The stress corresponding to this load, whose the actual fracture takes place, fracture
strength of the material.
Fracture strength: Pf/Ao
Brittleness:
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It is the opposite of ductility and malleability. It is defined as a tendency to

fracture without appreciable deformation. Ex: C.I These materials having elongation less
that 5 %.
Hardness:
Resistance of a material to plastic deformation usually by indentation.
Resistance to penetration.
It is a measure of permanent deformation and is related to the bonds in lattice

structure.
Fatigue:
When subjected to fluctuating/repeated loads materials tend to develop a

characteristic behaviour which is different from that under steady load. Here fracture
takes place under repeated loads whose non value is less than the Ultimate Tensile Stress
(UTS) of the material (Under Steady Load). Failures in metals like bridges, aircrafts,
machine component.
Impact Strength:
To resist (or) absorb shock energy before it fracture is called impact strength.
Toughness:
Ability of the material to absorb energy during plastic deformation upto fracture.
The ability of the material to withstand bending without fracture. Ex: “Cu”
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Creep:
It is the time dependent permanent deformation that occurs under stress.
True stress and true strain:
True stress & True strain give a correct picture of stress & strain in the specimen
at various intervals of the test. True stress is defined as the load divided by the
instantaneous minimum cross sectional area of the specimen True strain is defined as the
integral of the ratio of an incremental change in length to the instantaneous length of the
specimen.
i.e., True strain (Σ T): L1-L0/ L0 + L2- L1/ L1+…..
Therefore, Σ T= ln X Li/Lo
Li : length of the specimen at any instant of test (I = 1,2,3----)
Relationship between true strain & conventional strain:
Conventional strain: (Є) =ΔL/ Lo
= Li - Lo/ Lo = Li/Lo - 1
Є +1 = Li/Lo
ln (Є +1) = ln (Li/Lo)
ln (Є +1) = ЄT
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Plastic deformation of a single crystal by slip and twinning:

The stresses in metal piece cross the elastic limit the specimen gets plastically deformed
as shown in figure 2.23.
Fig 2.23 Plastic deformation
Plastic deformation is accompanied by changed in both internal & external state and it is
not reversible.
Permanent deformation involves distortion of the crystal & microstructure. It carried out
as in working and shaping processes such as bending, stamping, drawing, spinning, rolling,
forging, Extruding etc.
The stamping of automobile parts, pressing of ship shafting, spinning of Al pans, rolling
of boiler plates, rails, I beams, drawing of wire, extension of telephone cables & forging of
crankshaft all operations involve plastic deformation of metals & alloys.
Single Crystal:
- Periodic & repeated arrangement of atoms is perfect (or) extends throughout through
the entirety of the specimen without interruption.
- It is a solid object of uniform chemical composition which as it occurs in nature (or)

formed in laboratory by solidification of liquid, precipitation from solution.
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- It does not have grain boundary whereas polycrystalline material have grain boundary.
- Figure 2.24 shows the wrapping of the crystal lattice in elastic loading.
Fig. 2.24. Wrapping of the crystal lattice in three elastic loading
Single crystals are used in semiconductors, computer memory systems.
Plastic deformation by Slip:

Deformation by Slip:
Slip is defined as that mechanism of deformation where in one part of the crystal moves/
slips over another part along certain planes known as slip plane as shown in figure 2.25. Slip due
to pure shearing stresses that are acting across the specimen irrespective of whether the crystal is
subjected to tensile/ compressive stresses. Figure 2.26 shows the deformation caused due to slip
Fig. 2.25 Slip formation
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Fig. 2.25 Deformation by slip
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Fig. 2.26 Representation of the greater resistance to slip along planes
Representation of the greater resistance to slip along planes having lower atomic density
due to necessity for side motion will be as shown in figure 2.26. Due to increase of tensile load,
the blocks again divided and relative displacement has taken place.
Slip can be imagined to a park of playing cards when they are shuffled as shown in figure
2.27. Slip occurs due to the movement of dislocations through the crystal that movement
compared to the movement of an earth worm as it arches its back in order to move forward.
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Fig 2.27 Slip in a crystal block
Slip is governed by the following major rules:
1. It occurs only along certain crystallographic planes and directions
2. Slip occurs only along the most closely packed set of planes
3. Slip direction is that direction on when the atoms are most closely spaced. Slip occurs on that
system where the shear stress is maximum i.e., at 45o to the applied tensile load.
Critically Resolved shear stress (CRSS) for Slip:
Slip occurs when the shear stress resolved along these planes reaches a certain value is called
CRSS as shown in figure 2.28(a). CRSS depends of the material, composition, temperature and
independent of structure. Let us consider a cylindrical shaped single crystal subjected to a tensile
load “F” acting in the direction of axis.
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Fig. 2.28 CRSS
φ is a Angle between normal to slip plane & direction of load
λ is Angle between slip direction & direction of load
F is Tensile load
δ is Shear force
A is Area of Compressive stress of cylindrical specimen
Ao is Area of slip plane
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Cos λ= S/F therefore, S = F Cos λ
Cos φ = A/Ao therefore, A = Ao Cos φ
Ao = A/ Cos φ
Shear Stress (τ ) = S/Ao = F/A Cos λ Cos φ (Schmid‟s law)
(where λ = φ = 45o)
τ = F/ 2A
τ = F/2
Slip always begins when the shear stress across the slip plane reaches τ value as shown in
figure 2.28(b), a change in the shape of specimen occurs, parts of specimen are displaced relative
to each other along one or more planes known as slip planes.
Therefore the value of maximum shear stress acting at an angle of 45 o is equal to half of
the applied tensile load.
Plastic deformation by twining:
Plastic deformation due to twining is as shown in figure 2.29
Fig 2.29 Plastic deformation due to twining
Zn, Tin, iron deform by twining.
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Fig.2.30 Twinning Mechanism
The Mechanism of twinning is as shown in figure 2.30
In twinning each plane of atoms move through a definite distance and in the same direction.
The extent of movement of each plane is proportional to its distance from the twining plane,
as shown in fig.
The distance moved by each successive atomic plane is greater than the previous plane by a
few atomic spacing’s.
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When a shear stress is applied the crystal will twin about the twinning plane in such a
way that the region to the left of the twinning plane is not deformed where as the region to the
right is deformed. The atomic arrangement on either side of the twinned plane is in such a way
they are mirror reflections of each other.
Twins are known as annealing twins when they are produced during annealing heat
treatment and mechanical twins when they are produced by mechanical deformation of metals.
Mechanism of twinning:
Partial dislocation line moves up (or) down by one plane each time the twinning
dislocation goes round it.
Twinning may be caused by impact, by thermal treatment (or) by plastic deformation.
Difference between slip and twinning is as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Difference between slip and twinning

