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Carbon and N conservation during composting: A review

Danlian Huang, Lan Gao, Min Cheng, Ming Yan, Gaoxia Zhang,
Sha Chen, Li Du, Guangfu Wang, Ruijin Li, Jiaxi Tao, Wei Zhou,
Lingshi Yin

PII: S0048-9697(22)03452-0
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156355
Reference: STOTEN 156355

To appear in: Science of the Total Environment

Received date: 7 February 2022

Revised date: 26 May 2022
Accepted date: 26 May 2022

Please cite this article as: D. Huang, L. Gao, M. Cheng, et al., Carbon and N conservation
during composting: A review, Science of the Total Environment (2021), https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156355

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© 2022 Published by Elsevier B.V.

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Carbon and N conservation during composting: a review

Danlian Huang a, b,*, Lan Gao a, b, Min Cheng a, b, Ming Yan a, b, Gaoxia Zhang a, b, Sha

Chen a, b, Li Du a, b, Guangfu Wang a, b, Ruijin Li a, b

, Jiaxi Tao a, b
, Wei Zhou a, b
,

Lingshi Yin a, b

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a
College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, PR China

b
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Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education,
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Changsha 410082, PR China
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⃰
Corresponding author at: College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha,
Hunan 410082, PR China.
E-mail address: huangdanlian@hnu.edu.cn (D. Huang).
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Abstract

Composting, as a conventional solid waste treatment method, plays an essential

role in carbon and nitrogen conservation, thereby reducing the loss of nutrients and

energy. However, some carbon- and nitrogen-containing gases are inevitably released

during the process of composting due to the different operating conditions, resulting

in carbon and nitrogen losses. To overcome this obstacle, many researchers have been

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trying to optimize the adjustment parameters and add some amendments (i.e., physical

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amendments, chemical amendments and microbial amendments) to reduce the losses
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and enhance carbon and nitrogen conservation. However, investigation regarding
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mechanisms for the conservation of carbon and nitrogen are limited. Therefore, this
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review summarizes the studies on physical amendments, chemical amendments and

microbial amendments and proposes underlying mechanisms for the enhancement of

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carbon and nitrogen conservation: adsorption or conversion, and also evaluates their
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contribution to the mitigation of the greenhouse effect, providing a theoretical basis

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for subsequent composting-related researchers to better improve carbon and nitrogen

conservation measures. This paper also suggests that: assessing the contribution of

composting as a process to global greenhouse gas mitigation requires a complete life

cycle evaluation of composting. The current lack of compost clinker impact on carbon

and nitrogen sequestration capacity of the application site needs to be explored by

more research workers.

Keywords: Nitrous oxide; Methane; Carbon dioxide; Adsorption; Conversion; Global

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warming

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Content

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1

2 Loss paths for carbon and nitrogen ............................................................................. 4

2.1 Nitrous oxide and Ammonia .......................................................................... 5

2.2 Methane and carbon dioxide........................................................................ 12

3 Enhanced pathways for carbon and nitrogen conservation....................................... 17

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3.1 Organic and inorganic additives: adsorption ............................................... 18
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3.1.1 Inorganic additives............................................................................. 19

3.1.2 Organic additives ............................................................................... 21

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3.2 Inoculation microorganism: conversion ...................................................... 27

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3.3 Physical measures: aeration and turning ..................................................... 30

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4 Contributions to the global warming mitigation ....................................................... 33

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5 Conclusion and outlook ............................................................................................ 36

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Declaration of Competing Interest ............................................................................... 38

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... 38

References .................................................................................................................... 39
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1 Introduction

Nowadays, an increasing amount of solid waste such as livestock feces, sewage

sludge, kitchen garbage, and agriculture feedstocks are generated with growing

demands of industrial and agriculture production. As a result, disposal and storage of

this solid waste require large land resources, and even pose significant environmental

risks via the generation of landfill leachate and emission of greenhouse gases (GHG)

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(Liu et al., 2021a). According to the study from Anshassi et al., (2022), both landfill

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and incineration produced massive amounts of GHGs, moreover, landfill might be a
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larger source of methane emissions than currently incineration recognized Anshassi et
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al., (2022). Incineration of agricultural waste released large amounts of carbon
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dioxide (CO2) (Bhuvaneshwari et al., 2019; Jain et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2021a; Yaman

et al., 2020), and Jain et al., (2014) reported that burning of 98.4 Mt of crop residue
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has resulted in the emission of nearly 8.57 Mt of CO and 141.15 Mt of CO2.

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Livestock feces contain heavy metals, antibiotics, and relative pathogenic bacteria,
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which posing a potential threat to indoor environmental safety and human health

(Abdel-Moein et al., 2017; Lei et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021). And on average,

landfilling and incinerating 1 ton of municipal solid waste produce 1807.0 kg CO2 and

373.3 kg CO2-eq/t (CO2-equivalent/ton) of GHG emissions, respectively (Chen and

Liu, 2021). Composting is a biochemical process that relies on the action of

specialized aerobic bacteria to degrade organic matter (Raklami et al., 2021). More

importantly, composting is an effective carbon and nitrogen conservation process

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(Rahman and Khondaker, 2012) that significantly contributes to the mitigation of the

greenhouse effect. In terms of GHG emission, a life cycle analysis shows that all

compost treatments have a lower global warming potential (GWP) compared to

incineration (Song et al., 2021). The potential of CO2 conservation by composting can

contribute significantly to constraining the growth of GHG emissions and also to

improving compost quality. The loss of CO2 decreased from 542.3% to 148.8% (of

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total carbon) with the addition of bamboo biochar, promoting nutrient conservation in

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the process of composting (Awasthi et al., 2020a).
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It is worth noting that composting process is not zero emissions, but faces a
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tricky challenge that uncontrollable emission of carbon- and nitrogen-containing
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gases (Mayer et al., 2016). Generally, the gases released by composting mainly

contain CO2, methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Among them,
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the production of CO2 was mainly due to the respiration of microorganisms, within
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the composting pile, which use the carbon source as an energy and convert it into CO2.
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Excessive CO2 release can cause loss of carbon from the pile and reduce the fertilizer

efficiency of the compost product. On the other hand, CH4 is produced under the

anaerobic conditions, derived from metabolism of aerobic microbial communities.

Moreover, CH4 is a large contributor to global warming, second only to CO2, but its

GWP is 28 times higher than that of CO2 (Jawad et al., 2021). Another GHG is N2O

generated from incomplete denitrification. Moreover, the total emission of N2O

exceeded the natural nitrogen cycle function, destroying the ozone layer, and causing

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greenhouse effect (IPCC, 2014). Researchers observed that nitrogen deposition would

stimulate the growth of plant, and enhance the storage of carbon in soil (Vigne et al.,

2021). However, the emissions of N2O not only contribute to the loss of nitrogen

during composting but also cause serious pollution to the atmospheric environment

(Piippo et al., 2018). Thus, it is urgent to control the emissions of carbon- and

nitrogen-containing gases during composting. Preble et al. also put forward a

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recommendation: taking measures to alleviate the gases emissions, offering the

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greatest mitigation opportunities for reducing the impacts of composting on the
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climate and air quality (Preble et al., 2020).
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Previous studies showed the production process and different measures on
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controlling gas emissions during composting to further enhance the contribution of

composting for mitigation of the greenhouse effect (Cui et al., 2019; Swati and Hait,
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2018). These measures mainly include the addition of organic and inorganic materials
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(Awasthi et al., 2020a; Fukumoto et al., 2011; Lei et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2019b;
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Yuan et al., 2019), inoculation microorganisms (Jiang et al., 2015a; Zhao et al., 2020)

and physical methods (Maeda et al., 2009). However, relevant reviews with regard to

effectively enhance the carbon and nitrogen sequestration measures and explore

corresponding mechanisms during the process of composting are limited. Therefore,

this review specifically focuses on the study of measures to enhance carbon and

nitrogen conservation in laboratory-scale composting processes, summarizing two

possible mechanisms. The first one is physical adsorption and the other is chemical

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transformation associated with microorganisms. We also highlight the significant role

of composting as a waste management measure in mitigation of the global greenhouse

effect. This review aims to provide scientists and managers with references for further

enhancing carbon and nitrogen conservation during composting and for effective

mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions from composting.

2 Loss paths for carbon and nitrogen

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The production of carbon- and nitrogen-containing gases from composting

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process is inevitable. Understanding the sources, emission patterns and mechanisms
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of gases in the composting process is critical for exploring carbon and nitrogen
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conservation measures. Moreover, only by truly understanding where carbon and
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nitrogen go could we better convert carbon- and nitrogen-containing materials into

target materials and reduce CO2, CH4, NH3, N2 and N2O production. The complete
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oxidative decomposition of carbonaceous OM by the action of microorganisms

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produces CO2 (Swati and Hait, 2018), as well as incomplete decomposition under
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partial anaerobic conditions produced CH4 (He et al., 2018; Ma et al., 2018). During

the processes of composting, the organic nitrogen or non-dissolved nitrogen of the

raw material, such as proteins and amino acids, is degraded by aerobic

microorganisms to dissolved nitrogen, which is eventually degraded to NH4+-N, then

some of the NH4+-N evaporates as NH3 (Koyama et al., 2018; Li et al., 2012; Wang et

al., 2020), some of the NH4+-N experienced incomplete nitrification and

denitrification to produce N2O (Chen et al., 2018). Nitric oxide (NO), a precursor of

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tropospheric ozone, is a greenhouse gas formed by photochemical reactions and plays

a key role in atmospheric chemistry (Williams et al., 1998). Unfortunately, few reports

have measured N2 emissions in composting trials. Angnes et al. reported that N2

emissions were estimated from the difference between TN losses assessed by mass

balance and NH3 and N2O emissions measured from the compost for each sampling

period (Angnes et al., 2013). This is because our current experience in accurately

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measuring nitrogen emissions from composting is very limited. Hence, there is a lack

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of statistics on NO and N2 emissions. Therefore, this paper only made an elaboration
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on the enhancement measures for CH4, CO2, NH3 and N2O. In this section, the
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transformation pathways of C- and N-related gases in the composting process are
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described.

