See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/23234862

Toxicity of Fatty Acid Salts to German and American Cockroaches

Article  in  Journal of Economic Entomology · September 2008

DOI: 10.1603/0022-0493(2008)101[1384:TOFAST]2.0.CO;2 · Source: PubMed

CITATIONS READS

9 513

3 authors, including:

Roberto M Pereira
University of Florida
217 PUBLICATIONS   3,746 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Pest management industry and mosquito risk mapping View project

Urban Pest Management View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Roberto M Pereira on 21 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 HOUSEHOLD AND STRUCTURAL INSECTS

Toxicity of Fatty Acid Salts to German and American Cockroaches

R. W. BALDWIN,1 P. G. KOEHLER, AND R. M. PEREIRA
Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Building 970, Natural Area Drive,
Gainesville, FL 32611-0620

J. Econ. Entomol. 101(4): 1384Ð1388 (2008)

ABSTRACT The toxicity of fatty acid salts to German, Blattella germanica (L.), and American
cockroaches, Periplaneta americana (L.), was evaluated. Potassium and sodium laurate caused up to
95% mortality of German cockroaches and 100% mortality of American cockroaches. Even-numbered
potassium fatty acid salts, C8ÐC18, were assessed for toxicity at 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 2% concentrations
by a 30-s immersion of cockroaches. The more soluble of the fatty acid salts at 2% concentration caused
65Ð95% mortality of German cockroaches and 100% mortality of American cockroaches. Potassium
oleate, C18, was most toxic to both German (LC50 ⫽ 0.36%) and American (LC50 ⫽ 0.17%) cock-
roaches. Fatty acid salt solutions on a substrate were tested by placing cockroaches in contact with
treated ßoor tiles immediately after application (wet) or after the solutions had dried. Sodium laurate
and potassium caprate caused mortality of German (62 ⫾ 17.4 and 58 ⫾ 12.6%, respectively) and
American cockroaches (52 ⫾ 18.5 and 28 ⫾ 4.9%, respectively) on wet tiles, whereas potassium oleate
caused mortality of German cockroaches (67 ⫾ 14.1%) only. Dry fatty acids caused no mortality among
exposed cockroaches. Fatty acid salt solutions can be effective in killing German and American
cockroaches but only when insects are thoroughly wetted with 1Ð2% fatty acid salt solutions.

KEY WORDS Blattella germanica, Periplaneta americana, low toxic, soap, fatty acid salts

Cockroaches are urban pests that can be difÞcult to
control, especially in environments such as schools,
hospitals, and elder care facilities. Concern over
health implications from the use of residual and broad
insecticidal spray treatments for control of German
cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.), and American
cockroaches, Periplaneta americana (L.), has been the
impetus for research on reduced-risk insecticides. For
the protection of sensitive individuals such as school-
aged children, some school boards have policies that
dictate that even over-the-counter pest control prod-
ucts be applied by a licensed pest control operator.
Therefore, there is a need for a safe alternative, such
as a typical household cleaning solution, that can be
used to quickly kill common pests such as cockroaches
by contact.
Commercially available fatty acid salt (soaps)
blends, such as dishwashing liquids and household
cleaners, have been tested as insecticides and proved
to be effective against pest cockroaches (Baldwin and
Koehler 2007). Abbasi et al. (1984) reported that a 2%
solution of commercial soaps resulted in 100% mor-
tality of American cockroaches. Szumlas (2002) re-
ported an LD50 value of 0.4% dishwashing liquid to
German cockroaches. Besides cockroaches, commer-
cial soaps have proven as effective toxicants on other
hard-bodied insects such as beetles (van der Meulen
1 Corresponding author, e-mail: baldwinr@uß.edu.
and van Leeuwen 1929), bugs (Fulton 1930), crickets
(Abbasi et al. 1984), and ants (R.W.B., unpublished).
Because commercial soap formulations are propri-
etary and may often be changed, it is difÞcult to pre-
dict their toxicity. To quantify the toxicity of fatty
acids and their salts, individual fatty acids and their
salts were tested on soft-bodied aphids (Siegler and
Popenoe 1925, Dills and Menusan 1935, Puritch 1975,
Puritch 1978). The aphid studies showed that the
toxicity of the saturated fatty acids increased as the
chain length increased peaking at C10 and C12 and
then decreased at C14 Ð16 and increased again at both
the saturated and unsaturated C18 chains.
Fatty acids are naturally derived from plant oils and
animal tallow (Puritch 1981). The hydrocarbon chain
of a fatty acid ends with an acidic carboxyl group that
is readily modiÞed in the presence of bases such as
sodium or potassium hydroxide. The addition of a
cation to the fatty acid chain forms a soap salt. This
saponiÞcation process increases the water solubility of
the fatty acid. Although soaps have proven to be toxic
to certain insect pests, their mode(s) of action is not
clear. Several hypotheses on the mode of action of
fatty acid salts include spiracle blockage (Fulton 1930,
Dills and Menusan 1935, Richards and Weygandt 1945,
Abbasi et al. 1984, Ware 1994, Szumlas 2002), and
cuticle disruption leading to dehydration (Olkowski et
al. 1996, Puritch 1981, Ware 1994).
The fatty acids that are most commonly used in soap
production are composed of saturated, straight, even

