Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Nexus
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/nexus

Assessment of compost maturity-stability indices and recent development

of composting bin
Saswat Mahapatra, Md. Hibzur Ali, Kundan Samal∗
School of Civil Engineering, KIIT Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, 751 024, Odisha, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Biological conversion of organic solid wastes to stabilized organic matter (OM) with high plant nutrient makes
Composting composting an ideal technique for managing solid waste. Present review summarizes the various bins manufac-
Germination Index tured around the world that are used for the composting of organic solid waste. The knowledge about various
Maturity and stability indices
indices related to the composting process has become an important and wider area of research in the current
Composting bin
time. The review therefore focuses on the various stability and maturity indices of composting process and lays
Phytotoxicity test
Organic waste emphasis on the advantages and uses of the matured compost. Composting bins are useful in converting organic
wastes to useful compost at municipal level or at home. Organic wastes such as the kitchen waste like food scraps,
food preparation residuals, etc. and garden wastes such as leaves, branches of trees, grass clipping, etc can easily
be converted into compost with the use of these bins. This can be helpful in conservation of energy and natural
resource, reduce air and water pollution and help in saving landfill space.

1. Introduction and pathogens [3,4]. Outdated waste management systems based on

The expanding urbanization with the arrival of science has surely
brought fortune for the people but not for the nature. In today’s ever-
expanding world with rapidly growing population, solid waste manage-
ment (SWM) has become a serious problem. A common citizen from
a developed nation generates close to 500 kg of waste every year and
this huge generation of solid waste is a major concern throughout the
world. Approximately 1.3 billion metric tons of solid waste is generated
throughout the world out of which India alone generates more than
tenth of world’s waste (277 million tonnes according to 2016 estimate)
and is expected to produce 543.3 million tonnes as per 2050 estimated
by World Bank [1]. With the growing development and urbanization
around the world, SWM becomes more challenging and crucial day by
day. Therefore, using techniques specifically through biological means
which are economically feasible will help in managing the solid waste
and it will in turn help in maintaining an ecological balance which is
quite essential in the current times.
Composting is one of the most efficient and efficacious treatment
method that can be employed for the removal of organic fraction of solid
waste [2]. It is an economically feasible and environmentally sustain-
able technique that can be used for the effective treatment of solid waste
around the world. The main purpose of composting is to convert solid
organic wastes into nutrient rich soil conditioner and organic fertilizer
which results in reduction of odour, phytotoxic chemicals, weed seeds
collection and transportation of waste to disposal sites are still utilized
in many countries. Treatment by composting process can be done at the
household itself with the utilization of composting bin which makes the
composting technique a best alternative to replace the outdated waste
management systems. Composting process is being more widely adopted
and accepted for SWM throughout the world recently. Sustainable man-
agement of waste along with the circular economy is a wide area of re-
search currently being explored by scientists and researchers across the
globe. Both developing and under-developed countries lack the facil-
ity of systematic segregation and removal of garbage, including organic
wastes. Environmentalists consider SWM as the second most important
problem after wastewater treatment. Hence to control and break off the
solid waste generation cycle at its source itself, composting is the essen-
tial way. There are ample research papers available on the utilization
of composting process for solid waste management but what they lack
is the proper utilization of bins and procedure for evaluation of a ma-
ture and stable compost. In general, it’s important for everyone to be
aware about the fundamentals of composting and utilizing the appara-
tus/mechanisms present to implement the process with ease, as com-
posting not only ameliorates the environment but also can be beneficial
economically to individuals practising it regularly. The research and de-
velopment of composting bin is slowly gaining pace and the bins can
be very useful in disposing off garbage into safe products without any
harmful emissions. Therefore, more and more companies from different

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kundan.samalfce@kiit.ac.in (K. Samal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2022.100062
Received 29 January 2022; Received in revised form 11 March 2022; Accepted 26 March 2022
Available online 28 March 2022
2772-4271/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
Fig. 1. Degree of compost maturity and their properties.
countries are investing their time and money to provide bins that are
not only cheap but highly effective in the composting process.
To maintain an ecological balance and for further applications, the
compost should be able to fulfill certain quality criteria which are in-
dicated by maturity and stability indices. Compost is cogitated as ‘ma-
ture’ when both maturity and stability levels are reached and therefore
it is very much essential to evaluate these two parameters [5–7]. Many
physical, chemical, and biological tests have been proposed to assess
the stability and maturity of a compost sample. Parameters like temper-
ature [8], C/N [8], Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) [9–11] are used for
the stability analysis of the compost produced while seed germination
[12,13] and solvita compost emission tests [8] are available for matu-
rity analysis. So far there is no unparalleled universally acknowledged
test to assess both the parameters simultaneously. Different degrees of
compost maturity and their properties have been shown in Fig. 1.
The main objective behind writing this review is to analyse and elab-
orate on composting process as an effective technique for SWM and to
discuss in detail the various parameters and tests available to assess the
maturity and stability of composts. Fig. 2 gives a basic methodology of
the composting procedure. This review also elaborates the various com-
posting bins available across the globe along with the composition and
properties of the final product obtained after composting.
2. What is composting?
Composting is an aerobic-microbial process of breaking down or-
ganic matter (OM) into usable substance [14]. It is basically a combina-
tion of mesophilic and thermophilic stages that finally results in the con-
version of organic waste into stable agronomic value product [15,16].
Composting can either be done at an industrial level or at homes and
this is the reason for which the treatment process is more widely ac-
cepted and adopted around the world. Composting at homes is easy to
carry out using a bin and it can either be done at the backyard or at
the balcony of a home. Composting not only helps in reducing the or-
ganic fraction of solid waste but also help in the growth of plants by the
nourishment of soil. The fertilized compost helps in nourishing the soil
by providing enough nutrients (Fig. 3). Due to the absence of any arti-
ficial process, compost produced at home (in composting bins) are best
suited for plant growth and have high demand in the market. For a nu-
trient rich compost, the organic waste should mainly consist of kitchen
waste also known as the green waste (like fruits and vegetable leftovers,
bread, cardboard, etc.) and garden waste also known as the brown waste
(like fallen leaves, small wood chips, saw dust, plant leftovers, etc) [17].
The combination of these green and brown wastes helps in maintaining
the carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio [18,19]. Meat and fatty food wastes
2
Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062
should be avoided as much as possible as they are the main contributors
of bad odour in the composting process.
The process of composting can be bifurcated into three underlying
phases (Fig. 4). In first phase, the OM is mixed with dry bulking agents
like cow dung, curd, shredded paper, rice hulls, etc, which help in pro-
viding an adequate space for the disintegration of the OM with the assis-
tance of microorganisms [20]. In mesophilic condition (moderate tem-
perature) microorganisms with natural ventilation break down the OM
into smaller particles [21]. These particles hold more surface area and
due to which the degradation process increases in second phase [22].
Mixing of particles is needed to be done in regular intervals as low aer-
ation rate will prevent evaporation of moisture which will tend to de-
crease the rate of decomposition. Microorganisms help in maintaining
a porous structure of the compost which further helps in distributing
the water and nutrients [18]. Compost stays in this condition for sev-
eral days to about a month. In the whole process of composting excess
water (called leachate) is generated which is highly rich in nutrients
[23,24]. Leachate from compost is generally yellowish dark brown in
colour. OM, nutrient, and contaminant concentrations are highest in
the initial leachate, and the concentrations decrease considerably with
increasing amount of rain or runoff water leaching through the com-
post. Dissolved and particulate OM in the compost leachate are impor-
tant sources of C, H, N, O, and P [25]. Nitrogen and OM are generally
considered the two main contaminants found in composting leachate.
As per Rajabi and Vafajoo [26], TKN, NH4 and TP concentration in
leachate were 758 mg/L, 520 mg/L and 0.52 mg/L, respectively. Simi-
larly, Hashemi et al. [27] reported TKN and TP concentration of 2300
mg/L and 280 mg/L, respectively in a home-made compost. Christensen
[28] informed that compost leachate contains 100 to 700 mg/L of NH4 +
or NO3 − . Therefore, leachate can be collected and be utilized as natu-
ral fertilizers, which are highly beneficial for the plants [29]. Compost
generated are beneficial for the plants but only if they are stable and
mature enough to be utilized [42].
3. Maturity and stability of compost
The quality evaluation of compost is basically done by the maturity
and stability indices. Certain physical, chemical, or biological proper-
ties can be helpful criteria to define the quality of compost. Maturity
is the indication of the degree or the level up to which a composting
process is complete [30,31]. An improved quality of compost which can
be utilized for various purposes is obtained as result of ‘aging’ and ‘cur-
ing’ i.e. after the maturity of the compost. The evaluation of maturity
of a compost can’t be done by just assessing a single property, rather
two or more than two parameters need to be assessed for evaluation
S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
of maturity. Plant growth potential or phytotoxicity can be a criterion
for evaluating the maturity and stability of the compost [32]. Some of
the on-site parameters that help in testing the maturity and stability of
a compost are phytotoxicity [56], temperature [62], colour, odour and
moisture. The laboratory parameters that help in testing the maturity
and stability of a compost are Germination Index (GI), volatile solids
(VS), C/N ratio [66], OM, Bc /Bn ratio, microbial respiration [32], and
biological tests [33]. Application of any compost product is only possible
if the compost is mature enough and is free from potentially phytotoxic
3
Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062
Fig. 2. Composting procedure.
Fig. 3. Nutrients supplement by compost manure.
components. Impact of mature compost on seed germination or plant
growth is very much essential for its application [86].
Maturity and stability of compost are different from each other. Ma-
turity gives the extent up to which the composting process is complete,
but stability refers to a particular state of OM or specific stage or de-
composition of compost. Rate of uptake of O2 by a compost sample is
called stability [70,71]. Stability index of compost tells about the state
of OM during the process of composting. It describes a specific stage or
disintegration of compost [79,80]. The stability of compost is related
S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
Fig. 4. Different phases of composting process.
Fig. 5. Temperature fluctuations during different phases of composting.
to the microbial activity of the compost which basically means stability
is the measure of the biological decomposition achieved by composting
feed stocks [30,34]. The resultant biological activity in a material and
the type of organic compounds remaining gives an idea of the stabil-
ity [35]. Unstable composts are of no use as microorganisms produce
phytotoxic compounds when the compost is unstable. Toxic substances
are formed in the decomposition process if the compost is not stabilized
properly [15,33]. Table 1 represents various maturity and stability in-
dices.
4. Maturity and stability indices
4.1. Temperature profile
Temperature fluctuation during the composting process occurs
mainly in three phases: mesophilic, thermophilic, and cooling phases
(Fig. 5). Mesophilic phase occurs over the first few days of composting
where the temperature tends to increase. This mainly happens as a con-
sequence of biodegradation of organic compounds by increased growth
of mesophilic microorganisms. Fourti et al. [39] reported that the tem-
perature gradually increased to 25-45°C in 25 days of the composting
process.
4
Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062
In thermophilic phase, temperature reaches to a very high value,
exceeding the limit of tolerance of the mesophilic microorganisms (>
45°C). Fourti et al. [39] explained that the temperature mostly rose
above 40°C in 30 to 130 days. Increase in temperature caused the re-
placement of mesophilic microorganisms with thermophilic microor-
ganisms. This phase is reached when a high number of indigenous
microorganisms attack the soluble and readily degradable compounds
[48]. If the compost contains easily degradable materials the establish-
ment of thermophilic phase is rapid. Ocana et al. [33] through their
research found a peak temperature of 70° C which was achieved in 15-
20 days from the start of the process. It showed the rapid establishment
of thermophilic phase as soon as the composting process began and very
turning event results in a small increase in the temperature. Humidifi-
cation is also a reason for such smaller increase in temperature values
as it might suggest that some under composed materials are still present
within the pile even after thermophilic phase [33]. In cooling phase as
the OM begin to deplete the temperature too begins to decrease and as a
result C/N ratio tends to stabilize in this phase. Fourti et al. [39] reported
that the temperature began to decrease rapidly to an average value of
33°C after the 19th week and at the end of 5th month of composting there
was no further change in temperature despite turning or adding water.
The main reason for the decrease in temperature during the cooling or
 S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
Table 1
Measurement of maturity indices.