Slip Twinning
1. All atoms in one block move over the same 1. Different planes of atoms moves fractional
distance. distances depending on their distance from the
twinning plane.
2. Under microscope, slip appears as thin line. 2. It appears as broad lines (or) bands.
3. There is very little change in lattice 3. Lattice orientation changes in the twinned
orientation. regions.
4. It requires lower shear stress. 4. It requires higher shear stress.
5. Occurs in metals having more number of 5. Occurs in metals having less number of slip
slip systems. systems.
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References:
1) K.R.Phaneesh “Material Science and Metallurgy”, Sudha Publication.
2) Titterton “Aircraft Material & Processes”, Sterling book house.
3) Kestoor Praveen “Material Science and Metallurgy”, Suggi Publications.
4) S.L. Kakani and Amit Kakani “Material Science”, New Age International Publications.
Dr. Prathik S
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Unit-2 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR

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Unit-2 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR

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Aircraft Material Science

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR

Crystalline solids are

Amorphous solids (or) Non-crystalline materials:

Fig. 2.1. Cube (https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/simple-cubic-space-lattice-

Atomic packing factor (APF):

Simple Cubic (SC):

Fig 2.2 Simple Cube

Let us take a = 2r.

APF = Volume of atoms /volume of the unit cell

Body Centered Cubic (BCC):

Fig. 2.3 Body Centered Cubic

No. of atoms in B.C.C:

8 atoms at the corner X 1/ 8=1 atom

1 center atom = 1 atom

To find “a” in terms of “r”

Similarly, (xz)2 = (4r)2 = ( (2) ½ X a)2 + a2

APF = Volume of atoms /volume of the unit cell

Face Centered cubic (FCC):

Fig. 2.4 Face Centered cubic

No. of atoms in FCC:

The unit cell contains 8 atoms at the corner X 1/8 = 1 atom

6 face centered atom X ½ = 3 atom

To find “a” in terms of “r”:

4r= (a2+a2) = (2a2) ½

APF = Volume of atoms /volume of the unit cell

= 4 X1.33 r3/3(4/(2) ½)3

Hexagonal Closed Packed (HCP):

Fig. 2.5 Hexagonal Closed Packed

Ex: Zn, Cd, Mg, Beryllium.

3 full atoms within the unit cells = 3 = 3 atoms

Fig. 2.6 Top face of HCP

“a” in terms of “r”:

APF: Area of triangle DFH = ½ X base X height

Totally 6 triangles are there

So area of hexagon = 6 X ½ a2 sin 60o = 3a2 sin 60o

Volume of the HCP unit cell = Area of base height

= 3a2 sin 60oX C.

= 3a2sin 60oX 1.633 a.

APF = Volume of atoms /volume of the unit cell

= 6X1.33 r3 / 3a2sin 60oX 1.633 a

BCC will come in between SC & FCC.

Ideal Crystal: Atomic arrangement is perfectly regular and continuous throughout.

2) Line Defects (i) Edge dislocation and (ii) Screw dislocation

- Imperfect point like regions in the crystal.

- Unoccupied atom position within a crystal lattice.

Industrial process of annealing, homogenization, precipitation, sintering, surface

Fig. 2.7 Vacancy

Fig. 2.8 Schottky defect

Fig 2.9 Interstitialcies

Fig 2.10 Frankel’s defect

- It is closely related to interstitialices

Fig. 2.11 Impurities

Types: a. Edge Dislocation:

Fig. 2.12 Edge Dislocation

Fig. 2.13 Dislocation

Burger’s vector: The magnitude and direction of displacement of atoms in a dislocation is

It lies perpendicular to the edge dislocating line.

Fig. 2.14 Screw Dislocation

Generally the dislocations arise in crystal due to

(i) Thermal stress

The mechanism of screw dislocation is as shown in figure 2.15

Fig. 2.15 Mechanism of screw dislocation

Fig. 2.16 Grain boundary