0022-0493/08/1384Ð1388$04.00/0 䉷 2008 Entomological Society of America

August 2008 BALDWIN ET AL.: TOXICITY OF FATTY ACID SALTS TO COCKROACHES
carbon chains with a monocarboxylic group. With this
in mind, the Þrst objective of this study was to deter-
mine the importance of the cation in the toxicity of
fatty acid salts to two pest cockroach species, B. ger-
manica and P. americana. The second objective was to
conduct structureÐactivity studies to determine which
potassium fatty acid salts, having even numbers of
carbon atoms (C10ÐC18), elicit the most toxicity
against German and American cockroaches. The Þnal
objective of this study was to test for residual toxicity
of the fatty acid salt solutions.
Materials and Methods
Insects. German and American cockroaches were
reared at the University of Florida (Gainesville, FL) in
57-liter plastic tubs. Harborage consisted of rolled
corrugated cardboard for B. germanica and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) tubes for P. americana. Dry food (Lab
Diet 5001 rodent diet, PMI Nutrition International,
Inc., Brentwood, MO) and water were provided ad
libitum. Cockroaches were maintained at 23.6 ⫾ 2.5⬚C,
51 ⫾ 16% RH, and a photoperiod of 12:12 (L:D) h. For
the immersion bioassays, adult males were randomly
selected and removed from the colonies with feath-
erweight forceps. These cockroaches were held for up
to 72 h before the trial in separate 4-liter glass jars with
food, water, and cardboard harborage covered with
cloth held in place by a rubber band. Late instars of
American cockroach nymphs and adult male German
cockroaches were used for the residual toxicity tests.
Treatments. Ten fatty acid salts were tested, includ-
ing potassium caprylate (C8), sodium caprylate (C8),
potassium laurate (C10), sodium laurate (C10), potas-
sium caprate (C12), potassium myristate (C14), potas-
sium palmitate (C16), potassium stearate (C18, satu-
rated), potassium oleate (C18, unsaturated), and
potassium ricinoleate (C18, unsaturated alcohol). So-
dium salts (98 Ð99% purity) were obtained through
Acros Organics (Morris Plains, NJ), and potassium
salts (99 Ð100% purity) were obtained through the
Viva Corporation (Mumbai, India). All tested fatty
acid salts were powders that were creamy white to
white. Fatty acid salt powders were added to warm
deionized water (52⬚C). Fatty acid salt solutions (200
ml each) were prepared by serial dilution at concen-
trations of 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0%. Solutions were
stirred until the fatty acid salts were completely dis-
solved, and then they were cooled to ambient tem-
perature before use in testing. Deionized water was
used as the control, and fresh solutions were prepared
for each replicate.
Immersion Bioassay. The toxicity of individual fatty
acid salts was tested by a modiÞed Cornwell immer-
sion technique against German and American cock-
roaches (Cornwell 1976). The immersion apparatus
was prepared with PVC compression couplets (size
50-2, American Value, Greensboro, NC). The com-
pression gaskets and one couplet nut were discarded,
and the remaining 15-cm tube and couplet nut were
used to form a sieve with tall walls and 6-cm mouth.
The external opening of the remaining couplet nut was
1385
covered with nylon mesh (M-D Building Products,