Sl No. Types of Bulking agent Properties Properties Initial Final Maturity Permissible References
waste variation day value

1 Chicken Corn stover C/N 20 to 1 25 to 1 30 to 1 20 to 1 25 to 1 30 to 1 Zhang et al.,

manure GI (%) 55.70 55.60 51.40 87.60 86.20 83.80 30 GI > 80 2019
pH 7.49 7.45 7.42 6.99 6.67 6.55 30
EC (mS/cm) 7.08 7.08 7.08 4.96 4.83 4.33 30 <4
NH4 + -N (mg/kg) 7857 5683 3889 1006 878 786 30 < 400
2 Pig faeces Corn stalk Aeration rate 0.24 0.48 0.72 0.24 0.48 0.72 [36]]
(L/kg DM/min)
Temperature (°C) 28 28 28 34 34 34 34
Oxygen (%) 22 22 22 20 20 20 34
NH4 + -N (g/kg) 1.83-2.25 1.25-1.64 0.9-1.25 1.3 1 0.67 34 < 0.4
GI (%) 40 39 45 70 73 73 34 GI > 80 %
3 Municipal Wood shavings pH 5.5 8 42 Graca et al.,
Solid Waste (C/N: 65 to 1) MC (%) 59 55 42 2021
C/N 15 14 42
4 Chicken Sawdust C/N 12 18 28 12 18 28 [37]]
manure pH 7.7 7.5 7.3 7.6 7.55 7.45 115
EC (𝜇S/cm) 3018 2840 2360 2610 2380 2050.00 115 < 3000
NH4 + -N (mg/kg) 4250 4100 3900 1073 846 350 115 < 400
GI (%) 22 31 33 60 70 94 115 GI > 80 %
5 Municipal Rapseed Straw DM 30.88 35-52 Kujawa
Sewage pH 7.5 7.3-7.9 et al., 2020
Sludge Temperature 21 23-30
Oxygen (%) 20-20.3
6 Pig Manure Biogas residues [38]]
and spent Temperature 44 20 105
5

mushroom EC (mS/cm) 5.6 7 105 < 4 mS/cm

pH 7.5 7.2 105
TOC (mg/g) 385 278 105
TN (%) 1.96 2.05 105
C/N 19.7 13.56 105
TP (%) 1.72 2.05 105
Available potassium 11.96 18.6 105
(mg/g)
Available 2 0.82 105
phosphorus (mg/g)
7 Municipal Windrow 1 2 1 2 [39]]
Solid waste C/N 32 28.5 18.6 14.6 200 < 20
& Sewage Temperature 25 28 39 35
sludge TPF (mg/g.DM/d) 4 1 5 2
Bc /Bn 25 25 35 18
8 Pig manure Wheat Straw BD (%) 5 10 15 5 10 15 Yang et al.,
and Bean OM (%) 77 78.20 80.84 47.20 45.79 50.25 49 2019
dregs (BD) DOC (g/Kg) 13 14 15 9 6 7 49
EC (mS/cm) 4.59 4.59 4.59 1.53 1.73 1.7 49 < 4mS/cm
C/N 11.01 9.82 11.84 49 < 20

Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062

GI (%) 1.46 1.58 1.54 49 GI > 80 %
9 Chicken Wheat Straw CMB % + 10 % 0 4 10 0 4 10 Chen et al.,
Manure Temperature CMCC 45 55 57 20 18 17 42 2019
Biochar pH 6.7 6.9 7.4 7.94 8.05 8.24 42 5.5-8.5
EC (𝜇S/cm) 2750 2700 2600 3120 2955 2800 42 < 3000
C/N 30 29 31 18 16 14 42 < 20
GI (%) 1.09 1.43 1.71 42 GI > 80 %
MC (%) 40 38.5 36.5 42 35-45
(continued on next page)
 S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
Table 1 (continued)

Sl No. Types of Bulking agent Properties Properties Initial Final Maturity Permissible References
waste variation day value

