MANMADE DISASTERS:

 MANMADE DISASTERS
o Mass Gatherings (Crowd)
o Forest Fires
o Chemical Disasters
o Biological Emergencies
o Nuclear and Radiological Emergencies
o Climate Emergencies
o Urban Flooding

Emergencies Associated with Mass Gatherings

 Inadequate planning world-wide phenomenon.
 During festivals or events attracting mass gathering – railways, roadways and airways may
 “crowding” and ‘crowd behaviour’ as hazard risk  formulating strategic plan for public safety.
 NDMA Guidelines developed in consultation with local authorities and event administrator/ organiser.
 disaster management is primarily the responsibility of the organizers and local/district administration 
 sharing of knowledge and information 
The NDMA guideline lists six major causes and triggers for crowd disasters 

Structural barricades, fencing, temporary structures, insufficient exit, difficult terrain, slippery/muddy roads, etc.)

Fire/Electricity fire extinguishers, illegal electric connections,

Crowd Control Crowds exceeding the capacity of the venue,.
Crowd Behaviour
Security
Lack of Coordination between
Stakeholders
 

Recent examples of stampedes:

 National Crime Record Bureau (NCRB), almost 2000 people have been died due to stampedes during 2000-2013.
 International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, religious gatherings and pilgrimages have been venues for 78% of stampedes in India.

 It requires understanding of Type of event 

 Expected Crowd (age, gender, economic strata), 
 Crowd Motives (such as social, academic, religious, entertainment, economic etc.); 
 Venue (location, topography of area, temporal or permanent, open or closed),
 

Crowd Handling Barricade facility Snake line approach s

Safety and Security: authorised use of electricity, fire safety extinguishers use of CCTV cameras 

Communication: 

Medical and Emergency care:  

Role of Event Managers:develop, implement, review and revise the disaster management plan  

Role of Civil society: 

Role of police: 

Capacity Building: 

Forest Fires:
 India is one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world having nearly seven lakh square kilometres of forest cover.

 As per Forest Survey of India (FSI), which has been conducting field investigation since 1965, human activities
trigger nearly 95 per cent of the forest fires in India.
  forest fire annually is nearly 35 million hectares
 world the main causes of forest fires are anthropogenic.
 The data on forest fires in India is very weak and needs to be improved.
 nearly 50 per cent of the forest areas as fire prone with 43 per cent having occasional fire incidents.
 , very high, high, and frequent forest fires occur in 0.84 per cent, 0.14 per cent and 5.16 per cent of the forest
areas respectively.
 The moist deciduous forest is the most vulnerable to fire in India.
 Nearly 15 per cent of this ecosystem is frequently disturbed by fire and 60 per cent is occasionally affected. In
the case of wet/semi— evergreen forests, fire occur somewhat frequently in nine per cent, and occasionally
in additional 40 per cent.
 In the North-Eastern region of India, recurrent fires annually affect up to 50 per cent of the forests.
 The coniferous forests in the Himalayan region are also very fire prone with many wildfires occurring during
the winter drought. 
The states with frequent occurrence of forest fires are:

 Andhra Pradesh
 Himachal Pradesh
 Karnataka
 Manipur
 Madhya Pradesh
 Nagaland
 Orissa
 Rajasthan
  Telangana
 Uttar Pradesh
Reasons for forest fires:

 Reasons for forest fires

o Natural causes
o Anthropological causes

Natural Causes:

 Global warming: 
 Heat waves, solar flares: 
 Monoculture growth of forest: Forest Survey of India, 50% of forest in Uttarakhand is prone to fires.
 Deciduous forest: India’s majority of forest cover dry periods.
 Climate change: 

Anthropological Reasons:

 Human interventions in forest: Over the years Urbanisation, industrialisation have come at the cost of forests. Forests were cleared for human
settlements, mineral exploration, industrial establishments etc. This has been resulted into degraded forest.

 Deforestation: Human settlements, multipurpose projects like large dams, mines development

 Deliberate act of arson: Timber mafias
  Unattended camp fires: 
 Migration: .
 Shifting agriculture:  

Effects of forest fires:

 Migration:
 Loss of ecosystem and biodiversity: 
 Human health:
 Albedo: Forest fires emit black carbon on large scale. Such small particles of black carbon gets deposited on snow.
And snow is best medium of sunlight reflection.
 Forest degradation: 
 Climate change: 
 Soil fertility: 
 Economic losses: According to Forest Survey of India, forest fires costs $1.5 billion of GDP.
 

Forest fires: NDMA Guideline

Observation Networks, Information Systems, Monitoring, Research, Forecasting, Early Warning and Zoning/
Mapping:

 fire risk classification  using satellites

 Technical support in mapping forest fire vulnerability areas using satellites
  Seasonal forest-fire monitoring and assessment
 Strengthen coordination between different ministries
 Strengthen the early detection and warning
 Operationalise a system of near real-me monitoring of forest fires using best technologies available such as low
flying aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) and drones
 Near Real-Time monitoring of forest fires
 Studies/ assessments of areas prone to forest fires, ecological aspects, wildlife concerns
 Conduct a detailed fire history to determine the frequency, distribution, and severity of wildfire.
 

Dissemination of warnings, data, and information:

 Create awareness for forest fire prevention as most fires are caused by humans, deliberately or inadvertently
 Establishing reliable system to pass on the correct information on fire situation to communities and responders

3. Inter-agency coordination:

 Preparation and implementation of DM plans and ensure the functioning of agencies with DM tasks
 All aspects of disaster risk management and mainstreaming DRR
 Ensuring coherence and mutual reinforcement of DRR and development.
 Effective coordination and seamless communication among central and state agencies to ensure quick, clear,
effective dissemination of warnings, information and data
 
Structural Measures:

 Strengthening forest-fire fighting systems by deploying aircrafts, helicopters, UAV, drones and equipment.
 Strengthening various forest fire prevention measures
 Communication network of wireless system
 Effective transportation
 Specialised equipment to fight forest fires
 Improved fire-resistant clothing
 Strengthening the network of watch towers
 Expanding fire detection systems
 Hazard resistant construction, strengthening, and retrofitting of all lifeline structures and critical infrastructure
near forest area and in forest villages
 

Techno-legal measures:

 Strengthen the laws and regulations for forest fire prevention and control

 Improve the institutional arrangements for forest fire prevention and control
 Promote use of insurance/ risk transfer
 

Human Resource:
  Training and orientation programs for state govt. staff, and other stakeholders such as: civil society, volunteers,
elected representatives.
 Incorporating prevention and management of forest fires in the training programs of village volunteers
 

Awareness Generation:

 Promoting awareness, alertness and preparedness

 Training programs for public, PRIs/ ULBs
 Carry out mass media campaigns in forest fire prone areas
 Create awareness of forest fire prevention and control
 Strengthening network of community involvement in forest fire reporting, prevention and assistance to
controlling.
 

