International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

ISSN: 1612-197X (Print) 1557-251X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rijs20

Effect of an eight-week imagery training

programme on passing decision-making of young
volleyball players

Leonardo S. Fortes, Carlos G. Freitas-Júnior, Pedro P. Paes, Lenamar F. Vieira,

José R. A. Nascimento-Júnior, Dalton Roberto Alves Araújo Lima-Júnior &
Maria E. C. Ferreira

To cite this article: Leonardo S. Fortes, Carlos G. Freitas-Júnior, Pedro P. Paes, Lenamar
F. Vieira, José R. A. Nascimento-Júnior, Dalton Roberto Alves Araújo Lima-Júnior & Maria
E. C. Ferreira (2018): Effect of an eight-week imagery training programme on passing decision-
making of young volleyball players, International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, DOI:
10.1080/1612197X.2018.1462229

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2018.1462229

Published online: 19 Apr 2018.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 69

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rijs20
International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2018
https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2018.1462229

Effect of an eight-week imagery training programme on passing

decision-making of young volleyball players
Leonardo S. Fortes a*, Carlos G. Freitas-Júniora, Pedro P. Paesa, Lenamar F. Vieirab,
José R. A. Nascimento-Júniorc, Dalton Roberto Alves Araújo Lima-Júniora and
Maria E. C. Ferreira d
a
Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife,
Brazil; bDepartment of Physical Education, University of Maringá State, Maringá, Brazil; cDepartment
of Physical Education, Federal University of Vale do São Francisco, Petrolina, Brazil; dFaculty of
Physical Education and Sports, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Brazil
(Received 24 July 2017; accepted 30 April 2018)

Background: The passing decision-making performance in volleyball is important because it

determines the quality of a team’s attack. However, no study has analysed the effect of
imagery training on passing decision-making performance in young volleyball athletes.
Purpose: The objective was to analyse the effect of eight weeks of imagery training on
passing decision-making performance. Method: Participants were 33 young male athletes
(under 17 years [U-17]). Participants were randomly assigned to two groups: experimental
(EG, n = 17) and control group (CG, n = 16). The CG watched videos of advertisements,
while EG participated in the imagery training. A cognitive-general imagery programme was
adopted, that asks the athletes to imagine themselves executing passes during a competitive
event (e.g. reception of the service with variations of speed and displacement, pass to
middle attacker, pass to other attackers, and pass with projection of the body on the
ground). The passing decision-making was evaluated in a simulation of a volleyball official
game. The analysis of actions was based on the Game Performance Assessment instrument.
A heart rate monitor was adopted as an indicator of the autonomic nervous system response
during the sessions for the EG and CG. Results: The results revealed a group versus
intervention interaction (p < .01) for the passing decision-making, with improvement only in
the EG (p = .01). A statistically significant difference in heart rate was identified between
the groups (p = .01), with a higher value in the EG. Conclusions: It was concluded that
imagery training enhanced passing decision-making performance.
Keywords: team sport; game analysis; psychology; performance

Volleyball has been identified as one of the five most practised sports in the world (Moreno et al.,
2016). It is a collective sport of the intermittent type, characterised by unpredictability (Costa
et al., 2016). The choice of the best decision (“what to do”) and adopting the correct technique
(“how to do”) quickly and accurately is considered crucial for success in volleyball (Lopes,
Magalhães, Diniz, Moreira, & Albuquerque, 2016).
Decision-making is the brain’s ability to extract contextual information from the visual scene,
which is essential for high-level performance in unpredictable sports (Gil-Arias et al., 2016;
Romeas, Guldner, & Faubert, 2016). Recent studies have shown that high-level athletes

*Corresponding author. Email: leodesousafortes@hotmail.com

© 2018 International Society of Sport Psychology

2 L.S. Fortes et al.

demonstrate better performance in decision-making compared to young athletes (Kinrade,