2.1 Nitrous oxide and Ammonia

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N2O is the most prevalent gas produced in composting (Szanto et al., 2007; Yang
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et al., 2020b). More significantly, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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(IPCC) recorded that the GWP of N2O was 298 times higher in a 100-year time frame

than CO2 (IPCC, 2014). Along with the greatest greenhouse impact, understanding its

production during the composting process is particularly important to effectively

control it. Many studies have been done on the release of N2O during composting,

including but not limited to the timing of emissions, related microorganisms and

genes (Chalk and Smith, 2020; Chen et al., 2020a; Huang et al., 2021b; Yang et al.,

2020b; Zhu-Barker et al., 2017). Chen et al. observed that N2O was mainly produced

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during the initial stage of composting, because of the rapid degradation of OM and the

sedimentation of composting raw materials causing a partial anaerobic environment

(Chalk and Smith, 2020; Chen et al., 2020a). Simultaneously N2O production could

also be attributed to denitrification under suitable conditions, such as NOx- (NO2-,

NO3-) cumulation and O2 lack in the initial phase (Zhu-Barker et al., 2017).

Microorganisms associated with gas production were influenced by the composting

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temperature along with composting processing. The results of Guo et al. (Guo et al.,

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2020) showed that the generation of N2O was mainly in the cooling and maturity
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stage during composting, on account of the thermophilic was harmful to the activity
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and subsistence of microbes. We can conclude that the pattern of N2O emission was
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mainly at low temperatures. NH3 was converted by NH4+-N at high temperature (Yang

et al., 2020a), and nitrogen loss was mainly attributed to NH3 volatilization during
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composting process (Dinuccio et al., 2011).

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Mitigation of N2O and NH3 emissions necessarily relies on a keen understanding

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of how microbial processes are controlled in a geochemical context. Fig. 1 described

the routes of N2O and NH3 release. Microorganisms produce NH3 by decomposing

organic nitrogen compounds, which is named ammonification. The microorganisms

involved in ammonification are bacteria and fungi (Shan et al., 2021). Especially,

Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Acremonium, Alternaria and Penicillium express high

ammonifying activity during composting (Jurado et al., 2014). An environment with

high pH, low soluble organic carbon, and a lack of acidic functional groups promotes

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NH3 volatilization because of reduced NH4+ conservation and NH3 adsorption

(Godlewska et al., 2017). Traditionally, nitrogen conversion consists of three

components: ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification (Steiner et al., 2010).

Organic nitrogen degradation, ammonification, and partially releases as ammonia, the

remaining part is subsequently oxidized to nitrate by nitrification. Eventually, some

nitrate is converted to N2 through denitrification, with N2O as an intermediate product

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(Fig. 1). Ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) (Daims et al., 2016; Stein, 2020; Straka

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et al., 2019) and Ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB) mediate the first step of
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nitrification by oxidizing ammonia to nitrite (Daims et al., 2016). Ammonia oxidizing
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bacteria (AOB) are autotrophic bacteria that use ammonia as an electron acceptor and
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nitrite as an electron acceptor to produce N2 under anoxic conditions, and N2O is an

intermediate product of this process. Fig. 1 described the nitrogen transformation

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routes, including biological nitrification in the oxygenated conditions and incomplete

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denitrification process or ammonia incomplete oxidation in the anoxic conditions

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caused N2O emissions (Zheng et al., 2020). Denitrifying bacteria sequentially reduce

NO3- to NO2-, NO, and N2O, and then to N2 under anoxic conditions, which are

catalyzed by Nar, Nir, Nor, and Nos (Fig. 1), respectively (Li et al., 2016). Dissolved

oxygen limitation, nitrite accumulation and oxidation of hydroxylamine were the

three main causes of N2O production. For instance, NH4+-N was converted into N2O

through nitrifiers in an aerobic environment (Liu et al., 2019). Denitrifying bacteria

positively facilitated the conversion of NOx--N to N2O (Liu et al., 2020a). The

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abundant NOx--N came from the raw materials during the initial stage and the

accumulation of nitrification during the cooling stage (Tong et al., 2019), owing to the

low temperature and sufficient oxygen (Liu et al., 2020a). The key is that the

anaerobic environment is not conducive to the retention of N by composting. Wang et

al., (2017b) discovered the existence of anammox bacteria with limited diversity in

cow manure composting. Anammox bacteria use ammonium salts as electron donors

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and nitrite/nitrate as electron acceptors to produce N2. Anaerobic ammonia oxidation

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consumes N in the composting process and is detrimental to the retention of N. Some
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measures should be taken to prevent generating anaerobic zones. However,
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nitrification is the main pathway for N2O production. Nitrification is the main
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pathway for the production of N2O. As uncovered by the study by Song et al., (2019),

nitrification played a dominant role in the production of N2O, in which the proportion
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of N2O emissions increased with the depletion of O2.

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Fig. 1. The conversion of N2O and NH3 during composting.

Note: The blue line in the dashed box indicates the nitrification process. The green

line in the dashed box indicates the denitrification process. Anammox oxidizing

archaea (AOA), ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), ammonia monooxygenase

(AMO), hydroxylamine oxidoreductase (HAO), nitrate reductase (Nar), nitrite

reductase (Nir), nitric oxide reductase (Nor), nitrous oxide reductase (Nos), and nitrite

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oxidoreductase (Nxr).

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Microorganisms were the mainstay of composting, and the transformation of all
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substances primarily depended on the activities of microorganisms (Gong et al., 2017;
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Huang et al., 2016). The structure of microorganism communities in different raw
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materials is not completely consistent. Wei et al (Wei et al., 2018) and Wang et al.

(Wang et al., 2018b) noticed that Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria

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were the dominant flora in pig manure composting. However, Wang et al. (Wang et al.,
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2018a) reported that during cattle manure composting, Proteobacteria and

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Bacteroidetes were the main phyla. Moreover, the microorganisms involved in the

nitrogen conversion, the related functional enzymes and genes have also been

specifically studied. Kuyper et al. (Kuypers et al., 2018) identified that denitrifying

bacteria in composting were composed largely of Proteobacteria and Chloroflexi, and

nitrifying bacteria were composed largely of Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes,

Firmicutes and Actinobacteria. All these were mesophilic microorganisms that

released N2O mainly at low temperatures. Likewise, Tang et al. (Tang et al., 2020)

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proved that the main reason for the N2O release from the electric-field assisted

composting process was nitrification by analyzing the relationship between the

biological nitrogen conversion process and the relevant genes. Ammonia oxidation

was primarily driven by AOB, which had the ability to encode amoA gene presented

in Fig. 1, and was the first and limiting step in the nitrification process (Caceres et al.,

2018). Moreover, methanotrophs oxidized ammonium to N2O under thermophilic

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conditions, since the molecular structures of methane and ammonia were too similar

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(Szanto et al., 2007). The abundance of amoA in AOB was N2O flux closely
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interrelated (Lin et al., 2017). Mounting evidence also confirms the participation of
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ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) in the production of N2O. In contrast, the gene
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abundance of AOA/AOB was necessarily linked to its purported function of

producing N2O. Fig. 2 described five pathways of AOA-driven N2O production

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including bacteria-like NH2OH oxidation (pathway 1), HNO oxidation, NH2OH

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oxidation pathway with NO working as electron redox shuttle, nitrifier denitrification,

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and abiotic reactions (Wu et al., 2020). N2O was formed via a chemical reaction

pathway by putative nitroxyl oxidoreductase (NXOR) (pathway 2). As for pathway 3,

NO may have the function of transferring electrons for AMO activation to produce

NH2OH and generate N2O through NH2OH oxidation. The fourth biotic AOA-driven

N2O production pathway was nitrifier denitrification (pathway 4). The possibility of

abiotic N2O formation via mixing reactions cannot be obviated (pathway 5), as some

researchers even suggested hybrid reaction was the main route for archaeal N2O yield.

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Fig. 2. Five proposed pathways for N2O production by AOA, adapted from Wu

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et al. (Wu et al., 2020).

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Note: Pathways 1-5 represent N2O production via bacteria-like NH2OH oxidation,
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HNO oxidation, NH2OH oxidation pathway with NO working as electron redox
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shuttle, hypothesized nitrifier denitrification, and abiotic reactions, respectively.
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(Abbreviation: AMO, ammonia monooxygenase; Cu-HAO, copper hydroxylamine

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oxidoreductase, Cu-NIR, copper-dependent nitrite reductase; NXOR, putative nitroxyl

oxidoreductase; pcy, plastocyanins; QRED, quinone reductase).