Empowering women, marginalised communities and persons with disabilities:

 Incorporating gender sensitive and equitable approaches in capacity development covering all aspects of disaster
management.
 

Current Developments:

 
 FOREST FIRE PREVENTION & MANAGEMENT SCHEME:

 Intensification of Forest Management Scheme was revised and replaced as Forest Fire Prevention &
Management Scheme in December 2017. 
 It is a centrally sponsored scheme with an aim to focus solely on the issue of forest fire prevention & management
and related activities, to address growing concern over adverse effects of forest fire.
 Funding Pattern: 
o For Normal States: 60:40 between centre and states. 
o NE and Himalayan states: 90:10 between centre and states
o For Union Territory: 100% central funding
 Monitoring and Evaluation o At National level, MoEFCC will review the scheme and will also carry out third party
evaluation after every 3 years.
 At State Level, State Forest Department will be responsible for regular monitoring and review of achievement
under the scheme.
 

LARGE FOREST FIRE MONITORING PROGRAMME:

 Forest Survey of India (FSI) launched beta-version of the Large Forest Fire Monitoring Programme.
 

LARGE FOREST FIRE MONITORING PROGRAMME 

  It aims to improve tactical as well as strategic response to large forest fires by disseminating specific Large Fire
alerts with the objective to identify, track and report serious forest fire incidents.
 It is part of the Fire Alert System (FAST) Version 3.0, where the FSI will monitor forest fire events using real time
data from the satellite sensors.

Chemical (Industrial) Disasters:

 With rapid economic development, there has been spread of industries from small to large across the country.
 There is relatively higher presence of industrial sector along the west coast, largely due to the proximity to raw
materials and ports.
 The states with very large number of chemical industries are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh (UP),
Tamil Nadu (TN), MP, and Punjab.
 Due to the regional concentration of chemical companies in certain pockets, the chemical hazard has increased
many folds.
 The growth of industries has led to an increase in the risk of occurrence of incidents associated with hazardous
chemicals (HAZCHEM) and hazardous materials (HAZMAT).
 These events occur due to mishaps or failures in industry and negligence in following international codes and
standards for chemical handling which affects the industrial functioning, and productivity.
 While the common causes for chemical accidents are deficiencies in safety management systems or human
errors, natural calamities or sabotage may also trigger such accidents.
 Chemical/ industrial accidents are significant and have long term impact on the community and environment. It
leads to injuries, pain, suffering, loss of lives, damage to property and environment.
 Hence, a robust plan and mitigation measure needs to be adapted to overcome the hazard.
  The suggestions from several industry associations have recommended the implementation of the updated and
relevant International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and Occupational Health and Safety Assessment
Series (OHSAS) standards to production and storage of chemicals.
 

Industrial disasters in India:

Bombay Docks Explosion (1944) On April 14, 1944, the freighter SS Fort Stikine, carrying a mixed cargo of cotton ba
ammunition including tons of explosives, caught fire and resulted in two massive bla
  Dock of Bombay. Ships in the area of the explosion sank after the impact. 800 peopl
and some 80,000 were made homeless.

Chasnala Mining Disaster (1975) On December 27, 1975, a huge explosion rocked the Chasnala Colliery in Dhanbad (then
  372 miners. The explosion is supposed to have caused by sparks from equipment igniting
methane gas. The flooding in the mine drowned the miners trapped under the debris.

The Union Carbide Gas Tragedy (1984)
 
Korba Chimney Collapse (2009)
 
In what is the biggest industrial disaster of the last hundred years in India, 5295 people di
affected after being exposed to some 40 tonne of methyl isocyanate gas leaked from a pe
the US multinational, Union Carbide Corp, in Bhopal. It has been more than 35 years sin
happened on December 3, 1984, but there is still a massive debate on the number of peop
activists estimate around 20,000 to 25,000 deaths.
On the September 23, 2009, 45 people lost their lives when a chimney under construction
Bharat Aluminium Company (Balco) collapsed in Korba in Chhattisgarh. The structure h
240 metres when it collapsed on top of more than 100 workers due to incessant rainfall an

Jaipur Oil Depot Fire (2009) On October 29, 2009, an oil fire broke out at the Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) depot’s gi
Industrial Area on the outskirts of Jaipur, killing 12 people and injuring at least 130. The
more than a week and half a million people were evacuated from the area post the inciden
 

Mayapuri Radiological Accident (2010) A big radiation scare hit the national capital ten years ago when one person was killed an
  at AIIMS after exposure to radioactive substances at the Mayapuri scrap yard in West De
level 4 out of 7 on the International Nuclear Events Scale.

Visakhapatnam HPCL Refinery Blast (2013) 23 people were killed on August 23, 2013, when a blast caused due to sparks originating
  heavy build-up of hydrocarbons in a pipeline, led to the collapse of the cooling tower in t
Visakhapatnam.

Nagaram GAIL pipeline explosion (2014) 18 people were killed and around 40 injured when in June 2014, a massive fire broke out
  Authority of India Limited (GAIL) underground gas pipeline in the coastal village of Nag
Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh.

Bhilai Steel Plant Gas Leak (2014)

  Six people were killed and over 40 injured due to a leakage in methane gas pipeline at a w
Bhilai Steel Plant in Durg district in Chattisgarh.

Tughlakabad Gas Leak (2017)

  As many as 200 school students of the Rani Jhansi School for Girls were admitted to four
chemical gas leakage from a container truck at the customs area of Tughlakabad depot in

Kanpur Ammonia Gas Leak (2017) On the March 15, 2017, Ammonia leaked from the gas chamber of a cold storage facility
  district of Uttar Pradesh. Many farmers were trapped inside the building, waiting to stock
when the tragedy occurred. Five people were killed and nine others injured in the inciden

Belur Chlorine Gas Leak (2017)

  More than 10 people took ill and were rushed to the hospital following a chlorine gas leak
plant at Gandehalli in Belur near Hassan in South Karnataka in May 2017.

Bhilai Steel Plant Pipeline Blast (2018) An explosion in a gas pipeline connected to the coke oven section of the Steel Plant in Bh
Chhattisgarh, operated by the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) resulted in the dea
  
injuring 14 others.

