Gramsci

Intro : Gramsci was a contemporary of Mussolini. In his Prison notebooks,

he gives the concept of integral state with the civil society, economic
structure and the state

most original political thinker in Western Marxism , second only to Marx

himself. he is considered as father of neo-marxism.

-power se related aaye toh

Intro: power central concept yet contested, Steven

Lukes classified diff conceptions of P as 3 faces of power-

P as domination (hobbes),

Power as agenda setting(Marx),

Power as thought control process(Gramsci, foucoult)

Gramsci has given very deep insight about the phenomena and structure of
power in Bourgeioise society. He has given concept of power as thought
control process by which he highlights the invisible power which he calls
as hegemony

1930-1945 - Contemporary of Mussolini ,

Age
Gandhi
Place Italy
• Worried that Marxist predictions not coming true •
Wanted to reanalyse Marx’s understanding of history
Concern
• Benedetto Croce —
> Cultural Factors in shaping history
Influences • Benedetto Croce • Machiavelli • Karl Marx
Books • Prison Notebooks
Key
• Cultural Hegemony • Counter hegemony
Principles

1. CONCEPT OF HEGEMONY
o The concept of hegemony first appeared in Gramsci’s Notes on the
Southern Question (1926), where it was defined as a system of
class alliance in which a “hegemonic class” exercised political
leadership over “subaltern classes” by “winning them over”.
o Gramsci noted that the real source of strength of the ruling
classes in the West is manifested in their spiritual and cultural
Gramsci 1
 supremacy. These classes manage to inculcate their values system
in the mind of their people through the institutions of civil
society. Gramsci particularly focused on the structures of
domination in the culture of capitalist society.
o The conventional Marxist theory had held that the economic mode
of production of any society constituted its base while its legal
and political structure and various expressions of its social
consciousness including religion, morals, social custom, and
practices constituted its superstructure.
o The character of the superstructure was determined by the
prevailing character of its base. During social development, the
changes in the base led to the corresponding changes in the
superstructure. So, it focused on changes in the base; the
superstructure was not regarded to deserve independent analysis.
Gramsci did not accept this position.
o He suggested that the superstructure of contemporary Western
society had attained some degree of autonomy; hence its analysis
was also necessary. (Difference between Marx and Gramsci)
o Gramsci particularly focused on the structures of domination in
the culture of bourgeois society. He identified two levels of
this superstructure:
o Political Society or State which resorts to coercion to maintain
its domination. The whole organization of the government comes
within its purview. The structures associated with this part of
the superstructure are called ‘structures of coercion’
o Civil Society which resorts to obtaining the consent of the
citizens to maintain its domination. This part of the
superstructure is closer to the base and is relatively
autonomous. The structures associated with this part are called
‘structures of legitimation’. Gramsci pays special importance to
this part of the superstructure.
o In Gramsci's view, hegemony is a form of "intellectual and moral
leadership" that a ruling class establishes within society. This
leadership extends beyond the realm of the state and permeates
civil society, encompassing institutions like schools, churches,
media, and the family. Through these institutions, the ruling
class shapes the values, beliefs, and norms of society, leading
to a broad acceptance of their worldview and way of life. These
structures lend legitimacy to the rule of the bourgeois class so
that even injustice involved in this rule would carry the
impression of justice. That is why these are called ‘structures
of legitimation’. They enable the bourgeois society to function
in such a manner that the ruling classes seem to be ruling with
the consent of the people. When the power is apparently exercised
with the consent of its subject, it is called ‘hegemony ‘.
o Hegemony is not a static concept; it is constantly being
contested and renegotiated by various social groups. As Gramsci
observed, "The struggle for hegemony is also the struggle over
the social and political terrain of society." Subordinate groups,
such as the working class, can challenge the hegemony of the
ruling class by developing their own counter-hegemonic ideas and
institutions.

Gramsci 2
 2. Counter Hegemony
o Counter-hegemony is a concept developed by Italian Marxist
Antonio Gramsci to describe the efforts of subordinate groups to
challenge and undermine the existing hegemonic order. Gramsci
argued that hegemony, the dominance of one group's worldview and
values over society, is not simply maintained through coercion
but also through the consent of the governed. Counter-hegemony,
therefore, seeks to challenge this consent by developing
alternative ideas, values, and institutions that can eventually
replace the existing hegemonic order.
o Gramsci believed that counter-hegemonic struggle must be waged
in both the political and cultural spheres. In the political
sphere, this means organizing and mobilizing subordinate groups
to challenge the power of the ruling class. In the cultural
sphere, this means producing alternative forms of knowledge,
art, and media that can challenge the dominant worldview.
o Counter-hegemonic struggle is an ongoing and often protracted
process. It is not simply a matter of overthrowing the ruling
class; it is also about building a new society based on different
values and principles. Gramsci believed that this process is
necessary for true social change.
o Examples of Counter-Hegemonic Struggle:
▪ The labor movement, which has fought for workers' rights
and challenged the power of capital.
▪ The civil rights movement, which fought for racial equality
and challenged the segregationist policies of the United
States government.
▪ The feminist movement, which has fought for women's
equality and challenged patriarchal norms.
▪ The environmental movement, which has fought for
environmental protection and challenged the unsustainable
practices of capitalism.
▪ These are just a few examples of the many counter-hegemonic
movements that have emerged throughout history. These

Gramsci 3
 movements have played a crucial role in challenging the
existing power structures and building a more just and
equitable society.