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Denitrification is also a key pathway in releasing N2O, which was a stepwise

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enzymatic reaction of denitrification microbial drive (He et al., 2019a; Maeda et al.,

2010b). The generation of N2O was directly correlated with the abundance and

activity of some genes. Nitrogen functional genes were usually utilized to character

nitrogen-fixing and denitrifier communities (Fig. 1). The first step during the

denitrification was the catalytic reduction process mediated by the napA- encoded

nitrate reductase code (Prieme et al., 2002). The nirK function of archaeal bacteria

was essential for understanding the mechanism of AOA-driven N2O production,

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considering its critical involvement in pathways 3 and 4 in Fig. 2. NirK and nirS

genes were both involved in the second reaction step of the nitrification process, the

reduction of N2O--N to nitric oxide (NO) (Huang et al., 2017). The abundance of

nitrification and denitrification genes was determined by various treatments at

different stages throughout the composting experiment. Among them, the amoA and

nxrA encoded bacterial ammonia monooxygenase and nitrite oxidoreductase,

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respectively, the narG, nirK, nirS, and nosZ encoded membrane-bound nitrate

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reductase, copper nitrite reductase, cd1 nitrite reductase, nitric oxide reductase, and
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nitrous oxide reductase, respectively (Wrage et al., 2001). Both amoA and nxrA
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dominated the nitrification process, and narG, nirS, nirK, and nosZ dominated the
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denitrification process (Jiang et al., 2021; Lei et al., 2021). Denitrification activity

was correlated with the sum of bacterial communities or the abundance of nosZ genes
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and several genetic components of denitrifying bacterial communities (Guo et al.,

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2013). According to the reports, the emission of N2O was positively related to the nirS,
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nirK and nosZ gene diversity in the denitrification bacterial (Lei et al., 2021). Both

narG and nosZ were key genes in mitigating N2O emissions, with the former

transforming NO3--N to nitrogen (N2) (Liu et al., 2019) and the later coding nitrous

oxide reductase catalyzing the reduction of N2O to N2 (Sanford et al., 2012).

2.2 Methane and carbon dioxide

Composting is an aerobic process that releases carbon dioxide, heat and water

vapor into the atmosphere. Conditions that may result in anaerobic sites and release of

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other gases due to inefficiencies in aeration in some methods (Guo et al., 2021; Szanto

et al., 2007). However, these gases are an exception, and if the process is well

conducted, composting releases fewer greenhouse gases than other alternatives for the

treatment of organic waste, such as anaerobic digestion, incineration or landfill

(Wattiaux et al., 2019; Zeman et al., 2002). Recently, researchers have conducted

many studies on which approach to take for this process (Guo et al., 2021; Sun et al.,

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2020).

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During composting, the release of CH4 from composting pile was determined by
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a combination of production and consumption (Fig. 3). CH4 was produced by
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methanogens under rigorous anaerobic conditions and might be generated through
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methanotrophs (Ma et al., 2020). The production of CH4 in composting process was

under local anaerobic conditions and this process was positively correlated with OM
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and temperature, mainly during the thermophilic phase of composting due to O2

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depletion and anaerobic zone formation caused by the high intensity of

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microorganism metabolic activities (Zhou et al., 2022). Microorganisms used OM as a

carbon source to sustain their metabolic activities and converted OM to carbohydrates

and CO2, while the temperature continued to rise throughout the process, and the

rapid biodegradation of organic substances produced an anaerobic zone that promoted

the growth of methanogens and CH4 production. Guo et al., (2021) proved that the

peak of CH4 appeared in the thermophilic stage and also demonstrated that the

emission of CH4 was associated with strong microbial activity and O2 consumption.

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For instance, the emission arrived at the highest values in the mesophilic and

thermophilic stages during kitchen composting (Vergara and Silver, 2019). However,

it had also been shown to produce peaks in the initial stage (Yang et al., 2017), for the

high moisture content and low O2 concentration. Associated with the consumption of

biodegradable substances, CH4 emission from the anaerobic zone decreased sharply to

the level off until the final stage of composting (Sun et al., 2020). The initial phase of

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production was basic and then gradually increased due to microbial activity

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consuming oxygen and producing anaerobic regions.
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Methanogens, a bacterium associated with CH4 production, are the dominant
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archaea, and the methanotrophs consuming CH4 belonged to an archaea or bacteria
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domain (Ma et al., 2020). However, the activity of methanogens was inhabited in the

high concentration of NH4+-N (Li et al., 2020c). Moreover, low pH values prompt the
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conversion of NH3 to NH4+-N (Li et al., 2020c; Pan et al., 2018). Therefore, the low
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pH and high concentration of NH4+ of materials inhabit the rate of CH4 production
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(Wang et al., 2018c; Yang et al., 2015). CH4 was oxidated into CO2 since the

infiltration aids in the decomposition of compost and the establishment of an optimal

functional methanotrophic community in the compost (Lou and Nair, 2009).

Methanobrevibacter, Methanosarcina, and Methanocorpusculum were the three main

bacteria associated with CH4 release during the thermophilic stage. Among them,

Methanocorpusculum facilitated CH4 emission (He et al., 2019b). Methanosarcina

was the main methanogenic organism in the anaerobic fermentation of agricultural

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waste (Zhang et al., 2019b). An enzyme encoded by the mcrA gene in methanogens

increased CH4 emissions during composting (Guo et al., 2021). The mcrA was

positively correlated with CH4 emission, whereas the opposite was true for pomA (Fig.

3). Methanogen/methanotroph was described by mcrA/pmoA (He et al., 2019b), in

agreement with the results, the mcrA gene was significantly and positively associated

with CH4 production (He et al., 2019b; Wang et al., 2019). Guo et al., (2021)

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certificated that the abundance of the mcrA functional gene had a direct and positive

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effect on CH4 emissions by structural equation modeling. What’s more, the nosZ
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activity was also directly correlated with the methane cycle, as some methanotrophs
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produced a copper chelator called methanobactin (DiSpirito et al., 2016). It proved to
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be effective in competing copper out of denitrifying bacteria, thereby increasing the

production of N2O while as well as decreasing CH4 emission (Chang et al., 2018).
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The zeolite, ferrous sulfate and superphosphate caused a clear shift in the abundance
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of dominant methanogens (Peng et al., 2019).

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Fig. 3. CH4 conversation during composting.

Note: mcrA, methyl coenzyme-M reductase gene; pmoA, particulate methane

monooxygenase gene

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CO2 is the most commonly discussed GHG. Although CO2 is an environmental

component of the atmosphere, much of it has been ‘sunk’ or stored over time in the

form of coal and oil deposits, efficiently eliminating CO2 from the current global

biogeochemical cycle (Li et al., 2020d; Liu et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2021b).

Furthermore, the global warming effect caused by CO2 was much lower than that of

CH4 and N2O. The contribution of CO2 released from composting to global warming

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was a little bit, but not without. The production of CO2 during composting was mainly

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due to microbial respiration (Liu et al., 2020a), which used carbon sources as energy
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to transform into CO2. Thus, the emission of CO2 could be used as an indicator of
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characteristic parameters of microbe activity and OM degradation (Liu et al., 2017).
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There were fluctuations in the early part of the composting period and a plateau in the

later part (Tong et al., 2019). With the starting of composting, organic carbon was
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biochemically converted to CO2 (Bai et al., 2020; Vergara and Silver, 2019), which
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was closely correlated with the spatial structure of the composting pile, the
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physicochemical properties of the raw materials, such as C/N and OM content, as well

as the structure of the microbial population and enzymatic activity (Medina et al.,

2020; Vergara and Silver, 2019). Moreover, the fluctuations of CO2 were due to the

appropriate temperature, and the degradation of OM contributed to a rapid increase in

CO2 emission values. The later phase was characterized by a relatively low microbial

activity and a corresponding decrease in CO2 release. CO2 release was positively

correlated with temperature (Guo et al., 2012), because respiration was an aerobic

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respiration process and the accumulation of heat generated by microorganisms

(mineralization or metabolism) increased the temperature of the pile, which was

consistent with the study by Yu et al. (Yu et al., 2020).

3 Enhanced pathways for carbon and nitrogen conservation

Although the control of N2O, CH4 and CO2 from composting contributes to

global warming mitigation, the carbon and nitrogen content of compost is critical to

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the application of compost products (Yang et al., 2020a), so it was necessary to take

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measures to enhance carbon and nitrogen retention. Many studies have emphasized
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variable ways to enhance carbon and nitrogen conservation in composting, including
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the addition of materials (Table 1-3), inoculation with microorganisms (Table 4), and
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aeration or turning of the composting pile (Tang et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2021). Table 1

Table 2 and Table 3 focused on summarizing the measures on the enhancement of

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carbon and N conservation, and reduction mechanisms during composting.

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There had been many studies on enhancing carbon- and nitrogen-containing

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gases and promoting composting efficiency, including the use of various bulking

agents (both organic and inorganic matter), the use of chemical or mineral additives,

and the addition of absorbent materials (Guo et al., 2021; Jiang et al., 2021; Lei et al.,

2021; Yang et al., 2020b). The agents facilitate the improvement of inter-particle

voids in composting materials and adjust the moisture contents, C/N ratio and density

of composting piles. Table 1 and Table 2 list recent studies on carbon and nitrogen

conservation by organic and inorganic additives to the composting process,

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respectively. The changes in physicochemical parameters in the table are not all

factors that directly cause changes in carbonaceous and nitrogenous gases; they are

only a summary of relevant data from the literature to provide a reference for

researchers since composting is a dynamic process and the direct effect of a certain

parameter still needs further study. The correlation between physicochemical

parameters and gas emission showed in Fig. 4. (See section 3.1.2 for specific analysis).

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Enhanced carbon and nitrogen conservation by additives can be broadly classified

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into two mechanisms: physical adsorption (Awasthi et al., 2018; Awasthi et al., 2016;
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Jiang et al., 2016b; Santos et al., 2018) and chemical transformation (Guo et al., 2021;
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Wang et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2020b).
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3.1 Organic and inorganic additives: adsorption

Organic wastes could improve the physicochemical properties of the composting

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pile, promote the growth of microorganisms, enrich its community abundance and
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improve the composting effect (Maulini-Duran et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2019a). For
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example, corn stover as bulking agent creates particle space, provides air space,

improves the aerobic environment and thus can avoid denitrification and reduce N2O

and CH4 release (Li et al., 2020b). The addition of other OM yielded similar results.