Jackson, & Ashford, 2015; Lopes et al., 2016). The interpretation of this difference has been
that these young athletes are still forming various body systems, as researchers have pointed
out that the cognitive mechanisms of decision-making (perception, attention, anticipation, and
working memory) are developed mainly during adolescence (Araújo et al., 2015). In this
sense, it is important to identify the intervening factors on decision-making capacity in relatively
young athletes.
Considering the cognitive mechanisms of decision-making (perception, attention, antici-
pation, and working memory), researchers and sports professionals have suggested imagery
training as an important tool for the development of this psychological capacity (Brick, MacIn-
tyre, & Campbell, 2015; Guillot et al., 2015). According to Battaglia et al. (2014), imagery
training concerns the creation of mental images from sensory processes stored in memory,
capable of being accessed without external stimuli. In other words, it is about the ability to
create a “mental sketch” that helps accomplish sports tasks (Guillot et al., 2015; Kanthack,
Bigliassi, Vieira, & Altimari, 2014). Scientific findings have revealed that imagery training
increased the activation of the sympathetic nervous system, resulting in increased heart rate
(Pinto, Ramos, Lemos, Vargas, & Imbiriba, 2017). Therefore, it is recommended to use an indi-
cator of autonomic nervous system activity during imagery training sessions, such as a heart
rate monitor.
According to Brick et al. (2015), there are four imagery training techniques: motivational-
specific, motivational-general, cognitive-specific, and cognitive-general. The first two are used
to increase motivation and improve emotional controlling ability, respectively. The techniques
of imagery training that are cognitive-specific and cognitive-general are adopted by the athletes
to potentiate performance of motor task and to solve a situation that occurs in competition,
respectively. Regardless of the imagery training technique adopted, researchers have shown it
has positive effects on competition anxiety (Fortes, Lira, Lima, Almeida, & Ferreira, 2016), mus-
cular strength (Di Rienzo et al., 2015) service tennis performance (Guillot et al., 2015) and jumps
(Battaglia et al., 2014). However, to the best of our knowledge, no study analysed the effect of
imagery training on decision-making performance in young athletes.
From a practical point of view, this type of research may reveal the medium term (eight weeks)
effect of imagery training on decision-making in young volleyball athletes. Specifically, the
passing decision-making performance in volleyball is important because it determines the
quality of the attack. For example, a good pass decision can lead to an attack without the presence
of opponents blocking or even allowing attacks on the second touch. Therefore, optimisation of
the passing decision-making performance may lead to improved team performance. In this sense,
the findings of the present investigation can be useful for volleyball coaches’ practice. So, the
objective of the study was to analyse the effect of eight weeks of imagery training on passing
decision-making performance in young volleyball athletes.
Based on previous research on imagery training (Brick et al., 2015; Guillot et al., 2015), the
following hypothesis was formulated: imagery training leads to optimisation of passing decision-
making performance in young volleyball athletes.

Materials and methods

Participants
This was an experimental investigation developed with young male volleyball athletes conducted
in the first half of 2016 for eight weeks. The sample was selected in a non-probabilistic way and
was composed of 33 state-level volunteers aged 16 ± 0.6 years, who were participants of the U-17
 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 3

volleyball tournament. The participants belonged to two teams linked to the Volleyball State
Federation.
The athletes trained 89.7 ± 4.5 min per day, five times a week. To be included in the survey,
athletes had to be: (a) a volleyball athlete for at least two years; (b) systematically training volley-
ball for at least 8 h per week; and (c) be enrolled in the U-17 Volleyball State Championship,
organised by the Volleyball State Federation.
The participants were randomly assigned to two groups: experimental group (EG, n = 17, age
= 15.6 ± 1.9 years, training regimen = 7.5 ± 0.2 h/week, body fat percentage = 19.3 ± 5.2%) and
control group (CG, n = 16, age = 15.6 ± 1.8 years, training regimen = 7.4 ± 0.2 h/week, body fat
percentage = 18.6 ± 5.8%). The participants were randomised using a random number table, stra-
tified for passing decision-making performance baseline (by a researcher not directly involved in
the recruitment and data collection). No statistical differences were identified for age (F(2, 32) =
2.06, p = .22), training regimen (F(2, 32) = .4, p = .78), body fat percentage (F(2, 32) = 1.62,
p = .39), or pass decision-making (F(2, 32) = 2.93, p = .34) between the EG and CG before the
investigation.
After receiving information on the procedures of the study, participants signed a consent form.
The coach and parents of the athletes signed the informed consent form, agreeing with the meth-
odological procedures of the investigation. The procedures adopted in this study complied with
the norms of the National Health Council and Helsinki Declaration for research on humans.
The project was approved by the Ethics and Research Committee of the University (CAAE –
05166712.8.0000.5407).