LG Polymers, Visakhapatnam (2020) Visakhapatnam on Thursday woke up to a gas leak at Korean company LG Polymers. Sty
  the plant which left at least 7 dead and 1000 others sick. Over 3000 people were evacuate
spread. The gas caused the breathlessness and a burning sensation in the eyes. People star
unconscious
 

 Industrial disasters: Statistics

 Since May 2020, there have been 30 industrial accidents in India, killing at least 75 workers, according to IndustriALL, a global union of worker
 From 2014 to 2017, 8,004 such incidents occurred in Indian workplaces killing 6,368 employees. Most such incidents took place in Delhi, Maharas

Legislations to Protect Against Chemical Disasters in India:

Laws Before and During Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984):

 At the time of the Bhopal gas tragedy, the Indian Penal Code (IPC) was the only relevant law specifying criminal
liability for such incidents.
 

Laws After Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984):

  Bhopal Gas Leak (Processing of Claims) Act, 1985: It gives powers to the central government to secure the
claims arising out of or connected with the Bhopal gas tragedy. Under the provisions of this Act, such claims are
dealt with speedily and equitably.
 The Environment Protection Act, 1986: It gives powers to the central government to undertake measures for
improving the environment and set standards and inspect industrial units.
 The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991: It is an insurance meant to provide relief to persons affected by
accidents that occur while handling hazardous substances.
 The National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997: Under this Act, the National Environment Appellate
Authority can hear appeals regarding the restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or
class of industries shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
 National Green Tribunal, 2010: It provided for the establishment of the National Green Tribunal for effective and
expeditious disposal of case related to environmental protection and conservation of forests.
 

Industrial disasters: NDMA Guideline

Information system, monitoring, research:

 Online information system on HAZCHEM conforming to international standards

 Chemical Accident Information Reporting System
 Information on dealing with HAZCHEM
 Research on effective management of HAZCHEM
  National Hazardous Waste Information System (NHWIS)
 Promote research and studies – both in-house and extra-mural by providing research grants to researchers and
institutions
 Promote R&D for indigenous manufacture of quality personal protection equipment most of which are currently
imported
 Studies on improving occupational safety
 

Zoning or mapping:

 Industrial zones on basis of hazard potential and effective disaster management for worst case scenarios for
Major Accident Hazard (MAH) Units
 Separate zoning for sing of MAH units
 Carry out the mapping and related studies in collaboration with central agencies/ technical organizations.
 

Inter-agency coordination:

 Preparation and implementation of DM plans and ensure the functioning of agencies with DM tasks
 All aspects of disaster risk management and mainstreaming DRR.
 Effective coordination and seamless communication among central and state agencies to ensure quick, clear,
effective dissemination of warnings, information and data.
 
Structural Measures:

 Identification of shelters with basic facilities like drinking water and first aid for chemical exposure
 Ensuring water storage facilities and sources for water for accident containment and firefighting operations
 Providing wide roads and multiple routes in the industrial area to allow quick access by first responders and to
ensure escape pathways
 Establish decontamination facilities for off-site emergencies of MAH units.
 

Non-structural measures:

 Formulate/ strengthen rules, norms, and laws such as factories rules consistent with that of ensuring greater
safety in hazardous industries and to reduce likelihood of disasters
 Review land use norms for the sing of hazardous industries
 

Empower factory inspectorates to take legal actions for noncompliance of MSIHC Rules

 Review rules to grant compensation to chemical accident victims to improve them in favour of victims
 Amend land use norms to ensure greater safety and to ensure buffer zones without human settlements in close
proximity of hazardous industries
 

Training for stakeholders:

  Training and orientation programs on management and disposal of HAZCHEM
 Training support for SDRF, community, and volunteers
 

Curriculum development:

 Promote inclusion of more specialisations and electives on HAZCHEM and chemical disaster management.

 Review and address gaps in medical education at different levels with respect to emergency medical response.
 Review the specialisation needs in the area of dealing with victims of chemical disasters
 Review and take steps to improve the facilities required to treat victims of chemical disasters.
 

Empowering women, marginalised communities and persons with disabilities:

 Incorporating gender sensitive and equitable approaches in capacity development covering all aspects of disaster
management.

Biological and public health emergencies:

 Disasters related to this sub-group are biological emergencies and epidemics, pest attacks, cale epidemics and
food poisoning.
 Biological emergency is one caused due to natural outbreaks of epidemics or intentional use of biological
agents (viruses and microorganisms) or toxins through dissemination of such agents in ways to harm human
population, food crops and livestock to cause outbreaks of diseases.
 This may happen through natural, accidental, or deliberate dispersal of such harmful agents into food, water,
air, soil or into plants, crops, or livestock.
 Apart from the natural transnational movement of the pathogenic organisms, their potential use as weapons of
biological warfare and bioterrorism has become far more important now than ever before.
 Along with nuclear and chemical agents, many biological agents are now considered as capable of causing large-
scale mortality and morbidity.
 Handling exotic pathogens warrants suitable infrastructure, notably, high containment laboratories of bio-safety
levels 3 and 4; recruitment of highly committed, dedicated and trained professionals; continuous availability of
diagnostic reagents; enhancement of skills at various echelons of health professionals in early identification of
such infections, investigation of outbreaks and institution of specific control measures.
 Current system of surveillance and mechanism to control the outbreak of endemic diseases are through
the National Programme for Surveillance of Communicable Diseases.
 Natural outbreaks of disease may become epidemics and assume disastrous proportion if not contained in the
initial stages.
 Pest infestations have recurred as major disasters for the agrarian economy of India since time immemorial.
 Locust swarms coming from Central Asia used to be a major cause for concern.
 Besides such consolidated events, infestation of localized pests is a threat to plant as well as human life.
 A major factor responsible for deterioration and the loss of food grains, their products and the economic losses
besides health hazards is the contamination caused by rodents and insects. Pest control is achieved primarily
through chemical methods subject to safety standards and regulatory norms for the safe use of such chemicals.
 The growth of human society has rested largely on the cultivation of crops and domestication of animals.
 As crops and animals became necessary to sustain a divergent social structure, the depletion of these resources
had far-reaching consequences.
 Along with the growth of societies, crop and animal diseases acquired more and more importance.
 Infectious agents are constantly evolving, often acquiring enhanced virulence or epidemic potential.
 As large number of people now travels within and across national boundaries, the likelihood of fast global spread
of epidemics has increased dramatically making localised outbreaks into national epidemics and global
pandemics.
 As our society is in a state of flux, novel pathogens emerge to pose challenges not only at the point of primary
contact but also in far removed locations.
 The increased interaction between humans and animals has increased the possibilities of zoonotic diseases
emerging in epidemic form.
 The Biological DRR covers the legal frameworks and institutional aspects needed for addressing safety and
security of microbial agents, managing epidemics, containing biological terrorism (BT), managing threats to
livestock, and all forms of agriculture.
 Desert locusts fly with the wind and can travel 100-150 km in a day. The Bombay locust (Nomadacris succincta)
was a major pest in India and South-Eastern Asia in the 18th and 19 th centuries but has seldom swarmed since the
last plague in 1908. The desert locust swarms from as far as Africa sometimes can reach India and Pakistan
crossing the Indian Ocean.
 The Locust Control and Research Division under MAFW Keeps constant vigil through field surveys to prevent
crop losses due to locust attack in approximately two lakhs sq.km of Scheduled Desert Area in the States of
Rajasthan and Gujarat.
 Locust Watch under FAO monitors the locusts worldwide and issue early warnings to countries about locust
swarms. After receiving warning, Government takes urgent measures for monitoring and control.
 Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine and Storage under the MAFW with sub-offices across India, is the
apex organisation responsible for taking measures related to plant protection. Such measures are important in
the overall crop production programmes for sustainable agriculture.
 Plant protection activities encompasses activities aimed to minimizing crop losses due to pests through
integrated pest management, plant quarantine, regulation of pesticides as well as locust warning and control.
  To effectively tackle the issue of livestock health, the Department is supplementing the activities of the State
Governments/ Union Territories through ‘Livestock Health & Disease Control Scheme’, which has the following
components:
 Assistance to States for Control of Animal Diseases
 Professional Efficiency Development
 National Project on Rinderpest Surveillance and Monitoring
 Foot and Mouth Disease Control Programme
 National Animal Disease Reporting System
 Brucellosis Control Programme
 Establishment and Strengthening of existing Veterinary Hospitals and Dispensaries
 Classical Swine Fever Control Programme
 