During composting of pig manure composting, the spent mushroom substrate

treatment was rich in microorganisms as it further reduced N2O emissions, attributed

to the inhibition of denitrification in the initial stages of composting (Liu et al., 2020b)

(Table 4). Inorganic additives reduce gas release by changing microbial activity or

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through chemical effects. For example, there is a low NH3 cumulative emission,

related to the formation of struvite crystals, since ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N) can

be stored in the form of struvite (Liu et al., 2020b). The addition of Mg and P

promotes the formation of struvite reducing the release of NH3 and confirming that

the combination of chemical struvite crystallization and bioremediation nitrification

works better (Fukumoto et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2016). In this section, we summarize

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the intrinsic mechanisms underlying the effects of inorganic and organic additives on

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compost gas release.

3.1.1 Inorganic additives

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The use of inorganic additives is known to be effective due to their engineering
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utility and relevance to efficient composting processes. Inorganic materials like

zeolite, lime, silicate, phosphogypsum, etc, are the mainly used minerals materials.
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Table 1 showed the effects of inorganic additives on physicochemical parameters and

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carbon and nitrogen conservation capacity during composting. The addition of

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calcium superphosphate inhibited microbial activity with its acidic qualities

(containing H3PO4 and H2SO4) resulting in reducing 34.42% CO2 emission (Zhang et

al., 2017). Phosphogypsum regulated environmental variables, nitrogen functional

genes, and the bacterial community and inhibited the emission of N2O and CO2. The

superphosphate treatment reduced NH3 emissions by expanding the retention capacity

of NH4+ compost and prompting the transportation of NO2- and NO3- (Luo et al.,

2013).

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Clay minerals were receiving increasing attention as compost additives because

of their impact on GHG emissions reduction and their effectiveness in stabilizing

carbon both in composting and soil, leading to cleaner compost production and

potential carbon sequestering agent amendments. The addition of minerals in manure

composting reduced the volatilization of CH4 and N2O, for its large specific surface

area and pore space enriching oxygen flow (Medina et al., 2020; Ren et al., 2019a;

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Ren et al., 2021). But not all mineral additions had a positive effect on GHG control.

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The addition of lignite in cattle pens had been revealed to increase total GHG
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emissions by 2.6 times (Bai et al., 2020). Ren et al. demonstrated that diatomite could
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reduce CH4 release (Ren et al., 2019b), for the characteristics of diatomite could
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provide efficient porosity to restrict the activity of methanogens. The addition of

diatomite similarly reduces N2O release by different mechanisms, which is caused by

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nitrification promotion due to the specific huge area and porosity of diatomite (Ren et
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al., 2019b). Similarly, the porous microstructure of zeolite reduces CO2 emissions
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(Wang et al., 2018c). The addition of MnO2 compounds not only accelerated the

conversion of glucose derivatives to substrates of the tricarboxylic acid cycle via the

shikimate pathway during chicken manure and rice straw composting, increasing CO2

production (Chen et al., 2020b; Chen et al., 2019), increasing the loss of N.

Materials possessing rich porous structure, could strengthen the nitrification and

reduce N2O production by providing a favorable aerobic environment for the

proliferation of nitrifying bacteria (Li et al., 2020a), and decrease the mcrA gene

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abundance, the abundance of methanogens in the genus level, and the active bacteria

of functional enzymes associated with CH4 production (Jiang et al., 2019).

Nevertheless, the addition of lignite excessed CH4 and N2O emission, as the high

labile carbon contents of lignite promoted the high CO2 fluxes and increased anerobic

conditions in the composting (Bai et al., 2020). However, the mechanism of inorganic

substances’ affection for microorganisms is still not completely clear.

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3.1.2 Organic additives
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Firstly, the physical effects of mature compost mulching were studied to reduce
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the surface permeability of the pile (Maeda et al., 2010a; Maeda et al., 2009),
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preventing NH3 volatilization in the physical barrier. The effects of mulching and

mixing of mature compost were later studied (Luo et al., 2014) and showed that the
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effects of mulching and mixing on gas release were almost identical, even high
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temperature and appropriate pH prompting NH3 volatilization. Given the operational

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convenience in practice, covering mature compost to enhance carbon conservation

and nitrogen is more appropriate. There were also studies on the effect of

microplastics on carbon and nitrogen loss (Huang et al., 2021a; Sun et al., 2020; Sun

et al., 2021; Wei et al., 2019a; Wei et al., 2019b; Yin et al., 2021a; Yin et al., 2021b;

Yin et al., 2022). The results indicated that the effects of microplastics on GHG

emissions were related to their sources, concentrations and effect on microorganisms.

But there was no direct evidence to prove the mechanism of microplastic on GHG

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emission, which demands further research to explore. The variability in the gas

release was mainly due to the initial physicochemical properties and the influence of

the added substances on the pile, as well as the associated microbial abundance and

activity. Alterations to physicochemical properties ultimately induced changes in the

structure and activity of the associated microbial communities, resulting in changes in

GHG emission. The hydrothermal pretreatment of raw materials was beneficial to

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produce compost with less phytotoxicity (Yu et al., 2022; Zainul Kamal et al., 2022;

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Zhang et al., 2019a). The proper management practices could reduce GHG emissions
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(Lin et al., 2018; Mihai and Ingrao, 2018; Tognetti et al., 2008). Hence, standard
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management should be conducted to improve precision control and optimization, and
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pollution control. There are still gaps in how and to what extent the addition of

organic waste affects the physicochemical properties and microorganisms of the

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compost. We conducted correlation analysis on physical and chemical parameters and

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gas release, and discussed the effects of the original C/N, MC, pH and composting
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cycle on the release of four types of gas, as shown in Fig. 4. CH4 emission is

positively correlated with raw C/N, while N2O is negatively correlated with it. The

amount of N2O released shows a significantly positive correlation with the initial pH

of the compost, the compost cycle and the initial C/N ratio. NH3 is positively

correlated with the original pH and compost cycle, while negatively correlated with

C/N and moisture content.

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Fig. 4 Redundancy analysis (RDA) of physicochemical parameters and a) CH4,

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CO2; b) NH3, N2O emissions during composting.
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Previous researches have proved that the application of biochar is of great
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importance for the mitigation of gaseous in manure composting because biochar has
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intrinsic and nascent structural and sorption properties (the flourishing

oxygen-containing functional groups, adsorb-ability, porous structure and thriving

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surface area) those can change the physicochemical properties of composting

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mixtures, thereby affecting GHG production (Wang et al., 2017a; Zhang et al., 2019c),
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(He et al., 2018). Biochar processed oxygen-containing functional groups, specific

surface area and porous structure, the characteristics mentioned above were conducive

to enhancing aeration and microbial activity and beneficial for carbon and nitrogen

conservation (Mao et al., 2019). The addition of biochar minimized NH3 volatilization

by adsorbing precursors such as NH4+, urea, and uric acid (Steiner et al., 2010).

Biochar was also used for heavy metals remediation with physicochemical and

structure advantages (Deng et al., 2020a; Deng et al., 2020b; Deng et al., 2020c;

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Huang et al., 2019). The large surface area and permeable pores of organic waste

facilitated oxygen supply to the composting material, ensured an aerobic environment

and enriched the bacterial communities. However, dissimilar types of biochar have

distinct efficiency in the production of GHG. The difference in raw materials makes

the properties of the obtained biochar vary significantly. Compared with straw biochar,

bamboo biochar owed a higher pore volume and more aerobic microenvironment in

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composting, which was favorable to reducing GHG emissions (He et al., 2019c). Fig.

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5 pictured the influence of bamboo biochar on mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.
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Different doses also have different effects, Awasthi et al., (2020b) found that 10%
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bamboo biochar exhibited a positive impact on GHG emission reduction.
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Above mentioned studies stopped at the effect of biochar on the physical

properties of the pile, such as adsorption capacity, with little attention to the effect on
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microorganisms. However, Wang et al. explored biochar amendment altered the

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abundance of denitrifying bacteria significantly, less N2O producing and more

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N2O-consuming bacteria (Wang et al., 2013). The addition of biochar can adjust the

abundance of nirS and nirK genes related to N2O emissions (Bian et al., 2017) and

also precisely increase the activity of some functional enzymes (Ma et al., 2019).

Biochar enlarged the porosity of the pile, strengthened the ventilation of the pile

and affected the microorganism. Its porous nature increased the aerobic zone, shrunk

the anaerobic zone, and inhibited the activity of methanogenic bacteria (Zhang et al.,

2020). Biochar reduced the mcrA/pmoA ratio and increased the diversity of Bacteria

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and Archaea (He et al., 2018), resulting in less CH4 emission. Enlarge porosity of

biochar can assimilate NH4+ and NH3 and enhance oxygen flow (Yang et al., 2020a).

However, although biochar can enhance the retention of carbon and N significantly,

what we have to consider in the process of large-scale composting is the economic

cost and environmental benefits. It is suggested that future studies can include an

assessment parameter, the economic cost of each raw material. Meanwhile, a life

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cycle evaluation of biochar application in composting can be established to better

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discuss the feasibility of biochar in composting to reduce GHG emissions and provide
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a practical and solid reference base for large-scale composting.
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Fig. 5. Influence of biochar on mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Image

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adapted from Awasthi et al. (Awasthi et al., 2020a).