10 Livestock Diary manure Treatment based T1 T4 T7 T1 T4 T7 28 [40]]

manure Corn Stalk pH on corn stalk 7.6 7.8 8.2 7.8 7.9 8.5 28
digestate Tomato EC (mS/cm) additions, aeration 2.6 2.4 2.1 2.2 2.5 2.5 28
Residues GI (%) rates and digestion 38.5 56.4 66.8 51.9 95.2 96.7 28
NH4 + /NO3 − duration 27.9 42.3 61.9 1.1 0.2 0.4 28
11 Olive oil Broadleaf C1,C2,C3 based on C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 [41]]
extraction vegetable pH different 6.32 5.04 8.54 120
residues, Straw EC (mS/cm) compostable 1.8 12.03 7.89 120
and Manure MC (%) materials 73 67 80 45.6 56.7 46.15 120
TOC (%) 49.06 57.62 37.69 120
TN (%) 1.89 2.04 2.69 120
C/N 50 60 23 25.99 28.22 14.01 120
12 Chicken Wheat straw Dosages of clay 4 6 8 4 6 8 [42]]
manure Temperature 58 45 50 23 25 26 50
pH 6.4 6.6 6.5 8.4 7.7 7.9 50
C/N 31 31 33 15 14 12 50
GI (%) 0.25 0.2 0.25 1.4 1.5 1.6 50
13 Swine and Rice Straw SM DM SM DM [43]]
dairy Temperature 30 30 20 20 90
manure pH 6.2 6.25 7.8 7.7 90
Moisture (%) 50 62 22 45 90
TN (%) 1.2 1 1.5 1.4 90
C/N 42.21 40.21 22.92 24.95 90
GI (%) N.D. N.D. 129 119 90
6

14 Lignocellulosic Rice Straw With and without With HTT Without With HTT Without
agricultural (HTT) HTT HTT
residues Temperature 24 24 23 25 98
pH 3.8 6.8 7.9 7.8 98
EC (ds/m) 4.8 2.1 3 2.1 98
NH4 -N (mg/kg) 0 1800 0 0 98
OM (%) 89 89 77 70 98
C/N 27 25 12 11 98
GI (%) 0 0 86 102 98
15 Polluted Manure, Cow Three piles with Pile 1 Pile 2 Pile 3 Pile 1 Pile 2 Pile 3 [44]]
sediment dung, Sawdust, pH different manure, 7.6 7.4 7.6 8.9 8.8 9 161
(from lake) Urea and OM (%) Cow dung, 46.7 48.7 40.2 19.9 22.8 17.3 161
Diammonium C/N Sawdust, Urea and 30 30 30 11.6 12.9 10.9 161
phosphate GI (%) Di- ammonium 12 9 18.4 85.9 73.9 82.8 161
16 Animal Sawdust Temperature phosphate 32 32 63 [45]]
manures pH composition 8 7.7 63
(dairy: beef: EC 14 13 63
swine = 50 NO3 − -N (mg/kg) 20 215 63
%: 30 %: NH4 + -N (mg/kg) 120 470 63
20%, w/w) C/N 28 18 63

Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062

NH3 12 12 63
Fulvic acid (%) 1.5 2.5 63
Humic acid (%) 2 0.9 63
Germination Rate 61 92 63
(%)
GI (%) 40 120 63
(continued on next page)
 S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
Table 1 (continued)

Sl No. Types of Bulking agent Properties Properties Initial Final Maturity Permissible References
waste variation day value

17 Cattle Composting time 0 15 80 180 270 270 Brandon

manure EC (mS/cm) 1.3 2.1 2.8 2.9 3 270 et al., 2008
pH 8.26 8.07 9.2 9.5 9.48 270
Total C (%) 39.9 38.5 32.15 33 25 270
Total N (%) 2.4 2.2 2.9 3.1 2.4 270
C/N 17 17.5 11.4 10.75 10.6 270
DOC (mg/kg) 7000 7300 3400 3100 2200 270
NH4 + 600 1200 300 120 250 270
NO3 − 20 700 20 50 70 270
GI (%) 0 28 38 30 84 270
18 Pig manure Rice husk Temperature (°C) 2 % Lime added Lime Control Lime Control [46]]
7

(w/w dry weight 22 17 22 22 30

pH basis) and Control 9.4 7.4 8 8 30
GI (%) 39 28 100 60 30
DOC (g/Kg) 23 19 9 6 30
DON (g/Kg) 2.6 2.6 2 1 30
19 Chicken Rice bran and MC (%) 45 53 61 45 53 61 [47]]
manure rice straw Temperature(°C) 26 26 26 32.5 32.5 32.5 45
pH 6.9 6.8 6.9 8 8.1 8 45
TOC (g/kg) 437 437 437 325 323 325 45
TN (g/kg) 14.4 14.4 14.4 16.8 17.2 16 45
C/N 30 30.3 30 18 18 18.6 45
GI (%) 10 10 10 90 100 83 45
∗
CMB: Chicken Manure Biochar; CMCC: Chicken Manure integrated Microbial Consortium; BD: Bean dregs; HTT: Hydro Thermal Treatment; SM: Swine Manure; DM: Dairy Manure; GI: Germination Index;
DM: Dry Matter; MC: Moisture Content; OM: Organic Matter

Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062

S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
Fig. 6. Various maturity and stability indices.
maturity phase is the exhaustion of the available substrate. It also re-
sults in the replacement of the thermophilic microflora by a mesophilic
one. The partial degradation of bio-resistant compounds, fundamentally
cellulose and in lesser degree of lignin continues by the mesophilic mi-
croflora [49]. The maturity is mostly reached when the cooling phase is
reached [33]. Fig. 6 represents various maturity and stability indices.
4.2. Organic matter (OM)
The maturity of compost can be evaluated by the degree of humifica-
tion of an OM [81–83]. During the process of composting, microorgan-
isms biochemically transform the OM and the presence of any degrad-
able compound is an indication of unfinished composting. Humification
is the formation of humic-like substances which takes place in the in
maturity stage. So, the degree of humification of OM is a very useful
indicator of the maturity of the compost [30]. The revelation of humifi-
cation of OM is done by the humic acid formation. There is an increase
in the concentrations of O and N, molecular weight, aromatic charac-
teristics, and functional groups because of formation of humic acid. The
formed functional groups provide cation exchange capacity (CEC) dur-
ing humification of OM [84,85]. Therefore, the CEC and CEC/Organic
carbon can also be used as an indicator for the maturity of compost [30].
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is the most degradable carbon fraction
present in any compost that can be utilized as an indicator of maturity
of the compost. Bernal et al. [30] through his research notified that the
ratio in-between organic carbon and organic nitrogen and the ratio in-
between organic carbon and total nitrogen can be used to evaluate the
stability and maturity of the compost. The C/N ratio gradually decreases
with the progression of composting process. For a chicken manure with
bulking agents rice bran and rice straw, the C/N ratio gradually de-
creased from a value of 30 to 18 [47]. Similarly, in another experiment
it was observed that the C/N ratio gradually decreased from 29 to 16
in a biochar assisted composting and it is due to the degradation of or-
ganic compounds. CO2 is released due to the degradation of organic
compounds which eventually results in the increase of total nitrogen.
The percentage gain in total nitrogen or the loss in the carbon content
during the progress of composting is an important analogy for stability
and maturity analysis of compost. C/N ratio gradually decreases from
70:1 to 10-15:1 as the composting proceeds and it’s an indication of
maturity of the compost [50]. The decreasing C/N ratio is due to con-
sumption of organic compounds by microorganisms as two-thirds of the
carbon is given off as CO2 . Stability of a compost is indicated by degree
of decomposition or consumption of organic matters by microorganisms
[93]. Therefore, C/N ratio also gives an idea about the stability of com-
post.
8
Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062
4.3. C/N ratio
The process of biological degradation requires nitrogen, so C/N acts
as an indication of the total availability of nitrogen [87]. A supply of
nutrients which mainly consists of carbon and nitrogen is very much
essential for the decomposition of wastes by the microorganisms. Waste
itself is the main supplier of these nutrients, but that must be present in
the correct balance for the efficiency of the process. As the composting
process progresses a decline in the C/N is observed. Like Alidadi et al.
[51] in their paper reported that the C/N was 53.57 on the 25th day
which reduced to 34.73 on the 50th day and further to 16.6 on 100th
day from the start of composting. This decline in the C/N is mainly due
to emission of CO2 over the progression of composting. The optimum
range of C/N ratio varies from 20 to 25 which is very much essential for
the efficiency of composting process [39]. If an excess amount of car-
bon content is present that converted to CO2 and if an excess amount
of nitrogen is present that converted to ammonia until the correct bal-
ance is restored. Imbalance in the ratio results in slowing down of the
composting process. In a trend observed by Khan et al. [3], the C/N
ratio increases during thermophilic stage and then gradually decreases.
The C/N ratio is highly dependent on the degree of disintegration i.e.,
a lower degree of disintegration gives higher value of C/N ratio. It was
observed a C/N ratio value ranging from 31.5 to 35.7 on 126th day and
this higher value was resulted due to lower degree of disintegration [3].
The higher value of C/N ratio was due to presence aromatic carbon in
biochar which influences the composting process. Fourti et al. [39] re-
ported an initial C/N ratio of 32 and 28.5, respectively in a two-window
system (free of sludge) and at the end of process the net C/N ratio was
observed to be 18.6 and 14.6, respectively. According to many authors
the indication of acceptable maturity is below 20, but a C/N value near-
ing to 12 is normally accepted as an indicator of good degree of compost
maturity [9,48].
Nitrogen that is accumulated by the first group of microorganisms
during the process of fermentation helps to serve the next microbial
groups [88]. Amino acids synthesis takes place from the proteolysis of
protein reactions which will further be used for the synthesis of new
proteins. For this reason, the loss of nitrogen is generally limited, and
monosaccharides get degraded easily. There is a rise in temperature due
to degradation of monosaccharides which eventually cause a net de-
crease in carbon content. The concentration of total nitrogen remains
highly uncertain during the process of composting, but an overall pat-
tern is mostly observed. A mix of sewage and municipal solid waste
shows high total nitrogen concentration during early stages of the com-
posting. As the composting proceeds, NH4 -N levels generally decline
with increase in NO3 -N level [39].
S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
4.4. Bc /Bn ratio
Bc /Bn is the ratio between microbial carbon biomass and the micro-
bial nitrogen biomass, and the biological activity balance of the compost
is basically represented by this ratio. A high Bc /Bn ratio is mainly due
to a high microbial heterogeneity, diversity and is a synonym of an im-
portant biological activity [52,53]. This ratio increases during the ther-
mophilic phase. A minimal value is mostly observed at the beginning of
cooling phase which again increases during the maturation phase i.e.,
almost at the end of the cooling phase [39].
4.5. Dehydrogenase activity
Dehydrogenase enzymatic activity is a method of describing the bio-
logical activity taking place in the mesophilic and thermophilic phases of
the composting process [54]. Dehydrogenation process is the biological-
oxidation of different organic substances through various enzymes. As
an integral part of the microorganism, dehydrogenase enzyme plays an
important part in the oxidation of organic compounds by transferring
the pH from substrates to acceptors and the values are mainly expressed
as mg of triphenyl formazan (TPF) released per g dry matter−1 h−1 .
An increasing trend in this activity is generally observed over the ther-
mophilic phase of the composting process as a rapid increase is seen at
the start of this phase and the maximum value is observed mostly at the
end of this phase (0.54 mg TPF g dry matter−1 h−1 ) [54]. The activity is
feeble over the mesophilic and the cooling phases. Fourti et al. [39] re-
ported that the dehydrogenase activity was on an average of 8 and 7
mg TPF/g dry matter−1 d−1 over 50 to 140 days for the thermophilic
phase and it was found to be below 4 mg TPF/g dry matter−1 d−1 for
the mesophilic and the cooling phases. The biological activity is also af-
fected by the presence of sludge. Fourti et al. [39] researched and found
out that the dehydrogenase activity was higher in case of a windrow free
of sludge than in one with sludge. Serra-wittling et al. [55] conducted
research on a solid waste compost with three months of maturity and
found out a value of 2.3 mg TPF/g dry matter−1 d−1 . The threshold
value proposed by Forster et al. [56] for the dehydrogenation process is
0.83 mg TPF/g dry matter−1 d−1 . The dehydrogenase activity is a very
good indicator of the maturity of the compost and a net decrease in the
activity indicates good stability of biodegradable substances [56]. The
dehydrogenase activity is directly dependent on the total microbial res-
piration and exogenous carbon sources. Volatile compounds frequently
found in solid wastes such as trichloromethane, benzene and toluene
have a serious negative effect on the dehydrogenase activity in com-
posts .
4.6. Microbial respiration and respiration indices
Respiration is a good technique for the measurement of microbial
activity in compost which is an important parameter for assessing the
stability. Microbial respiration is the process in which microbes use the
energy stored in chemical and organic substances (e.g., sugar, leaves, pa-
per, fruits, vegetable leftovers, etc.) to build cells and transport materials
within the body. The respiration is directly related to the metabolic ac-
tivity of a microbial population. Microorganisms respire at a higher rate
in the presence of large amounts of bio available organic matter, there-
fore, the respiration pattern changes as the composting proceeds and is
monitored based on CO2 production, O2 uptake and release of heat. Res-
piration indices are basically those tests or methods that are employed
for evaluation of CO2 production, O2 uptake or release of heat [30].
The self-heating test can be implemented for determining the increase
in temperature that occurs due to the release of heat from biological and
chemical activities of the compost [57]. An immature compost demands
strongly for O2 because of which high CO2 production takes place. This
occurs due to the high development of microorganisms which are sub-
jected to large amount of easily degradable compounds present in the
raw material [30]. Different methods are available for determining the
9
Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062
maturity and stability of a compost based on the release of CO2 and
uptake of O2 .
Respiration indices are very useful for evaluating the stability of fi-
nal products such as stabilized material for landfill or compost [58,59].
The Indices are not only useful for the stability and maturity analysis
of the compost, but also useful for the assessment of the performance
of a wide variety of full-scale waste treatment facilities [14,60–64]. DRI
(Dynamic Respiration Index), CRI (Cumulative Respiration Index), SRI
(Static Respiration Index), cumulative CO2 generation, etc. are few such
indices based on O2 uptake and CO2 production which are employed
for stability and maturity analysis of compost [30,54]. These indexes
can be used as a mechanism to evaluate the performance of biologi-
cal waste treatments when assessing environmental impacts of different
waste treatment technologies [65].
4.7. Nitrifying activity
Microbial oxidation of ammonia by nitrifier forms nitrates and ni-
trification results in the increase of NO3 − -N concentration and decrease
of NH4 + -N concentration [16]. The presence of this nitrifying activity
is a very good indicator of maturity of the compost (Fig. 7). At the end
of the composting process a superior NO3 − -N concentration usually ob-
served as compared to NH4 + -N concentration. Therefore, the activity of
compost nitrification can be monitored by comparing the decrease of
NH4 + -N concentration and the increase of NO3 − -N concentration dur-
ing incubation. In composting process initially a higher value of NH4 + -
N concentration usually observed and in the thermophilic phase due
to mineralization of organic-N, NH4 + -N concentration tends to increase
which leads to the increase in pH level [31]. After the thermophilic
phase, NH4 + -N concentration decreases and the NO3 − -N concentration
increases due to nitrification. There are hardly any nitrification takes
place in the thermophilic phase due to absence of nirifiers [4,30].
Gómez-Brandón et al. [66] through his research (on a polluted lake
sediment) observed that the NH4 + concentration gradually varied from
600 mg kg−1 sediment at the start of composting to 1200 mg kg−1 at 15th
day to 250 mg kg−1 at the end of composting process (270th day). For
the same sediment, Gómez-Brandón et al. [66] observed that the NO3 −
concentration varied from 20 mg kg−1 at the start of composting to 700
mg kg−1 at 15th day to 70 mg kg−1 at the end of the composting process
(270th day). The ratio in between NH4 + and NO3 − also decreases with
the progression of composting process. Li et al. [40] in his research on
a livestock manure digestion found out that the NH4 + /NO3 − reduced
from an initial value of 27.9, 42,3 and 61.9 to 1.1, 0.2 and 0.4, respec-
tively. The lower concentration of NH4 + and the lower ratio in between
NH4 + and NO3 − is an indication of mature compost. At the end of the
composting process the NO3 − concentration was higher as compared to
NH4 + concentration which makes the compost very useful in crop fertil-
izer regimes. Fourti et al. [39] through his experiments found out that
during the first 16 days of the composting process in a windrow W1 ,
NH4 + -N concentration was superior as compared to NO3 − -N concentra-
tion, which was reversed at the end of composting process where the
NO3 − -N concentration became superior to NH4 + -N concentration. Sim-
ilarly, for windrow W2 , NH4 + -N concentration decreased with the pro-
gression of the composting process. Due to dominance of nitrification,
NO3 − -N concentration increased parallel to this fall, but in this case the
speed of appearance of NO3 − -N was slower than the NH4 + -N disappear-
ance. After air-drying, NH4 + -N concentration decreased drastically but
the NO3 − -N concentration increased gradually. The experiment could
be divided into two different phases based on the progress of ammo-
nium ions. In first phase, ammonium concentration is high providing
