PSIR Test 03 Model Answers

Ques.1. Political power, properly so-called is merely the organized

power of one class for oppressing another- Marx
• Classical Marxist theory, as propounded by Karl Marx, has been created around the
relationship b/w two parts of human society, i.e. ‘base’ and ‘superstructure’. For
Marx, the economic order of society (forces of production) constituted the base and
socio-political institutions, such as family, school etc. constituted the superstructure.
Marx held that the superstructure has no autonomous existence and is mere reflection
of the base.
• As Marx considered that the economic base controls the superstructure in the society,
he asserted that owners of means of production not only control the economic life of
society, but also adapt the social, legal and political institutions to their own profit
and exploitation. This relationship b/w owners and non-owners get transformed into
class antagonism and class-struggle.
• A/Q to Marx, the dominant class, in order to maintain its stronghold on economic
power, invents a new form of power-political power. The state is the embodiment of
political power. It is, therefore, subservient to the economic power. Thus, a/q to the
class theory, the state neither originates in the will of the people, nor does it stand for
the benefit of society, but is an instrument devised by a dominant class for its own
benefit. It is a product of conscious effect of the dominant class which first acquires
the means of production and thereafter political power ti see it as a machinery to serve
its serve its own interests which involve the exploitation of the dependent (working)
class. The state therefore, is an instrument of oppression and exploitation.

Ques. 2. Political thought of Gramsci is in large measure a

constructive criticism of Karl Marx- Elucidate.
• A/Q to Laski, the work of Karl Marx is an epoch in the history of social philosophy.
The importance of Marx doesn’t lie in originality of his ideas of communism, it lies in
his attempt to turn communism into a great mass movement and a great inspiration to
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action. This is evident in the fact that school of marxism continued even after Marx in
the form of Orthodox Marxism ( represented by Lenin, Stalin, Mao etc . ) and school
of Neo-Marxism represented by scholars like Gramsci.
• A/Q to Marxism, from the dawn of civilization, society was divided into two
antagonistic classes of ‘haves’ and ‘have-notes’ and the entire mechanism of
exploitation and domination is based on the relation of antagonism b/w the two
classes.
• Concepts of Marxist theory are created around the relationship b/w two parts of
human society i.e. base and the superstructure. A/Q to Marx, the base is the economic
structure based on ‘mode of production’ and the legal, political and cultural
structures such as state, church, family etc constitutes the superstructure.
• A/Q to Marx, the ultimate cause of social change and political revolutions is the
changes in the mode of production. He projected that economic base or economic
factors solely determine socio-political relations. He argued that superstructure have
no autonomous existence and is merely a reflection of basic structure.
• Thus, a/q to orthodox Marxists, it is the forces of production which determine the
relations of production and is the sole relevant component of human society, and not
cultural or political component. It is in this context Marxism has been criticized of
‘class reductionism’ and ‘economic determinism.
• Thus, a/q to critics, marxism is prone to commit the dual mistakes of explaining all
historical movement exclusively in economic terms and over-rating the importance of
economic conditions at the same time.
• However, Gramsci, with a zeal to discover the missing link b/w Marxist theory and
the reality of continued exploitation of working class, observed that principal of the
causal primacy of the economic factors was a misconception of the Marxism. He held
that Marx has put over-emphasis on economic factors (base) and neglected the
importance of culture and values (part of superstructure) in determining the highly
complex social phenomena.
• A/Q to Gramsci, the institutions of civil society such as family, church, school etc
exerts power through social norms and culture and restricts the possibilities of actions
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against domination. Gramsci called this function of hegemony which the dominant
class exercises through the society. On the other hand, the political society (state)
represented the coercive power which becomes operative only when ideological
domination (hegemony) fails to maintain the stability of capitalist order.
• In this way, by validating the importance of state, culture and values prevailing in the
superstructure, Gramsci rescued Marxism from being crude economic reductionism.
It is in this context of attempt made by Gramsci, N.Bobbio called him as the
‘theoretician of the superstructure’.

Ques. 3. ‘All men are intellectuals, but not all men in society perform
the function of intellectuals’-(Gramsci)
• The above statement was given by Antonio Gramsci exploring the social and political
role and significance of the intellectuals within the capitalist society. It sets out to
define the intellectual and the nature of what they produce (ideas) and their
relationship to broader class relations.
• A/Q to Gramsci, every person in a society is intellectual who performs some work as
every work requires manual as well as intellectual labour and this has unique
importance in the system of production.
• However, Gramsci has given a very different interpretation to the role played by
intellectuals in a capitalist society. Unlike Marx, who situated intellectuals in relation
to the dominant class forces, Gramsci emphasized on the role played by the
intellectuals in the maintenance of the system by generating such values, life styles
etc.
• Gramsci held the ruling class establishes its hegemony in the society with the help of
intellectuals which form the nexus with the dominant class and perform the role of
making the values of dominant class as common sense values. In this respect, Gramsci
proposed two categories of intellectuals viz traditional and organic intellectuals. The
former category largely refers to those who consider themselves not limited to any
class. In this sense, they’re independent intellectuals.
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• Organic intellectuals, unlike traditional intellectuals, are actively and closely related
or associated with the emergence of dominant class. They help in legitimizing the rule
of one class over the other. For example, in the west, with the growth of capitalism,
the intellectual class like supervisors, managers, doctors etc came into existence.
However, they can be even related to the exploited class in the sense that they can
provide leadership to bring about the revolutionary change in the society as they
emerges from within the exploited class and have the responsibility to produce ‘war
of position’.