Experimental procedures
Both groups (EG and CG) participated in the same physical/technical training planning over the
course of the eight weeks. Therefore, all athletes performed the same volume and intensity zones
training during the eight-week investigation. It should be noted that the total time in minutes in the
microcycle was used to determine the training volume. The intensity of each microcycle was cal-
culated from the mean of the effort perception of each session (RPE-session), according to the
method used in other scientific investigations (Fortes et al., 2016; Freitas, Nakamura, Miloski,
Samulski, & Bara-Filho, 2014). No difference in the perceived intensity of each microcycle
was identified between the groups until the end of the eighth week (F(2, 32) = 2.91, p = .21).
Thus, the effort perception of the training intensity was similar between the EG and CG through-
out the investigation.
The CG watched videos of advertisements, while EG participated in the imagery training. The
CG videos dealt with advertisements related to sports equipment (e.g. caps, t-shirts, and shorts).
No communication was allowed during the CG sessions. The total time of each session in the CG
was identical to the training time in the EG. Three weekly sessions of imagery training were per-
formed in the EG, separated by 48-h, totalling 24 sessions over the course of eight weeks. The
sessions were conducted after the physical/technical training, with a 30-minute interval
between the end of the physical/technical training session and the beginning of the imagery train-
ing session. No imagery training session was conducted without physical/technical training. All
imagery training sessions lasted approximately 10 min and were performed in a quiet environ-
ment in the gymnasium (close to the court) with the athletes wearing competition outfits.
Before each imagery training session videos showing volleyball, athletes who were successful
in the execution of the pass in competitive events were shown, with the premise of facilitating
the imaginative capacity of the athletes of the EG. We used the recommendations of Guillot
et al. (2015) for the imagery training protocol. Cognitive-general imagery was adopted, request-
ing that the athletes imagine themselves executing passes during a competitive event (e.g.
4 L.S. Fortes et al.

reception of the service with variations of speed and displacement, pass to the middle attacker,
pass to other attackers, and pass with projection of the body on the ground). The following infor-
mation was provided to the athletes: (a) construct imaginary situation in the first person (e.g.
internal perspective); (b) imagine the task with speed close to reality; (c) imagine positive situ-
ations during a competition (e.g. pass with correct decision-making); (d) generate emotions
(e.g. anxiety and mood) like in a competition. It should be noted that all the participants in the
research had previous experience with imagery training sessions of the cognitive-general type,
although the protocol of the present study was partially different from the imagery training pro-
gramme commonly used with these athletes. The response of the autonomic nervous system
during imaginary training sessions was evaluated with a heart rate monitor.
Data were collected at the training site. Passing decision-making was evaluated 48 h before
the intervention started. The athletes played a set of a simulated volleyball match, which was
filmed. Two professionals, experienced in the field of volleyball training, analysed the actions
of each athlete on the volleyball set. The two professionals had experience with the Game Per-
formance Assessment Instrument (GPAI) recommendations. Afterwards, the eight weeks of
imagery training were conducted. Forty-eight hours after the end of the experiment, passing
decision-making was evaluated again.
The GPAI was adopted to evaluate the performance in the passing decision-making before
(pre-experiment) and after (post-experiment) the eight weeks of imaginary training. A camera
(SX60, CANON®, Japan) was placed on a tripod in the bleachers of the gymnasium in front
of the centreline of the volleyball court. A set of 25 points was registered (all athletes played
one set of 25 points), simulating an official volleyball match of the U-17 championship. All inves-
tigation procedures are described in Figure 1.