Greensboro, NC) held in place with hot glue. The
inside surface (⬇3.8 cm) of the PVC shaft end not
covered with the nylon mesh was coated with a 1:1
mixture petroleum jelly/mineral oil to prevent cock-
roaches from escaping. This wide-mouth deep sieve
allowed for easy removal of the test insects after treat-
ment. A separate immersion apparatus was used for
each fatty acid salt to prevent contamination.
Each fatty acid salt concentration and water control
were tested separately against groups of German and
American cockroaches. Four repetitions of Þve Ger-
man cockroaches and Þve repetitions of three Amer-
ican cockroaches were used for each fatty acid soap
concentration. Groups of cockroaches were removed
from their holding containers and placed into the
immersion apparatus. Each immersion apparatus was
then lowered into the reservoir containing the appro-
priate concentration of the fatty acid salt solution.
After a 30-s immersion, each apparatus was raised from
the reservoir and allowed to drain. Cockroaches were
removed, by tapping, to plastic 237-ml observation
containers, and they were supplied with rodent diet
used in rearing and water ad libitum. Knockdown after
30-s immersion and mortality 24 h after immersion
were recorded. Knockdown, evaluated 1 min after
treatment, was deÞned as the inability of the cock-
roach to right itself immediately after exposure. Mor-
tality was deÞned as the cockroach having no response
to probing 24 h after exposure. Each immersion ap-
paratus was triple rinsed with tap water between each
repetition. The experiments tested 10 fatty acid salts
each at Þve concentrations plus a control.
Bioassay of Fatty Acid Salt Residues. Toxicity of the
fatty acid salt residue was tested by exposing cock-
roaches (10 German or Þve American per replicate) to
a treated linoleum ßoor tile. Floor tiles were sprayed
at 3.78 liters/46.5 m2 with a 2% solution of the fatty acid
salt or distilled water. Tiles were divided into four
sections, one wet and one dry section for each species.
Cockroaches were exposed to the tile either immedi-
ately after the spray application (wet) or after a 2.5-h
drying time (dry). Five replicates were prepared for
all treatments and cockroach combinations. Cock-
roaches were held on the tile by an inverted plastic
cup for 24 h. Knockdown and mortality were observed
as described above.
Analysis. Cockroach mortality was adjusted using
AbbottÕs formula (Abbott 1925). KD50, the concen-
tration required to knock down 50% of the test pop-
ulation 1 min after exposure, and LC50, the concen-
tration required to kill 50% of the test population, were
estimated by Probit analysis (SAS Institute 2001). Sig-
niÞcant differences were determined by nonoverlap
of the 95% conÞdence intervals (CI), and Pearson ␹2
values indicated goodness-of-Þt. For soaps whose
KD50 and LC50 values could not be calculated, only
mortality is presented. The persistence of the fatty
acid salts was analyzed by two-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) using soaps and solution condition (wet
and dry) as main effects, followed by means separation
using StudentÐNewmanÐKeuls.
1386 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY Vol. 101, no. 4

Table 1. Toxicity of fatty acid salts to adult male German and American cockroaches