Ques.4. Critically examine the contemporary relevance of Hannah

Arendt's concept of 'Banality of Evil'.
• Hannah Arendt's political thought is heterodox and unconventional in the sense that
she has given her meaning to different political concepts. However, the common theme
connecting her unconventional approaches is the concern for participation in civic
affairs.
• The concept of 'banality of evil' came into prominence with Hannah Arendt's book
'Eichmann in Jerusalem'(1963). It is based on the conclusion derived by Arendt from
the trial of Eichmann (the chief architect of Hitler's holocaust).
• From the Eichmann's trial, she concluded that Eichmann came to his willing
involvement with the program of genocide not due to the presence of hatred, but due
to the 'absence of the imaginative capacity that would have made moral and human
dimensions of his activities tangible for him. A/Q to Arendt, he failed to exercise his
capacity of thinking and judgement which would have permitted self-awareness of the
evil nature of his deeds.
• The link b/w the complicity with evil and failure of thinking and judgement led Arendt
to propose the concepts of 'banality of evil'. A/Q to her evil becomes 'banal' or
normalized when it acquires an unthinking and systematic approach.
• Her fundamental thesis is that ghastly crimes are not necessarily committed by
psychopaths and sadists or due to hatred ideology, but by normal human beings who
lack critical reasoning under the influence of 'culture of obedience'. Evil becomes
bamal when ordinary people participate in it and justify it in countless ways. In such
situations, evil becomes faceless and is detached from the moral perception.
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• She argues that absence of human or moral dimensions makes these evils
indistinguishable from any other assigned responsibility. It becomes a part of regular
life. A/q to her, if a crime against humanity becomes a regular feature of life without
being named and opposed, it becomes normal.
For e.g. – Killing of people by vigilante group of 'cow protectors' in India and cases
of ‘honour killing’ are increasingly becoming normal.

Ques.5. “Arendt' s concept of power condemns the use of force or

violence by the state and exhorts the people to cooperate in order to
create and sustain a social order that would be conducive to their
common happiness and freedom.” Comment.
• In the realm of political theory, the idea of power assumes a great importance. It has
been a highly contested concept as it has been interpreted differently by different
schools of thought.
• Conventionally, power is regarded as the exercise of control of one person over
another i.e. power as domination. However A/q to Hannah Arendt, conception of
power is very different from the conventional view about power.
• As against the conventional view on power as ‘power over’, Hannah Arendt proposes
a constructive view of power as ‘power to’. She distinguishes between ‘violence’ and
‘power’ to arrive at a constructive view of power in her talk ‘on violence’.
• A/q to Arendt, power corresponds to the human ability not just to act, but act in
concert. If can never be a property of the individual. She argues that power is ‘sui-
generis’ i.e. it emerges on its own when people come together and disappears when
people go back to their private sphere. In other words, power belong to group and
remains in existence only so long as the group keeps together.
• Arendt proposes power as ‘potentiality in togetherness’ i.e. power springs up b/w men
when they act together and vanishes when they dispose. Thus Arendt thinks of power
as a potential political entity that can only be actualized but never fully materialized.
The only material factor that is required for the emergence of power is the existence
and contested action of people.
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only when ideological domination (hegemony) fails.

• In this way, Gramsci theorized that the dominant class maintains its position through
a mix of sheer force (coercive force through state) and hegemony the control of society
by cultural means. Gramsci asserted that the ' consent' of the ruled is a crucial
difference between the power exercised as domination and power exercised as
hegemony.

Ques. 7. 'India's inclusive approach to Indo-Pacific dilutes Quad's

anti-China purpose'. Discuss . Suggest how India should deal
with the contradictory challenges?
• The concept of 'Quad' (involving Australia, Japan, India and USA) has revived in the
background of the growing profile of China's economy and its strategic assertiveness.
A/Q to C.Raja Mohan the idea of 'Quad' cooperation is inextricably linked to the
Chinese emergence as a great power whose unilateralism drives Asian nations to band
together to reduce the regional imbalances. On its part, China, driven by its concern
regarding the purpose of the 'Quad', consider it as a first step towards the formation
of an 'Asian NATO' with an essentially anti-china strategy which is evident in the
decision to enhance Exercise Malabar – the annual bilateral Indo-US naval exercise
into a quadrilateral construct.
• However, despite Chinese reservations about the purpose of this arrangement in the
Indo-Pacific, the quad as a unit has failed to deliver substantively in terms of
achievements and commitments towards laying a bedrock of a strong security
arrangement in the Indo-Pacific. This is mainly because of the fact that though states
have a conceptual consensus on the primary idea behind the Quad, their individual
political security considerations in the region vis-a-vis other players subtly vary.