Measures
The decision-making performance was evaluated with the GPAI (Memmert & Harvey, 2008). The
pass ability was adopted as a decision-making component in the volleyball game, as proposed by

Figure 1. Experimental design of the investigation.

Notes: GPAI: Game Performance Assessment Instrument; EG: experimental group; CG: control group.
 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 5

Lopes et al. (2016). Situations that the intention (e.g. the intention of sending the ball to a team-
mate) was to direct the ball into the setter’s hands or the intention was to pass the ball to an
unmarked striker (e.g. without the presence of the opposing block) were considered appropriate
action. Any other intent to pass was considered inappropriate action.
The decision-making index (DMI) was calculated according to the formula proposed by
Memmert and Harvey (2008), shown below. Two experts experienced in volleyball analysed
each action and classified them as appropriate or inappropriate. An acceptable coefficient of
agreement (kappa = .97; p = .01) was identified for the classifications by the two specialists, in
accordance with DeVellis (2003).
Considering that a volleyball game is not a controlled environment in terms of the type and
quantity of actions, the number of pass actions was not equivalent among the athletes. With the
premise of inhibiting the effect of the number of individual pass actions on the DMI, the number
of passes performed was statistically controlled (inserted as a covariate) on the analyses.

Aa
DMI = ,
Aa + Ia

where DMI is the decision-making index; Aa is the appropriate action; Ia is the inappropriate action.
A heart rate monitor (Polar RS800CX, Polar Electro Oy, Finland) was used in each athlete
during the imagery and video sessions for the EG and CG, respectively. The mean heart rate in
the 24 sessions was adopted as indicator of the autonomic nervous system response.
A portable scale (Bc558 Ironman, Tanita®, Brazil) and wood stadiometer (Welmy®, Brazil)
were used to determine body mass and height. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated from
the following formula: BMI = body mass (kg)/height (m)². The body density was determined
using the skinfold thickness technique, using Lange© (USA) compass, adopting the Slaughter
et al. (1988) protocol. These measurements were performed using a rotational method and
were collected three times to average the values. The International Society for Advancement
for Kinanthropometry (2013) protocol was used to measure skinfolds. The body fat percentage
was determined using the Siri (1956) equation.

Analysis
Levene’s and Mauchly’s tests were used to assess homocedasticity and sphericity, respectively.
Measures of central tendency (mean) and dispersion (standard deviation and standard error)
were used to describe the variables of the investigation. Repeated measures Anova was used to
analyse the intervention (pre- vs. post-intervention) versus group (EG vs. CG) interaction of the
passing decision-making. The within-subject factors had two levels (pre- and post-intervention)
as well as between-group factors (EG and CG). The number of pass actions performed was inserted
as a covariate in the analysis. The independent student’s t test was used to compare the heart rate
between the EG and CG. Cohen’s d measurement was used for the effect size assessment. Accord-
ing to the analysis of the effect size, the classification proposed by Rhea (2004) was adopted: d < .2
= trivial, .2 ≤ d < .4 = low effect size, .4 ≤ d > .8 = moderate effect size, and d ≥ .8 = large effect
size. All data were processed using SPSS 21.0 software, adopting a significance level of .05.

Results
The findings revealed homoscedasticity in the DMI (F(2, 32) = .87, p = .63), heart rate (F(2, 32)
= .94, p = .55), and body fat percentage (F(2, 32) = .74, p = .69) variances. The sphericity of
DMI was assumed (F(2, 32) = 2.44, p = .24).
6 L.S. Fortes et al.

Table 1 presents the results of the comparisons of the passing DMI between the EG and CG.
The results showed group effect (F(2, 32) = 43.90, p = .01, d = .9), but did not reveal effect of inter-
vention (F(2, 32) = 26.05, p = .29, d = .2). An intervention versus group interaction (F(2, 32) = 56.75,
p = .01, d = .7) was identified. In addition, the findings indicated that 52% of the DMI variance
was attributed to the influence of the imagery training.
Concerning the heart rate during the 24 imaginary/video sessions, the findings indicated stat-
istically significant difference between the groups (t = 39.06, p = .01, d = 1.2), with a higher value
revealed for the EG (122.57 ± 11.61 bpm, 95% CI: 115–126 bpm) than CG (89.93 ± 10.32 bpm,
95% CI: 83–94 bpm).