Moreover, compared to the addition of biochar or zeolite alone, the combined

use of biochar and zeolite in the composting of pig manure with wheat straw resulted

in better nitrogen retention and a 78.13% reduction in N2O emissions (Wang et al.,

2017a). The biochar amended with lime amendment reduced the N2O emission by

increasing the adsorption of ammonium ions (Awasthi et al., 2016) (Table 3). The

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lab-scale composting experiments with 2.5% biochar + 2.5% montmorillonite showed

that bioavailable organic N was increased by altering key bacterial communities and

environmental factors during composting (Fig. 6), however, adding biochar (5%) or

montmorillonite (5%) alone did not have this effect (Zhu et al., 2019). Combined use

of struvite crystallization and nitrification inhibitor (50 mg kg-1) could reduce the N2O

emission by 76.1–77.6%, much higher than struvite crystallization alone treatment

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group (Jiang et al., 2016a). The addition of red mud and fly ash decreased CO2

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emission compared to red mud, fly ash and worms (Barthod et al., 2018). Also, the
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combination of mineral and chemical additives alleviated the GWP. These studies
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demonstrated that the interplay of microorganisms and materials provided a new
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insight and an economical and environmentally friendly strategy to further control the

release of carbon- and nitrogen-containing gases from composting processes.

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Fig. 6. Biochar, montmorillonite and their mixture on nitrogen availability and

nitrogen loss during chicken manure composting. Image adapted from Zhu et al. (Zhu

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et al., 2019).

Note: M: montmorillonite, BC: biochar, BCM: biochar + montmorillonite, OM:

organic matter, MC: moisture content, BON: bioavailable organic N, AN: amino acid

N, ASN: amino sugar N, AAN: amine N.

3.2 Inoculation microorganism: conversion

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Compost maturation is a microbially-driven physiological and biochemical

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process in which compost is mineralized, decomposed, and made harmless by
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microbial metabolism and transformed into mature organic-amendments. During this
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period, the role of microorganisms is to decompose OM and accelerate the material
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cycle. Traditional composting has long fermentation cycles, nutrient losses, and GHG

emissions. The addition of microorganisms in the composting process can make up

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for the shortcomings of traditional composting and improve the quality and efficacy
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of the compost as an effective method. In recent years, there have been great progress
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in the main microbial groups in composting process and their succession rules, the

role and function of exogenous microbial additions, especially in carbon and nitrogen

conservation in the last few years. Almost importantly, exogenous microorganisms

have garnered many discussions for their positive impact on compost quality and

carbon- and nitrogen-containing gases emission. Inoculation of microorganisms is an

interesting strategy that is considered a clean and effective way to enhance carbon and

nitrogen conservation during the composting process. Relevant studies have shown

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that exogenous additives such as microbiological agents can efficiently mitigate and

alleviate carbon- and nitrogen-containing gases emissions during composting process.

It displays important practical significance for optimizing composting and controlling

environmental pollution.

Chen et al. (Chen et al., 2020a) covered that the integration of chicken manure

and microbial consortium as amendments were evaluated on decline of carbon- and

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nitrogen-containing gases emissions during composting (Table 4). Nitrification was an

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essential step in speeding up the conversion of ammonium nitrogen to nitrite and

nitrate, which inhabited N2O

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emissions. For instance, inoculation of
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lignocellulose-degrading microorganisms, during swine manure and spent mushroom
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substrate co-composting, could reduce N2O emission for being transformed into

NO3--N (Hu et al., 2019) (Table 4). Further studies proposed that
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lignocellulose-degrading microorganisms suppressed the nitrogen functional genes, as

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well as denitrifying bacterial communities. A study showed that the abundance of

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genes mediated by lignocellulose-degrading microorganisms was significantly and

positively correlated with N2O emissions, such as nitrifying (bacteria amoA) and

denitrifying (nirS, nirK, and nosZ) genes during composting (Yu et al., 2020), and

nitrogen-retaining microbial agents (Zeng et al., 2014). Nitrifying bacteria and

ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA), which promote nitrification, are able to

efficiently shrink the production of nitrous oxide during the composting process. The

inoculation of AOB bacteria during rice straw and chicken manure co-composting had

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a beneficial effect on the diversity and succession of bacterial communities, thus

changing the physicochemical parameters and reducing N2O emissions (Zhang et al.,

2016). Composting of poultry feces via supplementation with AOA reduced N2O by 4%

more than control treatment (without AOA) (Xie et al., 2012). In general, direct

carbon- and nitrogen-containing gases emissions from the fly larvae treatment process

were extremely small, with emissions of GHG equivalent to 0.38 kg CO2-eq/t food

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waste treated assuming GWP over 100 years (Ermolaev et al., 2019). The emission of

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N2O from pig manure composting was related to the nitrite (NO2-) accumulation in
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the composting material. Some researchers had demonstrated that the addition of
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nitrite oxidizing bacteria to laboratory-scale composting experiments could effectively
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inhibit the accumulation of NO2- (Yasuyuki et al., 2006).

Recently, inoculation of composting materials with single microorganisms alone

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or microbial consortia has been mainly aimed at enhancing the overall microbial
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quantities and their enzymatic activities to control GHG production and release
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sequentially. However, during the composting process, pH, moisture and bulk density

of composting mass will immediately affect the evolution of the whole microorganism.

As a result, large anaerobic pockets were formed in the compost pile, resulting in CH4

and N2O emissions during the composting process, releasing more GHG and

potentially making the compost pile fail. Therefore, the combination of materials and

microorganisms with each other was of greater benefit in reducing GHG emissions, as

the combination of biochar and microbial consortium amendment. In the above case,

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the addition of biochar improved the porosity, buffering capacity and C/N ratio of the

compost, and at the same time played an avital role in improving gas adsorption

capacity and microbial diversity, but cut nutrients content during the composting

process. But there were a few articles that investigated the effects of microbial and

material combinations on GHG emission during composting. For instance, the

addition of bamboo charcoal biochar and bacterial powder to the pig manure

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composting process decreased the peak values of N2O emissions, instead of bamboo

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charcoal biochar alone (Mao et al., 2018). Because the combination of biochar with
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microbial or mineral materials could alleviate the high electrical conductivity of
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compost products. This was attributed to the high concentration of salt ions
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transported by mineral materials by virtue of their large specific surface area and

ability to adsorb salt ions. The results showed that the integration use of biochar and
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bacterial consortium significantly reduced GHG emissions, improved carbon and

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nitrogen conservation and accelerate maturity of composting (Duan et al., 2019).

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3.3 Physical measures: aeration and turning

In addition to additives, physical controls can be implemented: aeration and

turning of the composting pile to control GHG emissions. The physicochemical

properties of the pile, including oxygen content, temperature (mainly heat dissipation)

and water content, are changed by aeration and turning. Moreover, aeration not only

provides oxygen to facilitate the metabolism of microorganisms, but also makes

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influences on compost maturity. Compost stability is influenced by the aeration rate

referring to the microbial activity, which can be expressed by the conversion of

various chemical species in the composted OM. GHG emissions are closely related to

aeration volume, aeration frequency aeration time, and turning frequencies. Low

frequency aeration caused high CH4 and N2O emissions during pilot-scale pig feces

composting (Jiang et al., 2015b). High aeration rates inhabited GHG emissions during

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pig manure composting (Zeng et al., 2018). Jiang et al. (Jiang et al., 2015b) also

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revealed that intermittent oxygenation was more effective in reducing GHG emissions
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than continuous oxygenation, but too long intermittent oxygenation reduced the
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oxygen supply and led to anaerobic zone emergence. This claim was refuted by Yuan
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et al. (Yuan et al., 2019), who reported that intermittent aeration increased GHG

emissions caused by the reduction of oxygen supply. On the other hand, one study
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found that turning manure piles could increase N2O emissions compared to the
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non-turning treatments because the oxygen supply from turning treatments was more
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efficient and suitable for N2O production (Jiang et al., 2015b). However, some studies

covered that compared to static treatment, turning decreased N2O and CH4 emissions

(He et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2020). Some studies had uncovered that in the

composting of various wastes, turning instead increased the release of GHG, on

account that turning was more conducive to the diffusion of gases to the surface

(Andersen et al., 2010; Guo et al., 2012; He et al., 2001; Ma et al., 2020). Andersen et

al., (2010) reported higher CH4 emissions from home composts attributed to the

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instantaneous release of captured CH4. However, no single aeration solution or

additive could be found to completely reduce GHG emissions in the composting

process, and a combination of them was needed to enhance the effect. A combination

of aeration and pile turning could better control GHG release during large-scale

trough composting (He et al., 2020). Therefore, aeration and pile turning effectively

controlled the oxygen content of the pile, promoted microbial metabolism, improved

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the microbial community structure, as well as reduced the effect of GHG emissions.

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The addition of inorganic chemicals could reduce the economic efficiency of the
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compost product and cause deterioration of soil physicochemical properties in the
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long-term use. Organic wastes, the addition of biochar or the inoculation of
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exogenous microorganisms had some drawbacks, but the effective combination of

OM and exogenous microorganisms effectively controlled the loss of carbon and

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nitrogen from composting.

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The correlation between CH4, N2O and NH3 release is discussed. The emission
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of CH4 is positively correlated with N2O and negatively correlated with NH3 (Fig. 7).

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Fig. 7 The correlation of emission between CH4, N2O and NH3 during composting.

