Antonio Francesco Gramsci

• Gramsci’s model of history

• Concept of Hegemony
• Concept of civil society
• Concept of integral society
• Gramsci’s theory of revolution
• Gramsci’s analysis of intellectual class
 Introduction
While Marxism has met with certain definite political failures, it has
withstood the test of time and academic achievements.

Marxism has shown itself as a successful social analytical theory

particularly from the point of view of subaltern masses struggling for
their emancipation.

Antonio Gramsci, an Italian Marxist, is one among those who have been
very much instrumental to changes and developments in present day
Marxism.
Gramsci is founder of communist party of Italy. Contemporary of Mussolini.

Gramsci joined to work in the Socialist Party of Italy and the October Revolution of 1917 in Russia
inspired him to become a Marxist.

The second greatest personality in the history of Marxism.

Gramsci has saved Marxism from the criticism of crude economic determinism.

Since Gramsci was put behind the bar, Gramsci had no access with respect to the changes happening
outside. Gramsci wrote on pieces of paper which were later published as ‘prison notebook’.

It is said that the advisors of Mussolini advised him that Gramsci should not allowed thinking.
Prominent contributions of Gramsci

Concept of Concept of civil Concept of

Hegemony society integral society

Gramsci’s
Gramsci’s theory
analysis of
of revolution
intellectual class
 Gramsci’s model of history
The Gramsci has given 3 layered structures. According to Gramsci elements of superstructure are not just the reflection
of base but structures in themselves. He divided superstructure into 2 levels: Civil society and State.

State

School Church Media State

Integrated
State
Civil Society
Economic Structure
Gramsci has given more serious thoughts on the elements of
superstructure and hence Gramsci is also known as the theoretician of
superstructure. In this way Gramsci rescue Marxism from being crude
economic determinism.

“Men make their own history but they do not make it as they please.
They do not make it under self selected circumstances; but
circumstances existing already, giving and transmitted from the past”

• According to historical materialism economical structure is the basic structure of the

society. A structure constrains choices.
• Human beings are not autonomous agent. They are not free to choose. Their choices are
shaped by the system e.g. if economical system is capitalist then capitalist even if he
want he cannot give higher wages because his actions are constrained.
Though Marx suggest that humans are not autonomous yet Marx is not pessimistic.
He believes that man can shape history. Once working classes come out of false
consciousness they will develop true consciousness. They will overthrow the
exploitative system of capitalism.

Marx has applied the laws of dialectics.

• Seeds of communism are inherent in capitalism. Capitalism is full of
contradictions. Capitalists dig their own graves.
• Capitalism is bound to collapse workers are the progressive classes. They are on
the right of side of the history.

Capitalists even when they resist the change they will not be successful hence despite
being deterministic Marx is optimistic.
 Relevance of Marx

The biggest reason to put question mark on relevance

of Marx is collapse of communism around the world.
• Russia adopted neo-liberal economic model. China had adopted
market modelling back in 70s itself. India also left command
economy and had gone for structural adjustment programs.
• Towards the end of 1990s we see the hegemony of neo-liberal ideas
and expansion of globalisation based on neo-liberal ideas.
• American scholar Frans Kuky Yama describes the moment not just
end of cold war but the end of history. He described western liberal
democracy as the end point of man’s ideological evolution.
Relevance of Marxism has also been questioned because Marxism
remains an utopia, whatever practical form of communism that has
emerged is equated with totalitarianism by western scholar.
• Karl Pauper called Marx as enemy of open society. However if we look at the
developments since September 11, 2001 we cannot say that there is a universal
acceptance of western liberal model.
• We cannot say that end of history has happened as globalisation has progressed
there has been a growth of inequalities.
• Thoman Piketty in his book ‘capital in 21st century’ has given evidences about the
phenomenal rise of inequality since 2008 western world is going through the
economic crisis.
• The future of neo-liberal projects like EU remains under threat. Since global financial
crisis there has been a renewed interest in class capital of Karl Marx.
 Structuralism
Structuralism is supposed to be scientific approach in social sciences. It is
based on the assumptions that there are some structures or elemental,
fundamental aspects of reality.