Discussion
The objective of this research was to analyse the effect of imagery training on passing decision-
making in young volleyball athletes. In summary, the study findings indicated a moderate positive
effect of imagery training on the passing decision-making performance of the young volleyball
players, corroborating the hypothesis of the present study.
Decision-making in sports involves four components: attention, anticipation, working
memory, and perception (Memmert, 2010). The performance in team sports with an unpredictable
nature depends on the ability to make the best possible decision (Gil-Arias et al., 2016; Kinrade
et al., 2015). Considering volleyball, although normally the reception is directed to the setter, the
athlete has innumerable options in which to send the ball. Likewise, the setter is faced with
various attack options on his team (e.g. tip, middle, and opposite). However, a wrong decision
can compromise the performance of your team. Studies have shown that athletes with better com-
petitive level have shown superior performance in decision-making compared to lower-level ath-
letes (Gonzaga, Albuquerque, Malloy-Diniz, Greco, & Costa, 2014; Lopes et al., 2016). In this
sense, it is extremely important to investigate interventions that might positively affect some of
the components of decision-making. The findings of the present study point out that imagery
training can be used as an important tool for the optimisation of decision-making in young ath-
letes. According to Araújo et al. (2015), the imagination can generate a positive effect on the
anticipation and working memory of the athlete that, in turn, might have an impact on the optim-
isation of decision-making. Hence, we address the necessity to perform experimental researches
to analyse whether this statement is true.
The results of the present study indicated an improvement in the passing DMI of the EG after
the eight weeks of imagery training, a fact not revealed for the CG. In addition, a moderate effect
size was identified in the comparison between the EG and CG in the post-experiment. Compari-
son with the scientific literature is not feasible because of the lack of scientific research that has
analysed the effect of imagery training on decision-making performance. However, some mech-
anisms may be mentioned that may explain the findings of the present study.
According to Bock, Schott, and Papaxanthis (2015), imagery training might enhance attention
capacity. Thus, imagery training can increase the focus of attention to relevant stimuli (e.g. ball

Table 1. Mean and standard deviation of passing DMI according to investigation step (pre- and post-
experiment).
Variable EG (n = 17) CG (n = 16)
Decision-making index
Pre (95% CI) .67 ± .07 (.62–.73) .66 ± .08 (.60–.73)
Post (95% CI) .75 ± .08 (.66–.78) .65 ± .08 (.61–.74)
Note: EG: experimental group; CG: control group; CI: confidence interval.
 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 7

and teammates’ displacement), while at the same time attenuating the focus of attention to irre-
levant stimuli (e.g. referees). In addition, Brick et al. (2015) emphasise that imagery training
can increase working memory, since the experience of visual-spatial situations is increased. In
this sense, imagery training might increase the repertoire of game situations, which, in turn,
may in some way potentiate the correct choices in the execution of the pass. In addition, Noël,
Kamp, and Memmert (2015) identified that imagination optimised the anticipatory capacity of
athletes. Thus, imagery training might improve athlete’s ability to anticipate a game situation,
that is, enhance performance in decision-making.
The simulation of a set of volleyball matches can be considered a situation of increased
pressure, perhaps because the athletes were exposed to evaluation criteria or because the athletes
knew they were being filmed. The study by Kinrade et al. (2015) corroborates this, as it revealed
that the decision-making performance of athletes was reduced after exposure to the pressure situ-
ation. In this way, the perception of pressure can lead to increased anxiety. Considering that cog-
nitive anxiety is inversely proportional to sports performance (Patel, Omar, & Terry, 2010), it is
likely that cognitive anxiety negatively influences decision-making performance.
Studies have shown an increase in autonomic nervous system activation during imagery train-
ing (Bray, Graham, & Saville, 2014; Rich, Pfister, Alton, Gerdt, & Baruch, 2016), supporting the
results of the present study. The EG’s heart rate increased during the 24 imagery training sessions,
while the CG showed no significant change in heart rate during the 24 video sessions and a mod-
erate effect size was identified in the comparison between the EG and CG. According to the psy-
choneuromuscular theory (Brick et al., 2015), the creation of mental images can have an effect on
physiological responses like real-life situations, thus explaining the results for the heart rate in the
present study.
Although the experimental design of the present investigation with young volleyball athletes
is novel, the findings should be interpreted with caution, as the research presents limitations,
especially regarding in the lack of control of the technical gestures in the motor execution of
the pass action. Moreover, the findings of the present study cannot be extrapolated to young
male volleyball players in several competitive levels.