4 Contributions to the global warming mitigation

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During composting, the main GHG that contributed to global warming are CH4
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and N2O. Here, CO2 was not taken into account in its contribution to global warming
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since its emissions in composting derived from the OM biodegradation, whose carbon

had a biogenic origin. Therefore, Table 5 mainly shows the data mainly for N2O and

CH4, and only partially for NH3 and CO2. Researches showed that the addition of

biochar decreased the GHG emissions of the whole process of cattle slurry/hen

manure composting (Chowdhury et al., 2014), with 183 kg CO2-eq/t GHG emission

from the control, while the experimental group reduced to 50 and 63 kg CO2-eq/t

(Table 5), respectively. The main measures of composting process in terms of aerial

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GHG and their control effects are listed in Table 5. The statistical results showed that

biochar in combination with other measures further enhanced the conservation of C

and N and reduced GHG emissions. Table 5 includes physical and chemical methods,

the addition of organic and inorganic materials, inoculation of microorganisms, etc.,

and the corresponding GHG reductions for reference.

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From the current review, it has been determined that GHG releases can be

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effectively reduced by the addition of materials (OM, biochar, minerals, inorganic
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substance), microorganisms, or a combination of both (Fig. 8). Physical means of
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aeration (continuous and/or intermittent forced aeration) can reduce GHG through the
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temperature and moisture content in the compost pile (Table 5). Similarly, regular

turning of the pile not only maintains aerobic conditions, but also stimulates aerobic
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microorganisms, thereby reducing CH4 and N2O emissions.

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Fig. 8. The mitigation measures of composting on slowing global warming.

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LCAs are used to determine the cost associated with alternative systems and

various environmental trade-offs to improve environmental sustainability. This section

only presents one need: it further explores whether and to what extent the application

of composting products leads to the release of new greenhouse gases into the

environment by examining and discussing the release of compost gases from existing

organic waste treatment and disposal. In this regard, it has been proved that

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composting reduces GHG release by -41 kg CO2-eq per ton of raw organic waste, and

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-36 to -2 kg CO2-eq per ton compared to landfill and anaerobic digestion, respectively
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(Nordahl et al., 2020). It has been demonstrated that LCAs are sufficient to determine
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that composting was environmentally preferable to either waste-to-energy or landfill
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in terms of climate change impacts (Morris et al., 2013). Moreover, the emission

reduction benefits of applying compost to non-amended soils were attributed to

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reduced fertilizer use, reduced herbicide use and reduced soil erosion, which were
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used to quantify GHG emissions (Saer et al., 2013). More importantly, the application
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of mature compost to soils may result in improved soil properties, carbon

sequestration, increased microbial activity, reduced soil management and maintenance,

reduced nutrient loss, reduced eutrophication of waterways, etc. (Stamou and

Antizar-Ladislao, 2016). However, the contribution of compost application to the net

effect of soil carbon on GHG control in the life cycle of composting was not well

understood (Nordahl et al., 2020). Further research and reviews are still needed to

clearly determine the contribution of compost product application stages to the

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greenhouse effect.

5 Conclusion and outlook

Over the past decades, the increasing number of studies on carbon and nitrogen

conservation during composting has provided a solid basis for reducing compost gas

release. The addition of organic-inorganic materials and microbial inoculation has

brought more inspiration to enhance carbon and nitrogen conservation in compost. In

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this review, some recent advances in enhancing carbon and nitrogen conservation in

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laboratory-scale composting are systematically described, including the addition of
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diverse materials, inoculation with microorganisms, and aeration and turning, which
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are effective in reducing carbon and nitrogen losses during composting of agricultural
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and livestock wastes and also mitigating the greenhouse effect. Among the possible

mechanisms are mainly: i) physical adsorption of materials and ii) the addition of
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materials or inoculation of microorganisms to change the physicochemical parameters

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and microbial community of the pile leading to a restricted pathway of corresponding

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gas transformation. However, it is worth noting that the addition of both organic and

inorganic materials can bring new problems while effectively reducing carbon and

nitrogen losses. For example, due to the amendments’ non-reusable nature, they can

cause secondary contamination and may lead to long-term effects on soil

physicochemical properties. In addition, the addition of exogenous microorganisms is

more likely to be influenced by the indigenous microorganisms in the feedstock.

Based on the above review of the pros and cons of various measures, further

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research should be conducted on composting to improve the precise control and

optimization of carbon and nitrogen conservation. When considering how to better

control composting with respect to that conservation, future research should focus

more on the following aspects:

1) Composting as a solid waste treatment method has a good effect of carbon and

nitrogen conservation and contributes to the mitigation of the greenhouse effect, but

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these existing research measures only stay in the laboratory stage. Whether the

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amendments can be used in practical production applications still requires large-scale

experimental research.
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2) At the same time, there are many hot spots after the compost products applied
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to the remediation of polluted sites or soil conditioners. Whether the original fixed

carbon and nitrogen will be completely released and whether the carbon and nitrogen
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conservation ability of the application sites will be promoted or inhibited. There is a

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lack of large amount of experimental data to prove, and researchers need to further
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explore and quantify.

3) There is also a lack of life cycle perspective on the carbon and nitrogen

conservation effects of solid waste composting treatment and disposal.

4) Finally, a set of standards for the production and use of additives should be

developed to reduce GHG emissions during composting.

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Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or

personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this

paper.

Acknowledgements

This study was financially supported by the Program for the National Natural

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Science Foundation of China [grant number 51879101, 51579098, 51779090,

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51709101, 51521006, 51809090，51809293, 51909084, 52109083]; the National
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Program for Support of Top-Notch Young Professionals of China (2014); the National
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Innovative Talent Promotion Program of China (2021); the Program for Changjiang
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Scholars and Innovative Research Team in University (IRT-13R17); Hunan Provincial

Science and Technology Plan Project (2018SK20410); the Science and Technology
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Innovation Program of Hunan Province (2020RC4014); the Natural Science

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Foundation of Hunan Province, China (2020JJ5069), and the Fundamental Research

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Funds for the Central Universities [grant number 531118010247].

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Author Contributions Statement

Huang Danlian: Conceptualization, Writing - Review & Editing, Supervision,

Project administration, Funding acquisition.

Gao Lan: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing - Original

Draft, Writing - Review & Editing.

of
Cheng Min: Writing - Review & Editing, Funding acquisition.

ro
Yan Ming: Writing - Review & Editing, Project administration.
-p
Zhang Gaoxia: Conceptualization, Investigation.
re
Chen Sha: Conceptualization, Investigation.
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Du Li: Conceptualization, Investigation.

Wang Guangfu: Conceptualization, Investigation.

na

Li Ruijin: Conceptualization, Investigation.

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Tao Jiaxi: Conceptualization, Investigation.

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Zhou Wei: Conceptualization, Investigation.

Yin Lingshi: Methodology, Writing - Review & Editing

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Table 1 The effects of inorganic additives on physicochemical parameters and carbon and nitrogen conservation capacity during composting.

Composting Additives Physicochemical parameters Results Reduction mechanisms Reference

raw materials Inorganic T pH Moisture Oxygen

o f
r o
p
additives content content

Swine manure Mg and P ↓ ↓

e -
↓NO, ↓N2O, Chemical transformation: (Fukumoto et

P r ↓NH3 prompt NO3- accumulation al., 2011)

a l
n
and the struvite formation.

Pig manure Superphosphate ↓

u r ↓NH3, ↓N2O, Enlarge NH4+ retention (Luo et al.,

J o ↓CH4 capacity and prompt the 2013)

transportation of NO2- and

NO3-.

Kitchen waste Phosphogypsum ↓ ↓CH4， ↑N2O, Increase the rate (Yang et al.,
 Journal Pre-proof

and superphosphate ↑NH3 of CH4 oxidation. 2015)

Sewage Zeolite and lime ↑ ↑ ↓CH4，↓CO2， Prompt ammonia oxidation, (Awasthi et

sludge ↓N2O, ↓NH3

o f enhance aeration. al., 2016)

Food waste Zeolite buffering ↓NH3

r o Decrease pH to prevent NH3 (Chan et al.,

function
- p emission. 2016)

Food waste Lime ↓

r e ↓NH3 Buffer the pH. (Wang et al.,

l P 2016)

a
Pig manure Calcium

u
↓
rn ↓CH4，↓CO2， High content of NH3 and (Zhang et al.,

superphosphate

Jo NH4+, which inhabit

methanogens activity.
2017)

Sewage Acidic additives ↓N2O, ↓NH3 Low pH value. (Pan et al.,

sludge 2018)
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Agro-food Lignocellulosic ↓NH3, ↓CH4， Higher C/N ratios and (Santos et al.,

wastes phenolic ↓N2O, ↓NO lignocellulose contents. 2018)

compounds

o f
Chicken Zeolite ↓CH4，↓CO2，

r o Shift in the abundance of (Peng et al.,

manure superphosphate
- p
↓N2O dominant methanogens. 2019)

Pig manure Diatomite

r e ↓CH4，↓N2O Increase NO3--N information. (Ren et al.,

and sawdust
l P 2019)

a
Cattle manure Lignite

u rn ↓NH3，↑N2O, Biological immobilization of (Bai et al.,

Jo ↑CH4 NH4+. Develop anaerobic

conditions.
2020)

Sewage MaC and FS ↓ ↓CH4，↑CO2， Lower matrix pH. (Li et al.,

sludge ↑N2O, ↓NH3 2020)

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composting

Pig manure Fine coal ↑ ↓CH4，↓N2O, Adsorb NH4+-N and NH3 (Liu et al.,

gasification slag ↓NH3

o f
(reduce NH3). High porosity 2020)

r o and large specific surface

- p area (reduce CH4).

Chicken Chicken manure

r e ↓CH4，↓N2O, Adsorption of NH3, and (Chen et al.,

manure biochar
l P ↓NH3 increase pH. 2020)

a
Fresh cow PVC ↓

u rn ↓CH4，↓N2O, Adsorption of NH4+, and (Sun et al.,

manure

Fresh cow PE, PHA J o ↓

↓NH3

↑CH4，↑N2O,
reduction of O2.