What is Gramsci’s analysis?

• Gramsci felt that Marx has taken elements of superstructure lightly they are not just the
reflection of the base but they are structure in themselves. We cannot take it for granted
that if material structure changes, superstructure will automatically change.
• We cannot take it for granted that if mode of production becomes socialists all other
institutions will change on its own. Hence he suggests the need for deeper analysis of the
institutions of the civil society.
• Gramsci suggested that working class need to learn how bourgeoisie have established their
domination (control). Bourgeoisie class established their domination not just by controlling
the means of production but also controlling the ideology and culture i.e. means of
production of ideology and culture. Gramsci talks about the concept of hegemony.
 Concept of Hegemony
Site of hegemony
• Civil society is the site of hegemony. It is a location where hegemony is manufactured.
Often we overlook the role of civil society in maintaining the domination of
bourgeoisie class.
• Civil society acts silently. Civil society is much nearer to base than state. Civil society
acts as a cushion or a shock absorber. The states where strong civil society exists,
where media has freedom, where educational institutions are autonomous it is more
difficult to bring revolution.
Gramsci categories states into two types:
• Transparent state: In transparent state civil society is absent so the exploitative
nature of state is visible and revolution is easy.
• Opaque state: In opaque state where civil society exists it is able to hide the real
nature of the state and so revolution is difficult.
 Gramsci’s theory of intellectuals

Common understanding about intellectuals

• Common understanding is that intellectuals tell the truth.
• Gramsci’s understanding; intellectuals are not neutral their theories hide more truth than
revealing the truth. They do not tell the truth they manufacture the truth.
• According to Gramsci, all men all intellectuals but everyone does not perform the
functions of intellectuals.

What he means when he say all are intellectual?

• All jobs require the use of intellectual even manual job requires intellect. Gramsci talks
about those intellectual classes perform the role of manufacturing hegemony and
generating consent.
• It is the intellectual class which make the values of dominant class as a commonsense
value.
 Gramsci categories intellectuals into two types
01. Traditional intellectual
• Gramsci has explained traditional intellectuals with reference to the rise of capitalism. There were
certain intellectual where Gramsci has focused on the role of church fathers.
• These intellectual were the supporter of feudal class and initially resistant to the new class. Once
feudalism ended, they stopped resisting the new dominant class and bourgeoisie also incorporated
them.
• Traditional intellectuals also give the impression of neutrality. It is much easier for them to make the
impression because their growth is not linked organically to the dominant class.

02. Organic intellectual

• The class of intellectuals whose emergence is organically linked to the emergence of the dominant
class are treated as organic intellectuals e.g. in the west with the growth of capitalism the intellectual
class like supervisors, manager, doctors, engineers, civil servants came into existence.
• In case of India we can give the examples of zamindars, civil servants as organic intellectuals which
emerged as per the requirement of British Raj.
Both organic and traditional intellectuals play the role of manufacturing consent.
 Hegemony means something more specific than power and
domination

Power is a central concept of political theory.

• All concepts of politics power remains a contested concept. Different scholars define power different.
• Different scholars also bring forward different dimensions of power. The purpose of power is to get things done
by others.
• We have been familiar with the coercive dimension of power, when Marx uses the term power or power of the
state in the interest of bourgeoisie class he points towards the coercive form of power.

Gramsci has brought another dimension of power which he preferably calls as hegemony
• Hegemony is soft power it is an invisible power. If coercive power of society is located in the state, hegemony is
located in civil society, when hegemony is manufacturing consent, intellectuals play major role in
manufacturing hegemony.
• Hegemony constitutes the values of the dominant class. It is because of hegemony that these values appear as
commonsense.
• Thus Gramsci highlight the ideological power and ideological domination. He suggests the need to build counter
hegemony. He suggests the two stage revolution i.e. war of ideas and war of manoeuvre.