Conclusions
The results of the present study allowed the conclusion that the imagery training influenced passing
decision-making of young male volleyball players. The creation of mental images concerning the
execution of the pass during the eight weeks positively affected the decision-making. From a prac-
tical point of view, this research indicates that a cognitive-general imaginary training programme
might optimise the decision-making performance of young volleyball athletes.

ORCID
Leonardo S. Fortes http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0778-769X
Maria E. C. Ferreira http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3294-7560

References
Araújo, D., Davids, K., Diniz, A., Rocha, L., Santos, J. C., Dias, C., & Fernandes, O. (2015). Ecological
dynamics of continuous and categorical decision-making: The regatta start in sailing. European
Journal of Sport Science, 15(3), 195–202. doi:10.1080/17461391.2014.928749
Battaglia, C., D’Artibale, E., Fiorilli, G., Piazza, M., Tsopani, D., Giombini, A., … di Cagno, A. (2014). Use
of video observation and motor imagery on jumping performance in national rhythmic gymnastics ath-
letes. Human Movement Science, 38(2), 225–234. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2014.10.001
8 L.S. Fortes et al.

Bock, O., Schott, N., & Papaxanthis, C. (2015). Motor imagery: Lessons learned in movement science might
be applicable for spaceflight. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 9(1), 1–5.
Bray, S. R., Graham, J. D., & Saville, P. D. (2014). Self-control training leads to enhanced cardiovascular
exercise performance. Journal of Sports Sciences 33(5), 534–543. doi:10.1080/02640414.2014.949830
Brick, N., MacIntyre, T., & Campbell, M. (2015). Metacognitive processes in the self-regulation of perform-
ance in elite endurance runners. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 19(1), 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.
2015.02.003
Costa, G. D. T., Ceccato, J. S., Evangelista, B. F. B., Freire, A. B., Oliveira, A. S., Milistetd, M., …
Ugrinowitsch, H. (2016). Tactic determinants of game practiced by middle attacker in men’s volleyball.
Revista Brasileira de Cineantropometria & Desempenho Humano, 18(3), 371–379. doi:10.5007/1980-
0037.2016v18n3p371
DeVellis, R. F. (2003). Scale development: Theory and applications (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Di Rienzo, F., Blache, Y., Kanthack, T. F. D., Monteil, K., Collet, C., & Guillot, A. (2015). Short-term effects
on integrated motor imagery practice on muscle activation and force performance. Neuroscience, 305(2),
146–156.
Fortes, L. S., Lira, H. A. A. S., Lima, R. C. P., Almeida, S. S., & Ferreira, M. E. C. (2016). Mental training
generates positive effect on competitive anxiety of young swimmers? Revista Brasileira de
Cineantropometria e Desempenho Humano, 18(3), 353–361. doi:10.5007/1980-0037.2016v18n3p353
Freitas, V. H., Nakamura, F. Y., Miloski, B., Samulski, D., & Bara-Filho, M. G. (2014). Sensitivity of phys-
iological and psychological markers to training load intensification in volleyball players. Journal of
Sports Science and Medicine, 13, 571–579.
Gil-Arias, A., Moreno, M. P., García-Mas, A., Moreno, A., García-González, L., & Villar, F. (2016).
Reasoning and action: Implementation of a decision-making program in sport. The Spanish Journal
of Psychology, 19(1), 575. doi:10.1017/sjp.2016.58
Gonzaga, A. S., Albuquerque, M. R., Malloy-Diniz, L. F., Greco, P. J., & Costa, I. T. (2014). Affective
decision-making and tactical behavior of under-15 soccer players. Plos One, 9(6), e101231. doi:10.
1371/journal.pone.0101231
Guillot, A., Di Rienzo, F., Pialoux, V., Simon, G., Skinner, S., & Rogowski, I. (2015). Implementation of