Adsorption of NH4+, and

2020)

(Sun et al.,

manure ↑NH3 reduction of O2. 2020)

Note: ↑: increase; ↓: decrease; magnesium chloride (MaC) and ferrous sulfate (FS); Polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and
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polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA).

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Table 2 The effects of organic additives and initial physicochemical parameters on carbon and nitrogen conservation capacity during

composting.

Composting raw Additives Physicochemical parameters Results

o f
Reduction mechanisms Reference

materials Organic C/N pH Moisture Oxygen content

r o
additives content
- p
Cow excrement Covered 22.2 7.9
r e
Reduce pile ↓NH3 Physical barrier. (Maeda et al.,

l P
a
and dried grass mature compost surface 2009)

u rn permeability

Poultry litter pine chips

biochar J o
↑17.5 ↑8.55 ↓ ↓NH3 Adsorption of NH4+. (Steiner et al.,

2010)

Pig manure Biochar ↑ ↓ ↓N2O Decrease the abundance (Wang et al.,

of denitrifying bacteria. 2013)

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Cattle slurry and Biochar 17.4 9.1 66% ↓ ↓CH4， Adsorption of NH4+. (Chowdhury et

hen manure ↓CO2， al., 2014)

↓N2O,

o f
o
↓NH3

r
Pig manure Cover manure 7.5 ↑
- p
↓CH4， High temperature, (Luo et al.,

compost
r e ↓N2O, appropriate pH. 2014)

l P ↑NH3

a
Poultry manure Biochar 8.26 9.09

u rn ↑ No effect. (Sanchez-Garcia

and barley straw

Dewatered fresh Biochar J o

11.78 ↑7.72 ↓39% ↓CH4， Increased the adsorption
et al., 2015)

(Awasthi et al.,

sewage sludge ↓N2O, of NH4+, decrease nitrate 2016)

↓NH3 concentration.
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Sewage sludge Sucrose ↓6.3 ↓NH3 Abundant carbon sources, (Meng et al.,

prompt NH4+ oxidation. 2016)

Sewage sludge Sucrose ↓NH3

o f
Abundant carbon source, (Li et al., 2017)

r o enhance ammonia

- p assimilation.

Pig manure/wheat Biochar 15 60%

r↑ e ↓CH4 Biochar benefits to (He et al., 2018)

straw
l P aerobic conditions.

a
Pig manure and Diatomite 7.61

u rn ↓CH4， Increase NO3--N (Ren et al.,

sawdust

Chicken manure Biochar and J

25
o 60%
↓N2O

↓N2O,
information.

Direct adsorption.
2019)

(Zhu et al.,

↓NH3 2019)

montmorillonite
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Chicken manure Microbial 26 7.44 60% ↓CH4， Adsorption of NH3, and (Chen et al.,

culture ↓N2O, increase pH. 2020)

and biochar ↓NH3

o f
Fresh pig manure Biochar 26 60%

r o
↓CO2, Low organic matter. (Yang et al.,

- p↓N2O, Assimilate NH4+ and NH3. 2020a)

r e ↓NH3

Fresh pig manure Biochar 24.5 ↓6.85 60%

l P ↓N2O, Increase the abundance of (Yang et al.,

a
and bean dregs

u rn ↓NH3 AOB amoA gene, 2020b)

J o decrease the abundance of

nirS.

Fresh pig manure Bamboo 22.9 6.70 60% ↓CH4， Reduce the abundance of (Guo et al.,

and charcoal the mcrA gene. 2021)

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wheat straw and bamboo

vinegar

Note: ↑: increase; ↓: decrease.

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Table 3 The effects of compound additives and initial physicochemical parameters and carbon and nitrogen conservation capacity during

composting.

Composting Additives Physicochemical parameters

o f Results Reduction Reference

raw materials Organic Inorganic C/N pH Moisture

o
Oxygen

r
mechanisms

additives additives
-
content
p content

Pig feces and Struvite Nitrification 24.8

r
~8.0 e
52.2% ↓N2O, Inhibit (Jiang et al.,

l P ↓NH3

a
corn stalk crystallization inhibitor: nitrification. 2016)

dicyandiamide
r n
Pig manure Biochar
o
Zeolite u 16.85 ↑8.2 55-60% ↓N2O, (Wang et al.,

J ↓NH3 2017)

Dewatered Biochar Calcium-bentonite 25.21 8.12 56.23% ↓CH4， Enhance (Awasthi et

fresh sewage ↓CO2 aeration. al., 2018)

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sludge and

wheat straw

f
Pig manure Biochar, and Zeolite ~25 7.8 ~55% ↑ ↓CH4， Adsorption of (Wang et al.,

wood vinegar
o o ↓CO2， CO2. 2018)

p r
e - ↓N2O

Chicken Biochar montmorillonite 25

P r 60% ↓N2O, Direct (Zhu et al.,

manure combined

a l ↓NH3 adsorption. 2019)

Pig manure Biochar Calcium

u rn ↓N2O, Adsorption and (Liu et al.,

magnesium

J
phosphate
o ↓NH3 fixation of

biochar and
2020)

fertilizer CaMgP,

respectively.
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Swine Biochar Phosphogypsum ↓N2O, Reduce the (Lei et al.,

manure and medical stone ↓NH3 abundance of 2021)

o f the nirS and

r o nirK gene.

Note: ↑: increase; ↓: decrease.

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Table 4 Effects of inoculation microorganisms on microbial communities and genes related to carbon- and nitrogen- containing gas during

composting.

Composting raw Microbial inoculation Effects of microorganism Results

o f Reduction mechanisms Reference

materials Microbial Genes

r o
communities
- p
Cattle manure Mature compost ↑
r
↑nosZ, ↓NirSe ↓N2O Inhibit transforming of NO2- to (Maeda et al.,

l P
a
N2O, prompt converting N2O 2010)

u rn to NO.

Pig manure
o
Nitrite-oxidizing bacteria

J
↑ ↓N2O Inhibit NO2- accumulation. (Yasuyuki et

al., 2006)

Poultry feces Ammonia-oxidizing ↑ ↓N2O Increase NO3- formation, (Xie et al.,

archaea enhance the nitrogen content. 2012)

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Residual household Nitrifying sludge ↑ ↓NH3 Promote ammonia oxidation, (Zeng et al.,

wastes and bioaugmentation of 2014)

f
ammonia-oxidizing organisms.

o
Pig manure Nitrogen turnover ↑ ↓NH3

r o Reduce NH4+, increase NO3-. (Jiang et al.,

bacterial agent
- p 2015)

(ammonifiers,
r e
nitrobacteria and
l P
n a
Azotobacter)

u r
Rice straw and

chicken manure
Ammonia-oxidizing

bacteria J o ↑ ↓NH3 Prompt transforming

ammonium into nitrite.

(Zhang et al.,

2016)

Pig manure Black soldier fly ↑ ↓CH4, Enhance aeration conditions, (Chen et al.,

↓N2O, and increase NO3- retention. 2019)

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↓NH3

Chicken manure Microbial consortium ↑ ↓CH4, Enhance aeration conditions (Chen et al.,

composting ↓N2O,
f
and promoted denitrification,

o
2020)

↓NH3

r o reduced NO3- to N2.

Wheat straw and Lignocellulose-degrading ↑

-
↓amoA, ↓nirS,
p
↓N2O, Reduce the abundances of (Yu et al.,

fresh chicken microorganisms

r e
↓nirK, ↓nosZ ↓NH3 nitrifying (bacteria amoA) and 2020)

manure
l P denitrifying (nirS, nirK, and

a
urn nosZ) genes.

Sewage sludge Thermotolerant nitrifying

bacteria J o ↑ ↓NH3 Convert more NH4+-N into

NO3--N.
(Zhao et al.,

2020)

Sewage sludge Bacterial agents and ↑ ↓CH4 Establish more aerobic zones. (Xue et al.,

bamboo biochar 2021)

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Agriculture waste Earthworms (Yang et al.,

2017)

Note: ↑: increase; ↓: decrease.

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Table 5 Different measures and initial C/N, moisture, pH and composting duration on NH3 and GHG reduction.

Raw Additives Biochar Ini Init In Comp CH4 NH3, Reference

materials tial C/N ial itial pH osting

o f , CO2 N2O

ratio moisture
o
duration (d)

r
redu reducti

- p ction on

Cow Organic 22
r e 7. 97 NH3 (Maeda et

manure .2
l P 9 68.4% al., 2009)

a
Swine Mg and P

u rn 44. 7. 76 NH3 (Fukumoto

manure

J o 4% 42 25.04%,

N2O
et al., 2011)

9.02%

Swine Mg and P 44. 7. 76 NH3 (Fukumoto

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manure 4% 42 25%-43%, et al., 2011)

N2O

o f 52.80%,

r o NO 96-99,

- p TN 60%

Pig Cover manure

r e 7. 30 N2O (Luo et al.,

manure compost
l P 5 43-71% 2014)

a
Kitch phosphogypsu

urn 20 60 4. 35 CH4 NH3 (Yang et

en waste m

Jo 43 85.8%, 23.5%, N2O

3.2%, GHG
al., 2015)

17.4%

Kitch superphosphat 20 60 4. 35 CH4 NH3 (Yang et

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en waste e 28 80.5% 18.9%, N2O al., 2015)

14.8%,

o f GHG 7.3%

Sewa Zeolite30% 25 55

r o
56 TN50. (Awasthi et

ge sludge and lime1% %

- p 43% al., 2016b)

Food Zeolite5% + 30
r 55 e 6. 56 NH3 (Chan et

waste Mg + P
l P
% 00 7.06% al., 2016)

a
Pig 15% Mg + P

urn 24 52. ~8 28 NH3 (Jiang et

feces and 10%

dicyandiamide Jo .8 2% .0 55.56%,

N2O
al., 2016)

80%-77.6%,

TN 51.25%
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Sewa pumice ~6 20 NH3 (Meng et

ge sludge .3 al., 2016)

Food Mg and P salts 33 55. ~8 35

o f TN (Wang et

waste .7 5% .2

r o 23% al., 2016)

Pig superphosphat 18 58.