Biological and public health emergencies: NDMA Guideline

Observation Networks, Information Systems, Monitoring, Research, Forecasting, Early Warning and Zoning/
Mapping:

 Establishment of Early Warning System to make the response mechanism ready for operation.
 Strengthening Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) and early warning systems at regional
levels
 Epidemiological disease mapping of the past which will provide ready data to contain future disasters.
  Health facilities mapping is necessary prerequisite, because biological disasters put heavy burden on people’s
health. Mapping of health facilities will help to assess real situation and opens the doors for further
improvements.
 

Dissemination of warnings, data & information:

 Create awareness about preventive measures which will help in bringing behavioural changes among all
stakeholders.
 Extensive IEC campaigns to create awareness through print, electronic and social media
 Specific messages for highly vulnerable groups such as elderly, young children, outdoor workers and slum
residents is most crucial aspect of awareness generation. Because these are the most vulnerable sections during
any kind of disasters.
 

Preparation and response:

 Rapid health assessment and provision of laboratory support is necessary to deal with widely spreading
biological disasters. This has been observed during COVID19 Pandemic. During COVID19 Pandemic, government
also established laboratories throughout the country on mission mode.
 Institution of public health measures to deal with secondary emergencies as an outcome of biological
emergencies. This can help in tackling unforeseen challenges and pressures on health system.
 

Structural Measures:
  Establishing adequate decontamination systems, Critical Care Intensive Care Units (ICUs) and isolation wards to
slow down the spread of biological agents.
 Adequate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for all the health workers associated with the responding to
biological emergencies. This will ensure that health workers will not be affected by such biological agents.
 Strengthening/mainstreaming the network medical assistance facilities
 Equipping Medical First Responders (MFRs)/Quick Reaction Medical Teams (QRMTs) with all material logistics
and backup support
 Upgradation of earmarked hospitals to cope with Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN)
emergencies
 Communication and networking system with appropriate intra-hospital and inter-linkages with state
ambulance/transport services, state police departments and other emergency services
 Mobile tele-health services and Mobile Hospitals.
 

Upgrading medical facilities:

 Specialised health care and laboratory facilities to address biological emergencies/ incidents. Biological
disasters are sudden and sometimes transcends the human capabilities to deal with such disasters with existing
infrastructure. Thus, it is necessary to establish specialised health care facilities to deal with biological disasters.
 Establishing and strengthening quarantine facilities to break the chain of contamination. This is well observed
during COVID19 Pandemic where government focused on quarantine facilities.
 Creating at least one public health laboratory in each district so that every person gets diagnosed at right time
and get treatment with ease.
 Stockpiling of essential medical supplies such as vaccines and antibiotics, etc. COVID19 Pandemic compelled all
the governments across the globe to stockpile medicines such as Hydroxychloroquine, Lopinavir, Ritonavir etc.
 

Biosafety and Biosecurity Measures and Environmental Management:

 Strict compliance with biosafety and biosecurity provisions such as wearing PPE kits while treating patients,
conducting research on biological agents in laboratories, safe handling of medical wastes etc.
 Environmental monitoring to prevent outbreaks- Most of the biological disasters are zoonotic in origin.
Discriminate handling of environment and more specifically wild animals can cause jumping of viral agents into
human societies.
 Integrated vector management for elimination of breeding places such as meat markets, transportation of
exotic species, livestock management etc.
 Biological and chemical interventions for vector control
 Monitoring of water supply and sewage systems to prevent the dispersal of biological agents that can cause
epidemics.
 

Human Resource Development and Training:

 Training support for SDRF, community, and volunteers is necessary as they are directly exposed to such disasters.
 Strengthening of National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), medical first responders, medical professionals,
paramedics and other emergency responders. This will ensure institutionalised response during such disasters.
 Development of human resources for monitoring and management of the delayed effects of Biological and
Public Health Emergencies in the areas of mental health and psychosocial care Training programmes in the areas
of emergency medicine and biological emergency management for hospital administrators, specialists, medical
officers, nurses and other health care workers
  Training for youth through NCC, NYKS, Scouts and Guides and NSS. This will help to harness the demographic
dividend during emergency situations.
 

Awareness Generation:

 Promoting awareness, alertness and preparedness to tackle the menace of fake news and to create responsible
citizenry.
 Training programs for public, PRIs/ ULBs to reach each and every person in the locality. This will also help
strengthening of democracy at the grass-root level.
 Community awareness programme for first aid with the help of ASHA workers, AWW, ANMs. These workers are
helpful in keeping vigil during such disasters.
 Dos and Don’ts to mitigate the effects of medical emergencies caused by biological agents
 Awareness about the importance of personal hygiene
 With due consideration to the social, ethnic and religious issues involved, utmost care will be exercised in the
disposal of dead bodies.
 