motor imagery during specific aerobic training session in young tennis players. Plos One, 10(11),
e0143331. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0143331
International Society for the Advancement for Kinanthropometry [ISAK] (2013). Homepage: International
standards for anthropometric assessment. Retrieved from http://www.isak.global/
Kanthack, T. F. D., Bigliassi, M., Vieira, L. F., & Altimari, L. R. (2014). Acute effect of motor imagery on
basketball players’ free throw performance and self-efficacy. Revista Brasileira de Cineantropometria &
Desempenho Humano, 16(1), 47–57. doi:10.5007/1980-0037.2014v16n1p47
Kinrade, N. P., Jackson, R. C., & Ashford, K. J. (2015). Reinvestment, task complexity and decision making
under pressure in basketball. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 20, 11–19. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.
2015.03.007
Lopes, M. C., Magalhães, R. T., Diniz, L. B. F., Moreira, J. P. A., & Albuquerque, M. R. (2016). The influ-
ence of technical skills on decision making of novice volleyball players. Revista Brasileira de
Cineantropometria & Desempenho Humano, 18(3), 362–370. doi:10.5007/1980-0037.2016v18n3p362
Memmert, D. (2010). Testing of tactical performance in youth elite soccer. Journal of Sports Science and
Medicine, 9, 199–205.
Memmert, D., & Harvey, S. (2008). The Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI): Some concerns
and solutions for further development. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 27, 220–240. doi:10.
1123/jtpe.27.2.220
Moreno, M. P., Moreno, A., Garcia-Gonzalez, L., Ureña, A., Hernandez, C., & Del Villar, F. (2016). An
intervention basedon video feedback and questioning to improve tactical knowledge in expert
female volleyball players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 122(3), 911–932. doi:10.1177/
0031512516650628
Noël, B., Kamp, J., & Memmert, D. (2015). Implicit goalkeeper influences on goal side selection in repre-
sentative penalty kicking tasks. Plos One, 10(8), e0135423. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0135423.
Patel, D. R., Omar, H., & Terry, M. (2010). Sport-related performance anxiety in young female athletes.
Pediatric Adolescence Gynecology, 23(3), 325–335. doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2010.04.004
Pinto, T. P., Ramos, M. R. M., Lemos, T., Vargas, D. C., & Imbiriba, L. A. (2017). Is heart rate variability
affected by distinct motor imagery strategies? Physiology Behavior, 177, 189–195. doi:10.1016/j.
physbeh.2017.05.004
 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 9

Rhea, M. R. (2004). Determining the magnitude of treatment effects in strength training research through the
use of the effect size. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18, 918–920.
Rich, T. A., Pfister, R., Alton, J., Gerdt, D., & Baruch, M. (2016). Assessment of cardiovascular parameters
during meditation with mental targeting in varsity swimmers. Evidence-Based Complementary and
Alternative Medicine, 1, 1–5. doi:10.1155/2016/7923234
Romeas, T., Guldner, A., & Faubert, J. (2016). 3D-Multiple object tracking training task improves passing
decision-making accuracy in soccer players. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.
psychsport.2015.06.002
Siri, W. E. (1956). The gross composition of the body. In C. A. Tobias & J. H. Lawrence (Eds.), Advances in
biological and medical physics (pp. 239–280). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Slaughter, M. H., Lohman, T. G., Boileau, R., Hoswill, C. A., Stillman, R. J., & Yanloan, M. D. (1988).
Skinfold equations for estimation of body fatness in children and youth. Human Biology, 60(3),
709–723.