sufficient materials for nitrifying bacteria and in second phase, rapid
dynamic synthesis of this ion resulting in the increase of nitrate concen-
tration. This presence or absence of nitrifying activity allows knowing
the state of maturity and stability of the compost. This also helps in
comparing the maturity and stability of two different compost samples
to know which one is superior among them. Like in the experiment con-
S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
Fig. 7. Nitrifying activity during the composting process.
ducted by Fourti et al. [39], windrow W1 was more mature than the
windrow W2 .
4.8. Biological test
Plant growth and phytotoxicity are some of the best biological indi-
cators for the estimation of the maturity of compost. Plant growth along
with Phytotoxicity is a simple methodology to understand the perfor-
mance of a stable compost manure produced after complete maturation.
A mature and stable compost manure facilitates the growth of plants and
experiments involving seeds of various plants can be used for this test.
For example, a simple experiment involving radish seeds can be con-
ducted for evaluation, if 3/4th or more of the seed sprout and grow into
radishes, then compost is stable and mature and is ready to use in any
land application (UF/IFAS, compost maturity tests).
Plant tests are mainly classified into two basic types i.e., Germina-
tion test and Growth test. Germination test is a root assessment test
and Cress (Lepidium sativum) is one of the plant species which is com-
monly used for the testing of germination for compost [30]. Cress as a
plant species is mostly used for the test because of its small size seeds
and a faster germination rate under suitable conditions. Phytotoxicity is
given by the germination test and growth test is an assessment of the top
growth and sometimes the root mass. Currently germination bioassay is
mostly applied to measure and relate both the plant growth test output
and phytotoxicity test output with maturity of compost. According to
Selim et al. [67], the compost is mature if the GI value is higher than
60 %. In an experiment conducted by Oktiawan et al. [68] using green
bean plants Vigna radiata the GI increased from 29.13 % on 1st day of
experiment to 104.03 % on 14th day of experiment which suggest that
the phytotoxicity of the compost pile has been lost and the compost is
matured. Inadequate temperature changes are observed during the pro-
cess of composting which was due to growth of weed seeds. When these
seeds remain in the final compost, it reduces the quality of agriculture.
So, plant tests are also important for the assessment of quality.
4.8.1. Germination test
Germinating power of the compost is evaluated by the Germination
test. This test is carried out on a petri dish with proper environmental
conditions suitable for germination. Lepidiun sativum L. seeds are mostly
employed for this test due to their rapid germination property [15]. Due
to the instability of compost, phytotoxic substances are produced by
microorganisms and Germination Index (GI) can be a useful parameter
to measure this phytotoxicity in compost.
GI is described by the equation
GerminationIndex(GI) = (%Germination)x(Lm Sampleroots∕Lm Contr olr oots)
10
Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062
Where, Lm Sampleroots = Avg.lengthofsampleroots
Lm Contr olr oots = Avg.lengthof contr olr oots
The compost generates watery extracts and GI of these extracts is
measured for the assessment of phytotoxicity. These extracts are placed
on a filter-paper on a petri dish which undergoes incubation for some
days at room temperature. Then the percentage of germination and the
average length of roots (Lm sample roots/Lm control roots) are calcu-
lated. By using % germination and average length of roots, GI is calcu-
lated.
4.8.2. Phytotoxicity test
This test is basically carried out to know and observe the potential
toxic effects of various compost samples obtained after the completion
of composting process. English ryegrass is mostly selected for this test as
these seeds grow rapidly. Contrasting results can be obtained by using
ryegrass seeds which is beneficial for the toxicology testing. This test
is basically carried out using pots provided with lower drainage in a
greenhouse. The compost obtained after the completion of composting
process is added to soil and rye-grass seeds are planted there. Then their
growth is observed after 4 weeks exposition period for a single applica-
tion [15]. The loss of phytotoxicity is important for the growth of plants
[68]. With the loss of phytotoxicity, the GI value increases.
4.9. Usage of maturity-stability indices for vermicomposting
Organic biodegradable waste inside any compost bin is degraded
by various microorganisms. In vermicomposting process an extra step
of adding earthworms to organic waste is followed. These earthworms
slowly convert the waste into humus like black colour and odourless
substances called vermicompost [16]. The vermicomposting also occurs
through mesophilic, thermophilic and maturation phases showing al-
most an equal variation in physical, biological, and chemical conditions
as a normal compost. Therefore, most of the maturity-stability indices
that are applied to a compost process can also be applied to evaluate
the vermicompost. Some of the parameters that help in the assessment
of vermicompost maturity/stability are odour, temperature, Germina-
tion Index (GI), pH, EC, Volatile solids (VS), C/N ratio, organic matter
(OM), microbial respiration and respiration indices. All the mentioned
factors are also applied for compost stability and maturity evaluation.
This shows the acceptance of all indices included in the literature for
assessment of the stability and maturity of both composting and vermi-
composting process.
S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
5. Composting bins
Composting technology for solid waste management is usually prac-
tised in open composting, tunnel composting or enclosed composting.
Due to fast urbanization and lack of space it is strenuous to implement
open or tunnel composting in cities or towns. Hence practise of enclosed
composting and adoption of composting bin is the only viable solution.
Composting bins are not only require less space but are also economi-
cally beneficial. It is also easy to operate with a basic knowledge about
the composting process. A composting bin can be installed wherever
required like garden or balcony or even indoors in some cases if the
bin has an odour control facility. Commercially available composting
bins are light in weight and easy to set up. Usage of these bin not only
saves time and money but also helps in reducing waste in a sustainable
manner. It also prevents garden pests and insects to feed on the domes-
tic household waste. Bins are a safer and cleaner way to practice solid
waste management with minimum involvement of an individual for its
maintenance.
There are some essential features for the practical usage of compost-
ing bin to give out the best result. A composting bin should have facility
for mesophilic phase, followed by thermophilic phase and the matur-
ing phase. It must have proper aeration and mixing facility to obtain
a good nutrient rich matured compost and should have an excess wa-
ter (leachate) collection chamber. It should be movable and available
in different dimensions as per the requirement of a family/community
[29]. A shady or a light shaded place is best suited for composting bin to
operate. Out of all the commercially bins stated in the manuscript very
few possess all these features. Practically a composting bin can be built
up by using materials such as plastic, wood or bamboo and plastic is
most preferred to construct the bin due to its lightweight property and
durability [4]. Matured compost obtained can be used in gardens to en-
rich the soil with nutrients, suppressing the plant diseases and help the
soil to retain water. Mature compost can also be sold out commercially
for agricultural use.
5.1. Eco bin
Eco bin is a composting bin manufactured in Bengaluru, India. It is
made up of food grade UV stabilized LDPE impregnated plastic which is
designed for indoor composting. The bin has a top width of 22 cm with a
height of about 35.5 cm and a capacity of 20 litre. Eco bin is also known
as the all-season composter because of its compost producing quality in
every season. All kinds of waste varying from the kitchen waste, green
waste, food waste, veg and non-veg waste, dairy products, citrus fruits,
bread, etc, can be recycled into organic compost with the use of this
bin [68]. The process of composting (in the bin) can either be done by
aerobic (with air) mechanism or anaerobic (without air) mechanism.
Basically, the Eco bin kit comes with a magic microbes Bokashi bran
(for anaerobic) and Coco magic block (for aerobic) [69]. As soon as the
bin is filled with kitchen waste and the microbes are released, decom-
position process of organic waste begins. These fed microbes accelerate
the composting process, while eliminating odors and deterring pests. In
case of Bokashi bran the strainer and the drain tap work in tandem to
drain out the moisture released by the food waste which is used as fertil-
izer. In the case of aerobic composting, the microbes are present in the
coco magic block and the liquid coming out during aerobic compost-
ing pours down in the sink. This bin does not require mixing/stirring,
addition of brown leaves, saw dust, cow dung, etc. It does not attract
any kind of flies, insects or pests which adds to its advantages as a bin.
Table 2 shows various types of composting bin.
5.2. Back porch compost tumbler
The Mantis back porch compost tumbler is made in U.S.A. It is made
up of double walled high-density polyethylene insulated with air cells.
The bin is BPA-free that consists of end caps made up of food grade
11
Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062
plastics. The dimension of the bin is 94 cm (H) x 78.7 cm (W) x 66
cm (L) with a capacity of about 140 litres [63]. The bin is consisting
of a frame made up of polyester powder-coated black steel tubing and
two wheels for easy transportation of the compost into the garden or
wherever needed. Screened vents are provided on both sides of the bin
for air-circulation and maintenance of moisture level in it. These vents
help in draining out the extra moisture (also known as compost tea).
It is also consisting of door latches and removable door for extraction
as well as feeding the waste. Grooves are present on the surface which
helps in turning of compost which is done once in a day and the matured
compost from the bin is extracted in between 4-6 weeks of time.
5.3. Bokashi bin
Bokashi is a Japanese term meaning ‘fermenting organic matter’ and
the square Bokashi composting bin is built in United Kingdom. The term
has gained its meaning and usage in North America and Britain over the
past few decades. Bokashi is a process that converts food waste and
similar organic matter into a soil amendment which adds nutrients and
improves soil texture. It differs from traditional composting methods in
several aspects. This may have caused the adoption of this term and
meaning by the creators of Bokashi bin. This was implemented in 2007
with over 40 units placed around the buildings on Wagga Campus of the
Charles Sturt University. It basically converts food waste into odourless
organic compost and high-quality liquid fertilizer [14,15,89]. It is made
up of plastic having a dimension of 30 cm × 30 cm × 42 cm with a ca-
pacity of 23 litres. The complete kit consists of a 23L Bokashi bin, a lid, 2
kg Bokashi bran, easy twist integrated tap, drainage tray, Bokashi scoop
and Bokashi masher. Bokashi bran is a bran-based material that has
been activated with effective microorganisms, and molasses. Bokashi
is a pleasant-smelling product, when added to the bin, promotes the fer-
mentation of organic matter. The Bokashi bran is enriched with effective
microbes that help in accelerating composting. The process involved in
the bin is very simple where food waste is first added into the Bokashi
bucket, then Bokashi bran is sprinkled over the top until the Bokashi
bucket is full. It is then left for 2 to 3 weeks until completion of fer-
mentation. The liquid fertilizer is drawn out regularly to prevent the
excessive moisture accumulation. Once the process is completed, the
waste is ready to be dug into the garden, added to the compost heap,
or introduced to a wormery to be ’finished off’ if needed for plantation.
Bokashi should no longer attract vermin when put into the composter
as the food has been completely fermented and neutralized by odour.
Some of the other benefits of this composting bin is that it does not
attract any fruit flies as the process does not require air. Cooked and
uncooked food including meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables may be safely
composted, which also helps in rebuilding the soil in the garden.
5.4. EcoStack composting bin
The EcoStack composting bin is fabricated in U.S.A by the Gardener’s
supply company. It is made up of UV-stabilized polyethylene and does
not contain any metal parts to avoid rusting. Its base width is around
70 cm and has a height of about 100 cm that can hold up to 254 litres
of material (food waste + garden waste). EcoStack basically works like
a traditional composting bin with the help of worms to break down
the materials inside the bin. Vents are provided at the sides that help
in circulating oxygen inside the bin which is needed in breaking down
the materials. The bin automatically converts the materials into compost
without turning due to the presence vents. A cover is provided at the top
of the bin, but the bottom is open which allows the worms to freely enter.
The holes at the bottom provided for aeration have a little disadvantage
as that allow the rodents/pests to enter the bin. Hence, it is preferred
to cover the base with cloth or plastic sheets. When the bin is full and
composting is over, all the sections can be simply lifted off, compost will
be removed, composter will be restacked, and unfinished scraps will be
dropped back into it.
 S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
Table 2
Different types of composting Bin available worldwide.