Nuclear and Radiological Emergencies:

 A nuclear disaster is construed as potentially a low probability event, however very high in damage
impact, could be caused by detonation of nuclear warhead or explosion of an Improvised Nuclear Device (IND)
 with associated release of large amounts of devastative energy due to Blast, Thermal and Radioactive material.
Secondary effects occurring later might result in fall out of radioactive dust.
 The nuclear and radiological emergencies could be due to accidents at operating nuclear facilities/ incidents
in public domain that could potentially release radioactive materials.
 The cause of these events could potentially arise from nuclear facility/ malicious acts of radioactivity dispersal by
explosion of Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD).
 The occurrence of these kinds of emergencies could be of probability marginally higher but based on the scale of
the accident/ incident, the potential impact of damage will be restricted to less domain.
 Nuclear weapons, a major accident in a nuclear power plant or an accidental exposure of radiation, due to
accident with the radioactive material during transportation, faulty practices, and mechanical failure in a radiation
facility can lead to nuclear or radiological emergency.
 Even though such situations may not arise easily, everyone needs to be prepared to face such emergencies.
 All organisations dealing with nuclear and radiological material have an inherent culture of safety, follow best
safety practices in the sector, and they apply high standards to ensure minimum risk.
 However, nuclear emergencies can still arise due to factors beyond the control of the operating agencies from
human error, system failure, sabotage, extreme natural events like earthquake, cyclone, flood, tsunami or a
combination of these.
 Such failures, even though of very low probability, may lead to on-site or offsite emergencies.
 To counter this, proper emergency preparedness plans must be in place so that there is minimum loss of life,
livelihood, property, and impact on the environment.
 

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) classifies the above emergency scenarios under two broad categories –

 Nuclear and
  Radiological
 

 A nuclear emergency refers to a situation in which there is, or is presumed to be, a hazard due to the
release of energy along with radiation from a nuclear chain reaction (or from the decay of the products of a
chain reaction). These covers accidents in nuclear reactors, ‘criticality’ situations in fuel cycle facilities, nuclear
explosions, etc.
 All other emergency situations which have the potential hazard of radiation exposure due to decay of
radioisotopes, are classified as radiological emergencies.
 

 While the overall objective is to prevent NRE, there is also the need to adequately prepare for such emergencies.
An NRE must be managed through very well planned and established mechanisms – structural and non-structural
– in a manner that will minimize risks to health, life and the environment.
 

 Eight nuclear/ radiological emergency scenarios envisaged in the disaster planning are listed below:

o Accidents in Nuclear Power Plants and other facilities in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
o ‘Criticality’ Accidents
o Accidents during transportation of radioactive materials
o Accidents at facilities using radioactive sources
o Disintegration of satellites during re-entry
o Nuclear/Radiological terrorism and sabotage at nuclear facilities
 o State-sponsored nuclear terrorism
o Explosion of nuclear weapons
 

Nuclear and radiological emergencies: NDMA Guideline

Monitoring and warning network Strengthening Radiation Monitoring:

 This will help in early detection of radiations from all possible sources like nuclear plants, weapons, transport of
nuclear materials etc.
 

Establish monitoring mechanism to prevent illicit movement of radioisotopes:

 Install radiation detectors at all identified locations at border posts, and ports. Such detection is necessary to
prevent illegal transport of radioactive materials, dumping of such materials in developing countries by developed
countries.
 

Communication networks:

 To set up reliable and dedicated communication network at the national level for the last mile connectivity.
 
Warnings, information, data:

 Dissemination of warnings to all, down to the last mile – remote, rural or urban so that people can get reliable,
genuine information about the emergencies. In this way people also get prepared to respond in well-structured
manner.
 Regular updates to people in areas at risk will help to tackle the menace of fake news, panic.
 

Structural Measures:

 Identification of safe buildings and sites to serve as temporary shelters near nuclear installations
 Construction of multi-purpose shelters near nuclear installations
 Ensure compliance with relevant building codes
 

Comprehensive plan on medical management:

 To establish tertiary care hospitals for treatment of radiation injuries.

 Establish primary and secondary care hospitals of adequate capacity at select cities will help reduce burden on
healthcare facilities.
 

Awareness Generation:
  Carry out mass media campaigns
 Promote culture of disaster risk prevention, mitigation, and beer risk management
 Promote attitude and behaviour change in the awareness campaigns/ IEC
 Promote use of insurance/ risk transfer
 Promote Community Radio
 Strengthening network of civil society organizations for awareness generation about Disaster Risk Reduction and
Disaster Management.
 

Climate Refugees:/Environmental Refugee

 The term “climate refugee” is often used in the media and other discussions.
 However, this phrase can cause confusion, as it does not exist in international law.
 A “refugee” is defined as a person who has crossed an international border “owing to well-founded fear of being
persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion”
(1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees).
 In some contexts, the definition extends to persons fleeing “events seriously disturbing public order”
(1984 Cartagena Declaration). Climate change affects people inside their own countries, and typically creates
internal displacement before it reaches a level where it displaces people across borders.
 There may be situations where the refugee criteria of the 1951 Convention or broader refugee criteria of regional
refugee law frameworks may apply, for example if drought-related famine is linked to situations of armed conflict
and violence– an area known as “nexus dynamics.”
  Regardless, the term “climate refugee” is not endorsed by UNHCR, and it is more accurate to refer to “persons
displaced in the context of disasters and climate change.”
 Most disaster displacement linked to natural hazards and the impacts of climate change is internal, with those
affected remaining within their national borders.
 However, displacement across borders also occurs, and may be interrelated with situations of conflict or violence.
 The impacts of climate change are numerous. Limited natural resources, such as drinking water, are likely to
become even scarcer in many parts of the world. Crops and livestock struggle to survive in climate change
‘hotspots’ where conditions become too hot and dry, or too cold and wet, threatening livelihoods and
exacerbating food insecurity.
 People are trying to adapt to the changing environment, but many are being forcibly displaced from their homes
by the effects of climate change and disasters, or are relocating in order to survive. New displacement patterns,
and competition over depleted natural resources can spark conflict between communities or compound pre-
existing vulnerabilities.
 People displaced across borders in the context of climate change and disasters may in some circumstances be in
need of international protection. Refugee law therefore has an important role to play in this area.
 UNHCR is providing protection and assistance for many people forcibly displaced by the effects of climate change
and disasters, among other drivers, and is working to increase their resilience.
 

This global challenge has and will continue to create a multitude of critical issues that the international
community must confront, including:

 Large-scale human migration due to resource scarcity, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and other
factors, particularly in the developing countries in the earth’s low latitudinal band
 Intensifying intra- and inter-state competition for food, water, and other resources, particularly in the Middle East
and North Africa
  Increased frequency and severity of disease outbreaks
 Increased U.S. border stress due to the severe effects of climate change in parts of Central America.
 