Knockdown Mortality
Species/fatty
No. Ca Slope ⫾ % Dead in Slope ⫾
acid salt % KD50 95% CI ␹2
P % LC50 95% CI ␹2 P
SE 2% dose SE
German cockroach (n ⫽ 100)
Na caprylate 8 10
Na laurate 10 5.0 ⫾ 1.04 0.42 0.34Ð0.52 0.68 0.41 95 5.0 ⫾ 1.04 0.42 0.34Ð0.52 0.68 0.41
K caprylate 8 3.1 ⫾ 0.59 0.85 0.62Ð1.25 1.97 0.16 90 2.6 ⫾ 0.48 0.83 0.60Ð1.28 3.85 0.15
K laurate 10 2.9 ⫾ 0.56 0.55 0.41Ð0.71 3.05 0.22 95 3.1 ⫾ 0.60 0.49 0.36Ð0.63 1.31 0.52
K caprate 12 3.5 ⫾ 0.81 1.15 0.90Ð1.56 1.90 0.17 85 3.4 ⫾ 0.67 1.20 0.94Ð1.63 4.51 0.11
K myristate 14 0.9 ⫾ 0.45 0.56 0.14 0.71 65 1.5 ⫾ 0.68 0.93 0.04 0.84
K palmitate 16 5
K stearate 18s 10
K oleate 18u 2.6 ⫾ 0.53 0.28 0.20Ð0.38 3.09 0.21 90 2.1 ⫾ 0.38 0.36 0.25Ð0.49 2.28 0.52
K ricinoleate 18ua 1.9 ⫾ 0.47 0.86 0.58Ð1.38 1.22 0.54 70 1.7 ⫾ 0.36 0.84 0.59Ð1.39 0.62 0.89
American cockroach (n ⫽ 75)
Na caprylate 8 0
Na laurate 10 3.3 ⫾ 0.83 0.18 0.12Ð0.25 0.59 0.74 100 3.7 ⫾ 0.94 0.18 0.12Ð0.24 0.22 0.90
K caprylate 8 100
K laurate 10 5.4 ⫾ 1.16 0.30 0.24Ð0.38 3.22 0.20 100 5.2 ⫾ 1.13 0.28 0.22Ð0.35 0.86 0.65
K caprate 12 4.5 ⫾ 0.97 0.28 0.22Ð0.36 0.14 0.93 100 4.3 ⫾ 0.90 0.30 0.24Ð0.39 0.38 0.83
K myristate 14 4.1 ⫾ 1.09 0.20 0.15Ð0.26 2.22 0.14 100 4.6 ⫾ 1.16 0.21 0.16Ð0.27 1.66 0.20
K palmitate 16 20
K stearate 18s 13
K oleate 18u 1.4 ⫾ 0.65 0.07 0.00Ð0.17 1.97 0.16 100 2.3 ⫾ 0.92 0.17 0.00Ð0.29 0.21 0.16
K ricinoleate 18ua 4.3 ⫾ 1.30 0.15 0.09Ð0.19 0.34 0.56 100 2.9 ⫾ 0.77 0.17 0.10Ð0.24 0.76 0.68

SigniÞcant differences determined by nonoverlap of the 95% CI (SAS Institute 2001). Potassium myristate had extremely wide CI.
a
Number of carbons; s, saturated; u, unsaturated; ua, unsaturated alcohol.