- 7.
p 21 CH4 NH3 (Zhang et

manure e .23
r
95% e0 35.5% 37.9% al., 2017)

Chick zeolite (F),

l P 60 ~6 46 27.5 39.3% (Peng et

a
en manure superphosphate (G),

urn % .2 % CO2, GHG al., 2019)

and ferrous sulfate

Jo 73.6%

CH4

Pig 10% Diatomite 7. 42 30.4 23.70 (Ren et al.,

manure 61 1% CH4, % NH3 2019)

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增加

CO2 释

o f 放

r o 29.51%

Cattle Lignite 10 31
- 7.
p 87 CO2 54% (Bai et al.,

manure .46 %
r e4 -37.88% NH3, 2020)

l P -69.4%

a
urn N2O

Sewa

ge sludge
1.5%

Manganese ore Jo 20

%
60

.2
~8 42 CH4

71.3%
23.5%

N2O, TN
(Zhou et

al., 2022)

GWP 21.76%

38.4%
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Sewa 5% ferrous 20 60 4. 23 CH4 NH3 (Li et al.,

ge sludge sulfate % 79 24.9% 82.9% 2020)

Pig 10% fine coal ~2 ~6 7. 42

o f CH4 N2O (Liu et al.,

manure gasification slag 8 5% 71

r o 70.01% 77.04%, 2020)

- p NH3

r e 28.02%

Pig 8% fine coal ~2

l P ~6 7. 42 CH4 N2O (Liu et al.,

a
manure gasification slag

urn 9 5% 68 42.20% 71.11%, 2020)

Jo NH3

24.87%

Pig 6% fine coal ~2 7. 42 CH N2O (Liu et al.,

4 17.89
manure gasification slag 8 ~65% 76 49.63%, 2020)
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NH3

23.89%

Pig 15% bean 22 60 6. 56

o f NH3, (Yang et

manure dregs .9 % 70

r o N2O al., 2020)

Poultr 2% bamboo 25
- p 42 CH4 NH3 (Awasthi et

y manure biochar
r e 12.5%, 19.00%, al., 2020)

and wheat
l P CO2 N2O 12.38

a
straw

u rn 5.50%

Poultr

y manure J o
4% bamboo

biochar
25 42 CH4

20.83%,
NH3

34.31%,
(Awasthi et

al., 2020)

and wheat CO2 N2O

straw 13.57% 35.24%

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Poultr 6% bamboo 25 42 CH4 NH3 (Awasthi et

y manure biochar 39.58%, 46.57%, al., 2020)

and wheat

o f CO2 N2O

straw

r o 39.49% 40.95%

Poultr 8% bamboo 25
- p 42 CH4 NH3 (Awasthi et

y manure biochar
re 54.17%, 65.00%, al., 2020)

and wheat
l P CO2 N2O

a
straw

u rn 52.78% 66.67%

Poultr

y manure J o
12% wheat

straw biochar +
25 42 CH4

72.92%,
NH3

77.38%,
(Awasthi et

al., 2020)

and wheat 10% bamboo CO2 N2O

straw biochar 72.57% 81.59%

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pig 10% biochar ~2 ~5 7. 50 CO2 N2O (Wang et

manure +2% zeolite 5 5% 8 61.15%, 81.10%, al., 2018)

and wheat

o f CH4 NH3

straw

r o 26.76% 74.32%

Chick 5% biochar 25 60
- p 60 TN (Zhu et al.,

en manure (corn stalks %

r e 19.2% 2019)

wastes)
l P
a
Sewa 10% biochar

u rn 20 60 ~8 42 GW N2O (Zhou et

ge sludge

J o % .2 P 39.2%,

CH4
31.3%, TN

38.24%
al., 2022)

56.5%,

TC
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2.43%

Pig 10% 26 60 7. 56 NH3, (Yang et

manure Biochar .4 % 67

o f N2O al., 2020)

Pig rice straw 15 60

r o
18 CH4 (He et al.,

manure biochar %
- p 61.03% 2018)

and wheat
r e
straw
l P
a
Pig 3% biochar

u rn 82 N2O (Wang et

manure

Poultr J o
20%produce 17 / 8. 42
25.9%

NH3
al., 2013)

(Steiner et

y litter d from pine chip .5 55 95.9% al., 2010)

Cattle 27.4% 17 66 9. 31 NH3 (Chowdhur

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slurry and biochar .4 % 1 88% y et al., 2014)

hen

manure

o f
Poultr 3% biochar 8. 9.

r o
135 (Sanchez-

y manure 26 09
- p Garcia et al.,

r e 2015)

Sewa 12% biochar

l
11. P 39 7. 56 CH4 N2O (Awasthi et

a
ge sludge and 1% lime

u rn
78 % 72 78.27% al., 2016a)

Pig

manure J o
10% biochar

.77
16 55-

60% 50
8. 50 NH3

35.88%,
(Wang et

al., 2017)

N2O

64.91%
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Pig 10% zeolite 16 55- 8. 50 NH3 (Wang et

manure .85 60% 52 31.13%, al., 2017)

o f N2O

r o 56.05%

Pig 10% biochar 17 55-

- 8.
p 50 NH3 (Wang et

manure and 10% zeolite .62 60%

r e
60 63.4%, N2O al., 2017)

l P 78.13%

a
Rice 5%

u rn 25 60 54 NH3 (Zhang et

straw and

chicken
ammonia-oxidizing

bacteria J o ~70% 88% al., 2016)

manure

Chick 10% microbial 25 60 6. 42 CH4 NH3 (Chen et

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en manure/ consortium % 7 4.88%, 4.59%, N2O al., 2020)

wheat TC 2.11%, TN

straw

o f 5.25% 6.59%

Sewa 5% 20 60 6.

r o
23 CH4 NH3 (Li et al.,

ge sludge magnesium % 67
- p 22.9% 58.3% 2020)

chloride
r e
Swine Mg and P NOB
l/ P44. 7. 76 CK NH3 (Fukumoto

a
manure

u rn 4% 42 NH3 28.87%, et al., 2011)

J o 91.9%,

N2O
N2O

80.21%

65.3%

Dewa 4% 12% biochar 25 56. 8. 42 CO2 NH3 (Awasthi et

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tered fresh Calcium-bentonite .21 23% 12 -~88.8%, -~73.8%, al., 2018)

sewage CH4 N2O

sludge

o f ~99.2% ~96.67%

Chick 2.5% 2.5% 25 60

r o
60 TN (Zhu et al.,

en manure montmorillonite biochar %

- p 12.2% 2019)

Chick 10% microbial 10% 25

r 60 e 7. 42 CH4 NH3 (Chen et

en manure/ consortium Chicken manure

l P
% 44 63.41%, 50.16%, al., 2020)

a
wheat biochar

u rn TC N2O 16.88,

straw

Chick 10% microbial J o

6% Chicken 25 60 7. 42
37.86%

CH4
TN 48.61%

NH3 (Chen et

en manure/ consortium manure biochar % 12 51.22%, 40%, N2O al., 2020)

wheat TC 13.08%, TN
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straw 27.90% 39.80%

Chick 10% microbial 4% Chicken 25 60 6. 42 CH4 NH3 (Chen et

en manure/ consortium manure biochar % 49

o f 36.58%, 35.41%, al., 2020)

wheat

r o TC N2O 8.02%,

straw
- p 24.28% TN 32.86%

Chick 10% microbial 2% Chicken 25

r 60 e 6. 42 CH4 NH3 (Chen et

en manure/ consortium manure biochar

l P
% 85 24.39%, 22.95%, al., 2020)

a
wheat

u rn TC N2O 6.75%,

straw

Pig 15% bean J o10% 24 60 6. 56

18.12% TN 22.57%

NH3, (Yang et

manure dregs Biochar .5 % 85 N2O al., 2020)

Sewa 0.3% aerobic 0.3% ~7. 68 30 CH4 N2O (Xue et al.,

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ge sludge microorganism bamboo biochar 2 .13% 45.4%, 3.7% 2021)

agent CO2

o f 30.37%

Sewa 1.5% 10% biochar 20 60 ~8

r o
42 GW N2O (Zhou et

ge sludge Manganese ore %

-
.2
p P 42.1%, 45.9%, TN al., 2022)

r e CH4 42.88%

l P 33.6%

a
Poultr 5%

u rn 30 55 7. 45 NH3 (Xie et al.,

y feces Ammonia-oxidizing

archaea J o ~60% 9 82.12%,

N2O
2012)

48.57%, TN

80.56%
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Pig 1% a bacterial ~1 65 6. 35 NH3 (Jiang et

manure consortium of 4.5 % 29 14.29% al., 2015)

ammonifiers,

o f
nitrobacteria and

r o
Azotobacter
- p
Pig 0.48 L/kg DM 18
r 65 e 37 C and (Guo et al.,

feces and /min

l P
% N 2012)

na
corn stock

u r
Note: - represents increase.

J o
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Graphical abstract

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Highlights

 The carbon and nitrogen fixation measures were reviewed during composting.

 Carbon and nitrogen fixation mechanisms: adsorption and conversion.

 Environmentally friendly raw materials for carbon and nitrogen fixation.

 Contributions to the global warming mitigation of composting.

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