Climate Refugee

 The ‘State of India’s Environment 2020 in Figures’ report was published by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE).
 It states that India had around 50 lakh internal displacements caused by disasters and extreme weather conditions like floods, cyclones and drough

 According to the Global Report on Internal Displacement 2020, nearly five million people were displaced in India in 2019 because of disasters r
Monsoon and Cyclones.
 According to the ‘State of India’s Environment 2020 in Figures’ the internal displacements in India caused by disasters and extreme weather con
in the world in 2019.
Climate refugees’ statistics:

 Across and within borders, people are displaced. Recent trends indicate more internal displacement due to climate-related disasters than conflict, wh
million people displaced across 135 countries in 2017, 60 percent were as a direct result of natural disasters.
 In 2018, extreme weather events such as severe drought in Afghanistan, Tropical Cyclone Gita in Samoa, and flooding in the Philippines, resulted i
needs.
 According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, there were 18.8 million new disaster-related internal displacements recorded in 2017.
 In 2018, the World Bank projected that there will be more than 143 million internal climate migrants by 2050, in just three regions of the world (S
South Asia, Latin America), if no climate action is taken.

India’s vulnerability to climate refugees:

  The State of India’s Environment 2020 report, published by Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment
(CSE) highlights that India recorded just nine out of 93 disasters in Asia in 2019 but accounted for nearly 48% of
the deaths.
 Also, more people died due to extreme weather events in 2019 despite fewer events in comparison to 2018.
 In 2018 there were 23 extreme weather events that caused 1,396 deaths but last year, only nine disasters claimed
2,038 lives as per official data.
 According to the National Disaster Management Authority, 27 of the 37 states and union territories in India are
disaster-prone.
 If places like Sundarbans in the east of India face the threat of sea-level rise, the mountains of north India are
susceptible to floods, cloud bursts and landslides. The Aila cyclone of 2009 in Bay of Bengal or Kedarnath floods of
2013 in Uttarakhand are testaments to this fact.
 

UNHCR’s role in addressing climate change and disaster-related displacement

UNHCR’s work on climate change and disaster displacement covers four main areas:

 Legal advice, guidance and thedevelopment of norms to support the enhanced protection of the rights of
people displaced in the context of disasters and climate change.
 Promoting policy coherence to ensure that issues of disaster displacement are effectively mainstreamed across
relevant areas.
 Research to fill gaps that underpin this operational and policy work.
 Field-based activities to address internal and cross-border disaster displacement;to reduce the
environmental impact of refugee settlements and ensure sustainable responses to displacement; risk
reduction activities and others which may contribute to efforts to avert, minimize and address
displacement.
 

The Global Compact on Refugees:

 The Global Compact on Refugees, adopted by an overwhelming majority in the UN General Assembly in
December 2018, directly addresses this growing concern. It recognizes that ‘climate, environmental degradation
and natural disasters increasingly interact with the drivers of refugee movements.’
 The Global Compact on Refugees is a framework for more predictable and equitable responsibility-sharing,
recognizing that a sustainable solution to refugee situations cannot be achieved without international
cooperation.
 It provides a blueprint for governments, international organizations, and other stakeholders to ensure that host
communities get the support they need and that refugees can lead productive lives.
 It constitutes a unique opportunity to transform the way the world responds to refugee situations, benefiting both
refugees and the communities that host them.
 

Its four key objectives are to:


o Ease the pressures on host countries;
o Enhance refugee self-reliance;
o Expand access to third-country solutions;
o Support conditions in countries of origin for return in safety and dignity.
 
 Urban Flooding

 Flood is defined as “an overflow of a large body of water over areas not usually inundated”. Thus, flooding in
urban areas is caused by intense and/or prolonged rainfall, which overwhelms the capacity of the drainage
system.
 Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding– urbanization increases flood risk by up to 3 times,
increased peak flow result in flooding very quickly. Further, it affects large number of people due to high
population density in urban areas.
 

Devastating Floods in the past:

 In India: Chennai (December 2015), Kochi (August 2018), Mumbai July 2005
 Around the world: Sydney (December 2018), New York (October 2019), Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans
(October 2005)
 

Facts and figures

 India has a long coastline of 7,500 km and an estimated 14% of India’s total population lives alongside it that traverses nine states, 77 towns and
the fastest-growing such as Mumbai, Chennai and Kochi making them more prone to flood due to adjacent sea and erratic monsoonal behaviour.
 Aside from the present danger posed by extreme weather events such as heavy rainfall and cyclonic storms, more slow-onset impacts brought about
threaten the coastline.
 A 2016 UN report estimated that 40 million people in India will be at risk from sea-level rise by 2050.
  Rashtriya Barh Ayog(National Flood Commission) identified 40 million hectares of land as flood-prone in India.
 About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities.
 Over 40 million hectares is prone to flood.
 About 8% of the total area is prone to cyclone and 68% of the area is susceptible to drought
 

Causes of urban flooding:

Urban flood is a natural phenomenon but recent times anthropogenic factors are more responsible for flood in India.

·       Skewed Rainfall Pattern

·       Trans-National Rivers

Natural causes ·       Earthquakes

 
·       Sediment deposition

·       Cyclone
Anthropogenic causes ·        Indiscriminate deforestation
  ·        Poor Solid Waste Management System

·        Unplanned Urbanization

·        Population pressure

·        Old and ill maintained drainage System:

·        Climate change

·        Inadequate Mitigation measure

·        Policy failure

·        Encroachment of Wetlands

·        Inefficient River flow

·        inefficient urban planning

·        Neglect of Pre-Disaster Planning

·        Obstruction by the encroachment and filling in the floodplain on the waterways
 ·        Deposits of building materials and solid wastes with subsequent blockage of the system.

NDMA Guidelines on Urban Flood:

 National Hydro-meteorological Network and Doppler Weather Radarscan provide and a lead time of 3 to 6

hours.
 Design and Management of Urban Drainage to improve the infiltration and natural storage.
 As runoff processes are independent of states and city administrative boundaries, Catchment as a basis of
design should be promoted.
 Removal of Solid Waste should be encouraged to avoid hydraulic roughness, blockage.
 Rain gardens consist of a porous soil covered with a thin layer of mulch. Stormwater runoff is allowed to infiltrate
through the plant/mulch/soil environment.
 Vulnerability Analysis and Risk Assessment should be done to identify areas at risk, classification of structures
according to Hazard Risk Zoning.
 A separate Urban Flooding Cell (UFC) will be constituted within MoUD which will coordinate all UFDM activities at
the national level.
 Emergency Operation Centres, flood shelters, search and rescue operations, emergency logistics should be
established for flood response mechanism.
 

Way forward:
 

Technology: 1.     Strengthen Early Warning System and real-time communication system.

2.     Improve forecasting models to strengthen preparedness e.g. Mumbai has installed automatic weather statio
  rainfall every 15 minutes.