Results and Discussion tion of potassium caprylate, were not signiÞcantly

Immersion trials resulted in 0% control mortality
except sodium (Na) caprylate, potassium (K) caprate
and potassium oleate treatments with German cock-
roaches (ⱕ5% control mortality). Probit analysis re-
vealed that, within a species, there was no difference
between sodium laurate (P ⫽ 0.41, Germans; P ⫽ 0.90,
Americans) or potassium laurate (P ⫽ 0.52, Germans;
P ⫽ 0.65, Americans). Both the sodium and potassium
laurate treatments were more toxic to American cock-
roaches than to German cockroaches (Table 1). For
American cockroaches, a LC50 value for sodium and
potassium laurate was calculated to be 0.18 and 0.28%
fatty acid salt, respectively. This is approximately half
the concentration required to kill 50% of German
cockroaches (0.42 and 0.49% respectively).
Tests with several of the fatty acid salts including
sodium caprylate, potassium palmitate, and potassium
stearate resulted in a poor Probit model Þt, mostly due
to lack of mortality at concentrations ⬍2%. Because
these soaps are fairly insoluble in water, they readily
precipitated out of solution at concentrations above
2%. Data from these salts are excluded from this sec-
tion.
All immersion tests on German cockroaches with
the remaining fatty acids salts resulted in a range of
65% mortality, with potassium myristate to 95% mor-
tality with potassium laurate at a 2% fatty acid salt.
Tests on American cockroaches resulted in 100% mor-
tality with 2% fatty acid salt. Among the potassium
fatty acid salts, potassium oleate was the most toxic to
both German cockroaches (LC50 ⫽ 0.36%) and Amer-
ican cockroaches (LC50 ⫽ 0.17%). Potassium laurate
was as toxic as potassium oleate to German cock-
roaches. All potassium fatty acid salts, with the excep-
different in toxicity to American cockroaches (Table
1). The high pesticidal activity to American cock-
roaches, 100% mortality at ⬎1% soap concentration,
caused poor Probit model Þt for C8 potassium capry-
late. Potassium ricinoleate, caprate, and caprylate
were all equally toxic to German cockroaches. These
fatty acid salts caused 70 Ð90% cockroach mortality at
the 2% concentration, but they were less toxic than the
potassium oleate or laurate, which caused 89 Ð95%
cockroach mortality at 2% concentration. Although
potassium myristate caused 65% mortality at 2% con-
centration, data for this fatty acid salt did not Þt the
Probit model, having extremely wide conÞdence in-
tervals.
Our results conÞrm previous demonstrations (Ab-
basi et al. 1984 and Szumlas 2002) that commercially
available dishwashing soaps can cause mortality in
German and American cockroaches, but only by di-
rect contact to wet solutions. Our studies also suggest
that, while aiding in solubility, the cation does not play
an important role in toxicity. Potassium fatty acid salts
with 10 Ð18 carbon atoms were equally toxic to Amer-
ican cockroaches. This is unlike the aphid toxicity
reported previously, which peaked with C10 Ð12 fatty
acid salts (Siegler and Popenoe 1925, Dills and Menu-
san 1935, Puritch 1975, Puritch 1978). German cock-
roaches responded differently, with high mortality for
C8-C12 fatty acid salts and then a drop in mortality and
a second peak at C18. These results suggest that fatty
acid salts with chains of 10 Ð12 carbons would be pre-
ferred for killing cockroaches.
Minimal knockdown was observed in the experi-
ment with fatty acid salt residues, and data were not
analyzed. For both cockroach species, the ANOVA
August 2008 BALDWIN ET AL.: TOXICITY OF FATTY ACID SALTS TO COCKROACHES 1387

Fig. 1. Mortality of German cockroaches (A) and American (B) cockroaches exposed to fatty acid salt solutions on ßoor
tiles immediately after application (wet) or after the solutions had dried (dry). The asterisk on top of the bar indicates
treatments that are signiÞcantly different than zero and other treatments within a species.