Sl No. Bin Type of Bin Description of the Bin Region

1. Eco Stack Outside use Material - UV Stabilized polyethylene made of thick plastic. Capacity - 260 kg U.S.A
Cost- $128
Distinct feature - Rain catching vent is provided at the bottom with additional aeration vents. No turning required
2. Smart Pot Compost Outside use Material - Polypropylene Fabric U.S.A
Sak Dimension - 76.2 cm wide and 96.52 cm height
Distinct feature - Permeable fabric accelerates microbial activity The fabric allows the air and water through. This allows the compost to cook faster.
3. Back Porch compost Outside - Material - Double walled high density polyethylene. Frame is made up of powder coated tubular steel. U.S.A
Tumbler Garden use Dimension - 94 cm x 78.7 cm x 66 cm
Capacity - 340 kg
Cost- $ 240-200
Distinct feature - Wheels are provided for mobility purpose. Few quick spins can be provided during the composting process which helps in
production of compost in around 4-6 weeks.
4. Tumble Weed Outside, Material - 100 % UV protected recycled plastic. Australia
Garden use Dimension - 36.2” x 31” x 27.5”
Cost - $ 230
Distinct feature - Consists of air vents on both sides and also contains a big hinged door. Attached with a stainless steel breaker bar and powder
coated frame. Wheels are attached for mobility. Spinner is provided for the purpose of mixing.
5. Thermo-King, Plastic Outside - Material - High-density Polyethylene France
Omnium Caraibes Garden use Distinct feature - It is available in variable different sizes. Consists of lateral system with natural ventilation. Bottom panel is provided for compost
extraction.
6. Aeroplus 6000 3- Outside - Material - 50 % recycled polypropylene copolymer. Dutch
Stage Compost Bin Garden use Dimension -79 cm x 79 cm x 110 cm
12

Cost- $ 300
Capacity - 600 kg
Distinct feature - Three stage composter where the process is continuous in nature. Cooking of the compost in the middle portion and maturing at the
bottom. It is sealed at the top with a hinged lid and latching handle. Gravity turns and provide for aeration within the bin as the materials move. Air
vents are provided for air flow.
7. Hungry Bin Outside - Material - Food grade polypropylene New-
Garden use Cost - $350 Zealand
Capacity - 0.6 kg
Distinct feature - Unique design and simple to harvest castings. The hungry bin is a continuous flow system. The unique shape of the bin creates a
large surface area allowing all the worms living in the bin an easy access to the food scraps at the top. It has a fertilizer producing tray at the
bottom. It consists of wheels for ease in transportation.
8. Home Compost Bin- Outside - Material - UV stabilized polyethylene with rust proof insulated foam India
SCB100 Garden use Dimension - It consists of a composting compartment of 70 ltr and compost collecting compartment 30 ltr.
Cost - Rs. 4150
Distinct feature - Consists of holes for ventilation all around the bin. Tap is provided at the bottom for the removal of leachate.
9. Eco Bin Terrace, Material - Plastic India
Balcony use Dimension - Top Width - 22 cm and Height - 35.5 cm
Cost - Rs. 1900
Distinct feature - Composting mechanism can take place both in aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The composter kit comes along with complete
user instructions and a pack of magic microbes bokashi bran (for anaerobic) and coco magic block (for aerobic).

Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062

10. Mattiussi Ecologia, Outside use Material - Polypropylene composition Italy
Model -660. Dimension - 44 and 80 cm top and bottom diameter with a height of 92 cm.
Distinct feature- Suitable for medium/large gardens. Its special construction ensures optimum aeration and weather protection. It provides maximum
ventilation with the help of internal vertical cone and air vents/slits.12-15 months is the suitable time for the efficient use of the bin.
(continued on next page)
 S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
Table 2 (continued)

Sl No. Bin Type of Bin Description of the Bin Region

11. Compost adoreds Plastic Bin Material - HDPE Spain

Model: Combox 450 for Outside Dimension - 70 cm x 70 cm x 103 cm
use Distinct feature - It exists in various shapes and consists of a lateral system for natural ventilation. It allows optimal accessibility, both to deposit
remains and to extract compost partially or totally from any side.
12. Humus Composting Plastic Bin Material - Recycled Polyethylene Polypropylene. Denmark
for Outside Dimension - 48 and 105 cm top and bottom diameter with 95 cm height.
use Distinct feature - It consists of a base plate and a fly net made up of welded hot-dip galvanized steel mesh and nylon. Holes are provided at the
bottom for aeration.
13

13. Envirocycle Rotary Material - Recycled plastic and Aluminum U.S.A

Composter Drum type Dimension- 64.5 cm × 54.6 cm x 70.36 cm
for Outside Distinct feature - The drum, door and compost tea collecting base are made up of food safe, BPA free, UV and antioxidant protected materials. It
use consists of 8 drain plugs to collect the liquid fertilizer. It has an easy to turn drum body which allows regular mixing. Vents are also provided to
increase airflow into the drum.
14. Exaco Juwel Garden use Material - High grade polypropylene, copolymer resin up to 40 % recycled material. Austria
Austrian Compost Dimension - 72 cm x 72 cm x 80 cm.
Bin Distinct feature - It consists of air vents all along its four walls. Hatches on two sides are provided for the removal of compost. No mixing is required.
15. Bokashi Compost Bin Inside use Material - Plastic U.K
Dimension – 30 cm x 30 cm x 42 cm
Distinct feature - Clean and Odorless. Kit consists of bokashi bran. The bin is provided with easily twistable tap, drainage tray, bokashi masher and a
scoop. A simple conversion process is involved.

Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062

S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
5.5. The Envirocycle
Envirocycle is a rotary drum type composting bin made up of recy-
cled plastic and aluminium. The drum, door of the barrel and compost
tea collecting base are made up of high-quality food safe, BPA free, UV
and antioxidant protected materials [30]. The dimension of the bin is
64.5 cm × 54.6 cm x 70.36 cm with the volume of drum being 132.5
litres and its base is having the capacity of 9.5 litres. The drum is con-
sisting of a snap latch and door through which the bin is fed with com-
postable food materials. The matured compost is also removed through
this snap latch and door. The drum is turned or given a complete rev-
olution three times in every three days. After 4 to 8 weeks of time the
bin delivers fresh, earthy smelling, matured and ready to use compost
for the garden. Worms can be used to accelerate the composting process
and generate nutrient rich vermicast. It consists of vents to increase the
airflow into the drum thus helping in aeration and oxygenation. Eight
drain plugs are provided at the base of the bin to collect liquid fertil-
izer (compost tea). The drum of the bin can be rolled down to location
wherever it is needed, which is an advantage of this bin. This process
can also be continued during the freezing winters where the rotation
needs to be minimized.
5.6. Exaco Juwel Austrian Compost bin
Exaco Juwel Austrian Compost bin is manufactured by JUWEL. It
is made up of high-grade polypropylene, copolymer resin up to 40 %
recycled material. The body of the bin is UV stabilized, which helps in
preventing colour fading. It comes in the range of different sizes and
capacities out of which the bin having a capacity of about 292 litres
is the most efficient one. Four walls consist of active aeration system
with integrated air ducts for air flow facility and no mixing is required.
It consists of a rodent resistant base and has hatches on two sides to
remove the compost and consists of hinged lid to prevent the bin from
blowing away with high-speed wind.
5.7. Home compost bin- SCB 100
The SCB 100 compost bin is manufactured in India by Spintech and
it is made up of UV stabilized polyethylene with insulated foam. Its thick
skin gives structural stability to the drum which also helps in retaining
the heat evolved during composting and further accelerating the pro-
cess. The bin has the dimension of 28” x 21” x 18” and the capacity of
the composting compartment is 70 liters and compost collection com-
partment is 30 litres. It can take up to 1-1.5 kg of waste (green + brown)
everyday. It is provided with ventilation holes all around to provide ad-
equate supply of oxygen to the microbes. This will multiply the popu-
lation of microbes and increase the pace and efficiency of composting.
A tap is provided at the bottom to remove leachate. It also consists of a
door at the bottom for the removal of compost. This bin is said to have
a continuous treatment mechanism as the waste is added into the top of
bin and compost is removed via the door located at the bottom [44].
5.8. Humus composter
The humus compost bin is built in Denmark and cone-shaped made
up of recycled PE (Polyethylene) and PP (Polypropylene) weighing 22
kg. The bin has a volume of 320 litres with a height of 95 cm and diam-
eter of 48 cm top and 105 cm bottom. The compost bin includes a lid,
a fine-masked steel net at the bottom (prevents the entry of rats), a side
door (through which the compost can be removed) and a net (to prevent
flies from entering). Holes provided at the bottom to aid aeration and
having a principle like the stoves where the air is sucked at the bottom
and seeps out at the top. A plastic rim acts as a base for the flux chamber
(used to measure the emissions) and is inserted below the lid. The bin
is fed approximately twice a week with organic home waste and low
amount of garden waste with addition of dolomite/garden lime once in
14
Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062
a month. Fresh compost can be extracted within the period of 4 to 12
months depending on different temperatures.
5.9. Model 310, Mattiussi Ecologia
Mattiussi Ecologia is a composting bin manufactured in Italy. It is
made up of polypropylene and has a short conical body with dimensions
of 92 cm (height), 44 cm (top diameter) and 80 cm (bottom diameter)
with a capacity of 310 litres. Upper part of the bin is provided with a
circular opening lid to feed bio waste. A side sliding door is provided on
guides for controlling, sampling and withdrawal of mature compost. The
cylindrical-shaped bottom is provided with channels, slits, an internal
vertical aeration cone with non-clogging holes and additional slits on
the upper rim and beneath the lid for natural aeration.
5.10. Thermo King
Thermo-King, Plastic Omnium Caraibes, France is a compost bin with
a capacity of 400 litres made up of high-density polyethylene [4]. It has a
lateral system with natural ventilation to ensure aerobic conditions. The
first study was carried out in Guadeloupe (one of the French Overseas
Departments in the Caribbean). The organic waste was put through the
top of the composter and mature compost was extracted through two
lower lateral panels. The bins were kept in a flat shaded site and were
fed 2 or 3 times per week. The organic material used for composting
include domestic kitchen wastes (e.g., vegetable matter, cooked food,
coffee grounds, fruit scraps, eggshells and bread) and garden wastes (e.g.
grass clippings, rotten fruits, dead leaves, branches and twigs). Meat,
fish bones and animal faece were not used to prevent bad smells and the
presence of flies, rodents, and parasites. Upper layers of the composter
were mixed every week with a compost mixing tool. Moisture content
of the material was adjusted weakly by adding 5 litres of tap water and
the organic material was composted for approximately 12 weeks. At the
end of the composting process, about 1 kg of compost was extracted
through each lower panel and then both sub samples were mixed and
transported to the laboratory for tests. The results were matching to the
safety standards.
5.11. Tumbleweed compost tumbler
The compost tumbler is manufactured by Tumbleweed, Australia.
This bin is made up of 100 % UV protected recycled plastic and has a
capacity of 140 litres having dimensions of 36.2” (H) x 31” (L) x 27.5”
(W). The bin is fed in a ratio of 50 % garden waste to 50 % kitchen waste
with handful amount of soil. Fish, meat, dairy products, pet droppings
are avoided [90]. The bin is consisted of air vents on both of its side and
two wheels are provided for easy transportation of compost from one
place to another. It also includes stainless steel breaker bar and powder
coated frame. The bin also has a single door which can be locked with
the help of a latch. The door is the gateway for both feeding the bin
and taking out the matured compost. Turning is required to be done
in every two days to get the best results. In 4 to 6 weeks of time from
the starting of composting, the bin becomes ready to deliver the readily
available compost.
5.12. The hungry bin
The bin is designed and made in New Zealand. It uses an effective
and efficient way to process domestic wastes into nutritive natural com-
post with the help of composting worms. A fully functioning bin will
have upto 3 kg (6.5lbs) of composting worms. They are perfect to break
down food particles and help in producing high standard natural fertil-
izer. Over feeding the bin with food may lead to rotting, further result-
ing to be smelly and sticky. This may lead to unfavourable conditions
for the worms to grow and hence decrease their efficiency creating an
anaerobic atmosphere inside the bin [69]. These worms breed faster in
S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
favourable conditions so, the feeding process of the bin should be incre-
mented slowly with time as the worm’s population increases. Initially,
the bin may be fed with the bedding materials (compost, soil, potting
mix, coconut fibre, dead leaves, or shredded paper) which are moistened
followed by addition of the worms (initially with 500 gm which after 6
to 8 months turns into full population by breeding). It is covered with
the food waste and the bin needs to be at least 3/4th full of castings to
work more efficiently. When the castings in the bottom part (floor) are
free from worms and gets clumped together, it signifies for ready to use.
The bin is ideally placed in a shady location with the temperature rang-
ing in between 15 to 25° C. A bin full of castings weighs approximately
125 kg therefore, transporting the bin from one place to another should
be done carefully. A pair of wheels is provided at the bottom for easy
displacement of the bin from one place to another. The bin consists of a
tap through which the excess amount of water (leachate) is drained out
and collected in the base pan.
5.13. Smart pot compost sak
The smart pot compost sak is manufactured in U.S.A. Its design has
been perfected by its manufacturers through 30 years of real-life us-
age [70]. The sak is made up of porous geo-textile fabric which allows
natural aeration and hence promoting the process of composting. The
sak is 76.2 cm wide, 96.52 cm tall and has a capacity of 350 litres. It
needs to be kept at a place which picks up a little moisture and receives
some amount of sunlight. The sak is needed to be fed with leaves, yard
trimmings and kitchen scraps.
5.14. Aeroplus 6000, 3- stage compost bin
The Aeroplus 6000 is a 3-stage vertical composting bin. 50 % of the
bin is made up with 5 mm UV-stabilized polypropylene and has dimen-
sion of 79 cm x 79 cm x 110 cm with capacity of about 600 litres. The
organic waste is first fed into the top chamber of the bin which is wind
protected by an airtight flap. The waste material is then transferred to
the 2nd chamber through the trap door which allows turning of mate-
rial and provides ventilation. The 2nd chamber consists of adjustable air
vents which can be changed as per need. Breaking down of the organic
matter takes place in the 2nd chamber. The degraded waste is then trans-
ferred into the lower maturing chamber by turning the handle manually
and matured compost is collected in about 6-8 weeks of time. Compost
can be extracted through the two large doors provided at the bottom
which prevents the bin from rodents and animals. The matured com-
post does not remain compressed as the bin is a 3 chambered based
model which separates the wastes into different parts. The bin basically
follows the action of gravity for shifting of waste from one chamber to
another. Food scraps can be added continuously, and matured compost
can be extracted regularly as the bin has 3 different composting phases
in one chamber [71].
6. Advantages of composting
Ø Composting is a suitable way of recycling organic solid waste in an
environmentally friendly manner, and it is one of the most economi-
cal and efficient waste management techniques as compared to other
methods of organic solid waste management.
Ø The risk of spreading of pathogens, weed seeds associated with direct
application of manure into the land is reduced with the practice of
using compost as manure.
Ø Composting helps in lowering the greenhouse gas emissions from
landfills, garbage dumps, etc [72].
Ø Specifically, home composting helps in ending the material loop
from collection > transportation > dumping into the landfills at the
source itself as it does not include any organization to be responsible
for above processes [73,74].
15
Energy Nexus 6 (2022) 100062
Ø Home composting avoids the collection of an integral part of munici-
pal solid wastes thus reducing the economic, material, and energetic
investments in infrastructures [75,76,77].
Ø Walling et al. [78] stated that compost being naturally rich in differ-
ent nutrients can be used as a soil fertilizer, which helps in increas-
ing the crop yield, reduces soil erosion and helps in increasing soil
workability. Compost being porous in nature helps in increasing the
water holding capacity of soil. Excess water also known as leachate
generated during the process of composting can be used as a natural
fertilizer [29].
Ø Blending of compost and soil improves the hydrological properties of
soil which further increase the infiltration of water into the soil [79].
In addition to this, composting also helps in trapping and storing the
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Ø Compost helps in significant establishment of vegetative growth. Soil
turns out to have more potential of capturing and storing storm-
water runoff. It further prevents the erosion of soil. Addition of com-
post leads to the decrease in soil density which increase the porosity
and permeability of soil.
7. Current challenges
The current global waste generation is about 2.01 billion tonnes per
year and is expected to rise to 3.4 billion in 2050. Inadequate knowledge
on SWM is the key cause for the lack of implementation of effective and
efficient waste management technology across the globe. A new eco-
nomic pattern of production, consumption, reuse, recycling, and avoid-
ance of wastes is necessary in today’s world. Government institutions,
state and people should be made aware of the usage and benefits of com-
posting as a sustainable tool for SWM and usage of compost manure and
leachate for a circular economy. Developing a strict and suitable legal
system to promote the new economic pattern are a facet to overcome
the challenges faced with respect to SWM [30]. The final product (ma-
tured compost) should establish enough quality for its soil use without
causing any environmental pollution. Knowledge regarding the persis-
tence of organic contaminants in compost is not very well established
worldwide. Implementation of a systematic waste management system
is still needed by various nations where everyone is needed to be aware
of their responsibility regarding SWM.
8. Future recommendations
ü Composting of food waste at home in composting bin is necessary
to facilitate decentralized solid waste management system. This will
not only help in ending the material loop but will also be helpful in
getting good quality manure and fertilizer.
ü The manure and fertilizers obtained after the composting process
are only useful if the compost is matured and stable. So, for more
implication and use of the compost, more studies and tests should
be conducted for the evaluation of maturity. More and more labo-
ratory tests and index should be developed which can be useful for
evaluation of maturity and stability of the compost.
ü The maturity and stability evaluation at home is tedious. Home com-
posting will only be successful if certain tests that can be used at
home are to be researched and developed to evaluate stability and
maturity of compost. For example, without conducting the seed ger-
mination and plant growth tests, the quality of manure and fertilizer
produced at home cannot be checked. So, development of certain
tests or parameters will be helpful to evaluate the quality and ef-
fectiveness of the manure and fertilizer (produced after home com-
posting), so that the compost and leachate produced can be used for
farming and agricultural purpose.
ü The disadvantages of composting like evolution of greenhouse gases
are also a wide area of research. More work should be done to min-
imize these disadvantages without degrading the compost quality.
S. Mahapatra, Md.H. Ali and K. Samal
ü Integration of various techniques and machines such as mechani-
cal aerator, temperature controlling device, moisture controlling de-
vice, etc. within the compost bin can enhance the overall process
of composting which will eventually result in producing high qual-
ity manure and fertilizer. Time and money should be employed in
developing such innovative bins without compromising the price.
9. Conclusion
In the past few decades, SWM is attracted many researchers and sci-
entists. Extensive research is going on to provide a safe and environment
friendly treatment method for the management of solid waste. Com-
posting as treatment technique fits properly in fulfilling all the above-
mentioned criteria. The ability to convert solid organic waste by use
of composting bins (starting from the houses) without the use of any
external energy makes composting a sustainable and unique treatment
technology. The knowledge of the maturity and stability indices helps
in deciding the quality of the compost. With the knowledge of the kind
of waste to be composted and the utility of the compost, one can easily
conduct composting at home and get benefited by the manure produced.
Home composting solves the long-driven issue of the material loop (from
collection to transportation to dumping of waste in landfills). This will
have a huge impact on the society and ecosystem if promoted and en-
couraged properly.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their gratitude to the School of Civil Engineer-
ing, KIIT Deemed to be University for providing necessary facilities to
carry out this work.
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