India's inclusive approach to Indo-Pacific and its impact on Quad.

• The Quad is essentially rejuvenated against the backdrop of an emerging narrative
for a 'free and open Indo-Pacific' and not much for a pan regional inclusiveness. This
is mainly a result of the acknowledgement of China's heavy militarization and
territorial claims in the south China sea along with its increasing strategic naval
presence in the Indian Ocean as being the main disrupting force in the region.
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• However, while as a unit the Quad seeks to balance China in some ways, India, on the
other hand hasn't drawn a clear line vis-a-vis China in the Indo-Pacific. Thus, despite
being a part of Quad seeking to balance China in the region by establishing a rule-
based order, at the same time, it also talks about an inclusive region which is not
aimed against any particular country(Shangri-la Dialogue 2018)
• As such, this narrative establishes the notion that India's vision of the Indo-Pacific
isn't about balancing restricting China, rather the tilt towards the Quad is merely a
commitment towards shared principles and values. In effect, India's definitive of
inclusiveness in its Indo-Pacific vision dilutes the Quads anti-china purpose.
What India should do?
• India's vision of the Indo-Pacific and its distinctive inclusiveness in the region is
against the premise of mini-literalism that the Quad presupposes. Therefore, the
effectiveness of the Quad would depend upon how much clarity India adds vis-a-vis
its own regional mini-lateralism in the Indo-Pacific.
• Thus, India should outline a clear stance with respect to its engagement on either side
of the spectrum, ie with the rest of the Quad members as well as China.

Ques. 8. Discuss the emerging geo-political and security environment

in the Indo-Pacific region. What are India's stake and responses?
• The term 'Indo-Pacific' is an integrated strategic framework that combines the Indian
Ocean and the pacific Ocean as a single strategic entity. A/Q to Samir Saran, the idea
of 'Indo-pacific' has emerged as a defining geopolitical construct, tying the future of
states from East Africa to East Asia together with big powers such as US,China,India
and Japan. It is in this context, it has been argued that the idea that India and Pacific
Oceans are two different worlds has become increasingly sustainable.
• A/Q to Abhijnan Rej, the dynamics that emerge, out of China’s growing assertiveness
and the rise of idea of Indo-Pacific, is that of military, economic and technological
competition in the region. He argues that Chinese challenge to the maritime
architecture comes in the form of disregard for the international law (South China
Sea); construction of artificial islands; massive connectivity project( BRI), that spams
almost all of the Indo-Pacific, involves huge Chinese infrastructure investments in
small Indo-Pacific littorals such as Sri-Lanka, Maldives, Djibouti etc. On the other
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hand, the upholders od the liberal norms and ideals in the region, represented by the
‘quadrilateral of the US, Japan, India and Australia, individually and collectively
could battle against Chinese assertiveness in the region in two concrete ways

i. It could offer alternative to, what Brahma Chellaney calls as, China’s ‘debt
diplomacy’.
ii. It could signal to China military that the ‘Quad’ states will not tolerate Chinese
hegemony over the Indo-Pacific maritime commons.

• Apart from it, the growing importance of the Indo-Pacific region is evident in the fact
that at the 34th ASEAN summit in Bangkok, its members states have documented
ASEAN’S view on the evolving Indo-pacific concept through ‘ASEAN outlook on the
Indo-Pacific (AOIP). A/Q to Harsh Pant, at a time of the geopolitical contestation b/w
USA and China, it has become imperative for the ASEAN to reclaim its strategic
narrative in its favour so as to underscore its centrality in the emerging regional
order.

India and the Indo-Pacific

India doesn’t see the Indo-Pacific region as a club of limited members against any
particular country. India supports a rule based, balanced and stable trade
environment in the Indo-Pacific region. Security in the region must be maintained
through dialogue, a common rule-based order, freedom of navigation and settlement
of disputes in accordance with international law. In short, for India, ‘a free, open,
prosperous and inclusive Indo-Pacific regions serves the long term interests of all
countries in the region and the of the world at large’.
• Therefore India's strategy aims to secure India's economic and strategic interests in
the Indo-Pacific region
i. India and France signed the 'Agreement for the provision of reciprocal logistics
support b/w their Armed forces'. This is an important step given the wide range of
French military bases in Indian Ocean (Djibouti, Abu Dhabi and Reunion Island).
ii. India-Indonesia relationship has been elevated to the level of 'Comprehensive
strategic Partnership'. In addition Indonesia has agreed to give access to the strategic