1.     Design and maintain Urban Drainage System to avoid blockage and to improve flow capacity
2.     Prioritise waste recycling

Governance: 3.     Need cooperation between Municipal and urban infrastructure bodies
 
4.     Strengthen regulation of real estate nexus with RERA

5.     Implement Coastal Regulation Zone rules

1.     Rainwater Harvesting to serve the twin purposes of lowering the peak runoff and raising the ground water table. e
Conservation 2.     Prevent encroachments and promote conservation of Water Bodies like lakes, tanks and ponds for flood regulatio

1.     Improve urban accountability through public participation

Public participation: 2.     Create an awareness about solid waste management
 
3.     Community-based advance flood warning systems

Mitigation 1.     Prompt, well-coordinated and effective response to minimize casualties and loss of property and also facilitate ea
International cooperation: 1.     Efficient implement Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction to reduce the vulnerability of disaster.
 2.     Develop ‘sponge’ cities in line with cities in China

Developing Sponge Cities:

 The idea of a sponge city is to make cities more permeable so as to hold and use the water which falls upon it.
 Sponge cities absorb the rain water, which is then naturally filtered by the soil and allowed to reach urban aquifers.
 This allows for the extraction of water from the ground through urban or peri-urban wells.
 This water can be treated easily and used for city water supply.

Rail Accidents

 Railway Disaster is a serious train accident or an untoward event of grave nature, either on railway premises
or arising out of railway activity.
 This may occur due to natural or human-made causes, which may lead to loss of many lives and/or grievous
injuries to a large number of people, and/or severe disruption of traffic etc.
 Thus, necessitating large scale help from other government/non-government and private.
 

Major Rail Accidents in 2017:

  Vasco-da-Gama -Patna Express derailment, November 23, 2017
 Utkal Express derailment, Aug 18, 2017.
 Meerut-Lucknow Rajya Rani Express derailment, April 15, 2017.
 Jagdalpur-Bhubaneswar Hirakhand Express derailment, Jan 22, 2017.
 Kalindi Express derailment, Feb 20, 2017.
 Mahakaushal Express derailment, March 30, 2017.
 Ujjain train blast, March 3, 2017.
 

Derailments:

 In 2015-16, a majority of train accidents were caused due to derailments (60%), followed by accidents at level

crossings (33%).
 Between 2003-04 and 2015-16, derailments were the second highest reason for casualties.
 The Standing Committee on Railways had noted that one of the reasons for derailments is defect in the track or
rolling stock.
 

Unmanned Level Crossings:

 Unmanned level crossings (UMLCs) continue to be one of the biggest causes of maximum casualties in rail
accidents.
 In 2014-15, about 40% of the accidents occurred at UMLCs, and in 2015-16, about 28%.
 

How ISRO is helping Indian railway to curb accident at unmanned crossing?

 ISRO helping the Indian Railways use its satellite-based system to check accidents at unmanned railway
crossings and track train movements on a real-time basis.
 A hooter integrated with ISRO navigation system will be installed at an unmanned crossing.
 An IC chip will be installed on a train engine. The chip will get activated once a train is at a distance of 500
metres to 4km from the crossing.
 The hooter will go off as the train approaches, warning road users at the crossing and will fall silent after the train
has passed.
 The system will also help railways track train movement on a real-time basis
 The testing of this system is underway.
 

What explains the frequent number of railway accidents?

  ·       More than half of the accidents are due to lapses on the part of railway staff.
·       Such lapses include:
 

·       carelessness in working,
 
 ·       poor maintenance work,
Accidents due to failure of railway staff:
·       Adoption of short-cuts
 
·       Non-observance of laid down safety rules and procedures.

Accidents due to loco-pilots:

  ·       Accidents also occur due to signalling errors for which loco-pilots are responsible.

 
Under-investment in the Railways leading to Rail
accidents:
·       Slow expansion of rail networks has put undue burden on the existing infrastructure, leadin
and safety compromises
·       Under-investment in the railways has resulted in congested routes, inability to add new trai
speeds and more rail accidents.

·       Maintenance is compromised due to lack of funds.

 

Safety Measures taken on Indian Railways:

 Measures taken to ensure rail safety envisage accident prevention and mitigation directed towards continuous
reduction in risk level to its passengers.
 In the Budget 2017-18, setting up of a Rashtriya Rail Sanraksha Kosh (RRSK)had been announced.
 
Many new technologies have been introduced:

 Train Protection Warning System (TPWS)/ Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) as means of Automatic Train
Protection on pilot section to prevent accident due to over speeding & passing signal at danger.
 Vigilance Control Device (VCD) to check alertness of Loco Pilot Electrical/Electronic Interlocking System with
Centralised operations of points to eliminate human failure, Complete Track Circuiting,
 Axle Counter for Automatic Clearance of Block Section (BPAC),
 Interlocking of manned Level Crossing gates
 Replacement of filament type signal with Light Emitting Diode (LED) Signals
 To improve safety of railway tracks following measures have been taken:

 Usage of pre-stressed concrete sleepers

 Provision of Thick Web Switches (TWS) for all important routes
 Track Management System
 Condition based monitoring system for rolling stock and track is being tried
 Ultrasonic broken rail detection system to be made operational
 

Suggestions by the World bank for Rail Safety in India:

 In April 2017, erstwhile Railway Minister had approached the World Bank for a study on the issue of rail safety.
 The report – titled ‘Strengthening Safety on Indian Railways’was submitted by the World Bank in late August
2017.
  The guidelines that were put forth by the World Bank to keep a check safety of the overburdened Indian rail
infrastructure are as follows:
 As a measure to avert accidents, the trains are to be equipped with ‘ditch lights’ and painted bright yellow that
will enable more visibility even during twilight hours.
 The rail employees should be garbed in “high-visibility” clothes that can be worn round the year.
 Every train must be equipped with fire extinguishers and the staff must be well guided on various fire prevention
measures.
 The level crossings and paths are to be painted with a crosshatched pattern that can alert and highlight the
dangers for people to be in the area.
 The current investigators who have been employed to investigate root-cause of accidents are to be trained for
better analysis.
 The authorities have been suggested to review timetables such that a maintenance block of four hours is
provided weekly on all main lines as well as review safety performance in terminal operations with the intent of
recognising prevailing risks.
 An independent rail safety regulator is to be created by the railways to strengthen the powers of commissioner
of railway safety and form a safety management system under the Chairman, Railway Board.
 To address derailments, fires, or any other possible mishap, an emergency response plan is to be constituted.
 

 Oil Spill:

 Recently, A Japanese ship namedM V Wakashio struck a coral reef resulting in an oil spill of over 1,000 tonnes
into the Indian Ocean.
  The accident had taken place near two environmentally protected marine ecosystems and the Blue Bay Marine
Park Reserve, which is a wetland of international importance.
 A number of popular tourist beaches and mangrove plantations are located nearby the spill.
 