showed signiÞcant differences among fatty acid salts,
in solution conditions (wet versus dry), and a signif-
icant main effect interaction in mortality at 24 h. How-
ever, no signiÞcant mortality was observed with the
dry treatments. In the dry condition, no mortality was
observed with American cockroaches (all treat-
ments), and a maximum of 6% German cockroach
mortality was observed with potassium palmitate. Sig-
niÞcant differences were only observed when cock-
roaches were exposed to soap solutions before they
dried on the tiles.
On wet tiles treated with fatty acid salt solutions,
exposed cockroaches, especially American cock-
roaches, raised their bodies away from the solutions by
extending their legs in an atypical posture. Under wet
conditions, sodium laurate and potassium caprate
were the only treatments that resulted in mortality of
American cockroaches (52 ⫾ 18.5%, and 28 ⫾ 4.9%,
respectively) that was signiÞcantly greater than zero
and signiÞcantly different from other fatty acid salts
(Fig. 1). For German cockroaches on wet tiles, besides
sodium laurate (62 ⫾ 17.4% mortality) and potassium
caprate (58 ⫾ 12.6% mortality), which caused signif-
icant mortality of American cockroaches, potassium
oleate also caused German cockroach mortality (67 ⫾
14.1%) signiÞcantly greater than zero. Other wet treat-
ments were not signiÞcantly different from zero and
the water control treatment.
Our results demonstrate clearly that there were no
residual effects of fatty acid salts once the solutions
dried. Despite a higher concentration of fatty acid salts
in dry residues, due to water evaporation, the insects
do not acquire a lethal dose of fatty acid salts. The
mode of penetration of fatty acid salts remains un-
known, but lack of toxicity by tarsal contact may sug-
gest that spiracle penetration, as suggested previously,
might be necessary to cause mortality (Fulton 1930,
Dills and Menusan 1935, Richards and Weygandt 1945,
Abbasi et al. 1984, Ware 1994, Szumals 2002). In pre-
liminary experiments, the tracheal system of cock-
roaches treated with dyed soap solutions showed
evidence of soap solution penetration (R.W.B., un-
published).
Pest control strategies must take into consideration
both environmental and health concerns. Increasing
interest in environmentally friendly pest control has
focused some attention on alternatives to traditional
pest management, such as the use of fatty acid salt
solutions. Although the efÞcacy of fatty acid salts is
severely limited, they may be effective when sprayed
directly on foraging cockroaches and cockroach ag-
gregations. Potassium fatty acid salts are generally
1388 JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY
recognized as safe by the Food and Drug Administra-
tion, and they are exempt from the Environmental
Protection Agency tolerances for food and feed crops.
This and the lack of residual activity make fatty acid
salts an attractive pesticide alternative for environ-
mentally sensitive areas such as schools, food handling
services, hospitals, and elder care facilities.
References Cited
Abbasi, S. A., P. C. Nipaney, and R. Soni. 1984. Soap solution
as an environmentally safe pesticide: for household in-
sectsÐa preliminary investigation. Comp. Physiol. Ecol. 9:
46 Ð48.
Abbott, W. S. 1925. A method for computing effectiveness
of an insecticide. J. Econ. Entomol. 18: 265Ð267.
Baldwin, R. W., and P. G. Koehler. 2007. Toxicity of com-
mercially available household cleaners on cockroaches,
Blattella germanica and Periplaneta americana. Fla. Ento-
mol. 90: 703Ð709.
Cornwell, P. B. 1976. The cockroach, vol. 2. Hutchinson,
London, United Kingdom.
Dills, L. E., and H. Menusan. 1935. A study of some fatty
acids and their soaps as contact insecticides. Contrib.
Boyce Thompson Inst. 7: 63Ð82.
Fulton, B. B. 1930. The relation of evaporation to killing
efÞciency of soap solutions on the harlequin bug and
other insects. J. Econ. Entomol. 23: 625Ð630.
View publication stats
Vol. 101, no. 4
Olkowski, W., S. Daar, and H. Olkowski. 1996. Common-
sense pest control. Taunton Press, Newton, CT.
Puritch, G. S. 1981. Pesticidal soaps and adjuvantsÐwhat are
they and how do they work?, pp. 53Ð 67. In Proceedings
of the 23rd annual Lower Mainland Horticultural Im-
provement Association Growers Short Course. LMHIA,
Abbotsford, BC, Canada.
Puritch, G. S. 1978. Biocidal effects of fatty acid salts on
various forest insect pests. The American Oil ChemistsÕ
Society, Champaign, IL.
Puritch, G. S. 1975. The toxic effects of fatty acids and their
salts on the balsam woolly aphid, Adelges picese (Ratz).
Can. J. For. Res. 5: 515Ð522.
Richards, A. G., and J. L. Weygandt. 1945. The selective
penetration of fat solvents into the nervous system of
mosquito larvae. J. N Y Entomol. Soc. 23: 153Ð165.
SAS Institute. 2001. Statistical analysis software program
version 8.2. SAS Institute, Cary, NC.
Siegler, E. H., and C. H. Popenoe. 1925. The fatty acids as
contact insecticides. J. Econ. Entomol. 18: 292Ð299.
Szumlas, D. E. 2002. Behavioral responses and mortality in
German cockroaches (Blattodea: Blattellidae) after ex-
posure to dishwashing liquid. J. Econ. Entomol. 95: 390 Ð
398.
van der Meulen, P. A., and E. R. van Leeuwen. 1929. A study
of the insecticidal properties of soap against the Japanese
beetle. J. Econ. Entomol. 22: 812Ð 814.
Ware, G. W. 1994. The pesticide book. Shepard Poorman
Graphics, Fresno, CA.
Received 10 April 2007; accepted 6 April 2008.