Concerns associated with Oil Spills

 Oil spills affect marine lifeby exposing them to harsh elements and destroying their sources of food and habitat.
 Both birds and mammals can die from hypothermia as a result of oil spills, for instance, oil destroys the
insulating ability of fur-bearing mammals, such as sea otters.
 It also decreases the water repellence of birds’ feathers, without which they lose their ability to repel cold
water.
 Conservationists are also anxious about oil washing into mangrove forests, where roots serve as nurseries for
fish.
 Concerns are also growing for the thousands of local people whose livelihoods will be impactedby the spill.
 The damage could impact Mauritius and its tourism-dependent economy for decades.
 

Methods of Cleaning the oil spill:

There are a few ways to clean up oil spills:

 Including skimming–It involves removing oil from the sea surface before it is able to reach the sensitive areas
along the coastline.
  In situ burning– It means burning a particular patch of oil after it has concentrated in one area.
 Release of chemical dispersants–Releasing chemical dispersants helps break down oil into smaller droplets,
making it easier for microbes to consume, and further break it down into less harmful compounds.
 Natural actions–Natural actions in aquatic environments such as weathering, evaporation, emulsification,
biodegradation and oxidation can also help reduce the severity of an oil spill and accelerate the recovery of an
affected area.
 

Other instances of oil spills:

 Some of the world’s largest oil spills include the Persian Gulf War oil spill of 1991when more than 380 million
gallons of oil was poured into the northern Persian Gulf by Iraq’s forces.
 The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexicois also considered to be among the largest known
accidental oil spills in history. Starting April 20, 2010, over 4 million barrels of oil flowed over a period of 87 days
into the Gulf of Mexico.
 In 2016, a United States Geological Survey (USGS)-NASA studyfound that the 2010 oil spill led to “widespread”
shoreline loss along with the heavily oiled areas along Louisiana’s coast.
 Recently occurred Oil spill in Russia’s Arctic region.
 

Mine Disasters

 Mines Act, 1965 defines Disaster as an act Accident (unexpected event) causing loss of more than 10 lives.
 A mining accident is an accident that occurs in the process of mining minerals.
 

Following types of mining disasters are classified by the Directorate General of Mine Safety (DGMS):

 Side fall (slope failure) disaster in opencast mines

 Roof and side falls in underground mines
 Collapse of mine pillars
 Air Blast
 Failure of rope haulage
 Accident due to electricity
 Mine Fires
 Accident due to explosive
 Inundations
 Explosions in Mines
 Rock Burst and bumps
Prevention of Disasters in Mines:

 The various safeguards and preventive measures against coal mine fires are outlined in the Coal Mines
Regulations, 1957 and related circulars, notifications and technical instructions.
 The Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS) examines from each and every application for underground and
surface mining from all considerations.
 Wherever necessary the DGMS imposes additional precautionary and preventive measures.
 Thus, the role of DGMS is not only that of an enforcer of legislation but also a facilitator of Mine Safety.
 

Environment Clearance:

 For the new projects and re-organisational projects, after the issuance of the EIA Notification, 1994 under
the Environment (protection) Act, 1986, it has become compulsory to get environmental clearance from the
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF.
 The mines are required to develop their Environmental Management Plans (EMPs) in which the problems of the
mine fires are adequately addressed as the mine fires have considerable environmental impacts.
 

Reasons for Mining Accidents

 Poor safety conditions for workers: The main reason remains collapse of roofs and walls or Inundation
fatalities.
 Rat hole mininginvolves suffocating narrow tunnels through which miners go into the hillsides to extract coal.
 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) not followed: Surface movement of heavy machinery.
 Administrative failures: “Illegal” miningthat employs a large number of the marginalised and child labour.
E.g. Justice B.P. Katoki committee of the NGT reported rampant illegal mining
as primary reason for accidents.
 Outsourcing to private sector: Under the Coal Mines (Special Provisions) Act, 2015 and the Mines and Minerals
(Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 coal mines are auctioned to private players. Private sector is accused of
neglecting safety standards.
 Carelessness of miners: In transportation and use of explosives For example, Lalmatia tragedy in 2016, workers’
complaint about cracks in the slope were neglected.
  No lessons learnt: Findings of previous disasters not incorporated in pre-mining surveys and safety protocols.
 Misuse of 6th Schedule of Constitution: Illegal miners and local councils portray administrative safeguards
against dangerous mining as undue interference in autonomous areas and hence go ahead with illegal mining
operations.
g. rat-hole mining in Meghalaya.
 6th Scheduleprovides tribal communities right over land and use of its resources.
 

Measures taken for improvement of safety by Coal India Limited (CIL) in 2016:

 Internal safety Organization (ISO): Continuous review of safety status of mines is being done by the
multidisciplinary ISO
 Guidelines of Corrective Measures: After analysis of fatal accidents which occurred in different point of time in
2016, guidelines of corrective measures to prevent recurrence of similar type of accidents in future have been
issued by Safety and Rescue Division of CIL
 Training for Preparation of Risk Assessment based Safety Management Plans (SMP)
 Preparation and Implementation of Risk Assessment based SMP
 Standard Operating Procedure (SOP): 8 risk assessment-based site-specific SOP are formulated and being
implemented for various mining and allied operations
 Adoption of the state-of-art Technology suitable to geo-mining locales
 Monitoring of Mine Environment by installing Environment Tele-Monitoring System (ETMs) and Local
Methane Detectors
 Water Danger management
 Strata Management: Use of modern strata monitoring instruments.
  Risk management training.

In December, 2018, illegal coal mine at Ksan in Meghalaya flooded, trapping at least 13 workers despite NGT banning unscientific and illegal mining inc
mining in
Meghalaya.

Way Ahead

 NHRC report 2014mining sector should adopt best practices such as:
o Scientific ‘training need assessment’ for officers and workers.
o Developing effective training delivery mechanisms.
o Working on comprehensive specialised training on accident investigation.
 Integrate Occupational health with primary healthcare: It is the mandate of the Labour Ministry.
o This has to be shifted to Health Ministry for better synergy and finance allocation.
 Regulatoron occupational health safety.
 Effective implementation of 6th scheduleprovisions through regulation of land leasing and protection of
“community” right over land resources.
 Diversifying livelihood opportunitiesin concerned districts through better implementation of schemes like
MGNREGA, Prime Minister’s Employment Generation Program (PMEGP).
 Curb on illegal miningthat is more dangerous and unregulated by using satellites.
 State Responsibility: Moreover, under the rules of Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, the
responsibility of illegal mining lies with the State government. For example, NGT imposed 100 crore penalty on
Meghalaya govt. for failing to curb illegal mining.
  District Mineral Fund (DMF): Use DMF for rehabilitation and welfare of the workers from impoverished
communities including child labourers who take these risky work because
of the higher wages.