The Importance of Counter-Hegemony:

o Counter-hegemony is important because it provides a way for

subordinate groups to challenge the status quo and advocate for
their own interests. It is also important because it can help to
build a more just and equitable society. When subordinate groups
are able to challenge the dominant worldview, they can begin to
create a world that is more inclusive and representative of all
voices.

3. ‘WAR OF POSITION & ‘WAR OF MANOEUVRE’

War of Position

1. A war of position is a long-term, protracted strategy that seeks

to achieve hegemony, or the dominance of one group's worldview
and values over society. This strategy is typically used by
subordinate groups that are unable to overthrow the ruling class
through a direct frontal assault.
2. Gramsci argued that a war of position is necessary in advanced
capitalist societies, where the ruling class is entrenched in
the institutions of civil society, such as schools, churches,
and the media. In these societies, subordinate groups must first
build a counter-hegemony, or an alternative set of ideas, values,
and institutions, before they can challenge the ruling class for
power.

War of Maneuver

Gramsci 4
 o A war of maneuver is a short-term, decisive strategy that seeks
to overthrow the ruling class through a direct frontal assault.
This strategy is typically used by revolutionary groups that
believe that the conditions are ripe for a popular uprising.
o Gramsci argued that a war of maneuver was no longer possible in
advanced capitalist societies, where the ruling class is well-
organized and has a monopoly on violence. In these societies,
revolutionary groups must first build a war of position before
they can launch a war of maneuver.

Key Differences between War of Position and War of Maneuver

Feature War of Position War of Maneuver

Goal Achieve hegemony Overthrow the ruling class
Strategy Long-term, protracted Short-term, decisive
Cultural and ideological
Methods Direct frontal assault
struggle
Advanced capitalist Pre-industrial or early industrial
Conditions
societies societies

Example of War of Position: The Civil Rights Movement

Example of War of Maneuver: The French Revolution

4. Concept of Ideology

Gramsci viewed ideology as a dynamic and contested force that shapes

how we understand ourselves, our relationships, and the world around
us. He argued that ideology is not merely a set of ideas but a material
practice embedded in the institutions, norms, and cultural practices
of society.

o Gramsci’s conception of ideology is essentially found in his

‘Prison Notebooks’. Yet, Gramsci does not provide any systematic
treatment of ideology. One has to reconstruct his conception of
ideology within the general context and conceptual pattern that
Gramsci 5
 he provides. Hegemony implies the ways or relations in and by
which the ruling bloc/elite provides the ‘consent’ of people in
civil society for its rule/domination.
o Whether hegemony implies also the coercive means of domination
is a matter of discussion, yet it is mostly understood as based
on consent. Ideology is one of the means or levels, along with
political or economic ones, through which hegemony is
established.
o Thus, hegemony includes ideology, but cannot be reduced to it.
Ideology is neither a false consciousness nor a system of ideas,
according to Gramsci, but conceived as a “lived, habitual social
practice”.
o It creates the terrain on which men move, acquires consciousness
of their position, struggle, etc.” One can say that this terrain
is an amalgam of civil society and common sense, two key concepts
for Gramsci’s conception of ideology.
o Civil society means as formulated by Eagleton, “the whole range
of institutions intermediate between state and economy”. It is
the main area where hegemony is to be constituted.

Key Elements of Gramsci's Concept of Ideology:

1. Ideology as Material Practice: Gramsci emphasized that ideology

is not just a matter of ideas; it is embedded in the material
practices and institutions of society. Our everyday experiences,
interactions, and the cultural products we consume are all shaped
by ideological forces.
2. Ideology and Hegemony: Gramsci linked ideology to the concept of
hegemony, which refers to the dominance of one group's worldview
and values over society. Ideology plays a crucial role in
establishing and maintaining hegemony by shaping the beliefs,
values, and norms that are considered common sense.
3. Ideology as Contested Terrain: Gramsci argued that ideology is
not a fixed or static concept; it is constantly being contested
and renegotiated by various social groups. Subordinate groups
can challenge the dominant ideology by developing their own
counter-hegemonic ideas and institutions.

Ideology in Civil Society

Gramsci particularly focused on the role of ideology in civil society,

which refers to the non-state institutions and organizations that
shape our social and cultural lives. These institutions, such as
schools, churches, the media, and the family, play a crucial role in
transmitting and reinforcing dominant ideologies.

Examples of Ideology in Action:

1. Gender Roles: The pervasive belief that men are naturally suited
for leadership and women for domestic roles is an example of how
ideology shapes our understanding of gender roles and reinforces
gender inequality.

Gramsci 6
 2. Nationalism: The belief in the superiority of one's nation and
the importance of national pride is an example of how ideology
can be used to mobilize and divide populations.
3. Consumerism: The promotion of constant consumption and material
goods as the path to happiness is an example of how ideology can
shape our values and priorities.

5. Intellectuals

o GRAMSCI - Biased role of intellectuals — Nexus between

Intellectuals class and dominant class
o Considered as neutral — tell the truth — high degree
of respect in the society
o Intellectuals are deputies of the dominant class
o Ideas of the ruling class == Ruling ideas
o not possible to come to or remain in power w/o intellectuals
o Role in manufacturing consent
o 2 groups
▪ Organic intellectuals
▪ In reference to rise in capitalism
▪ With emergence of capitalism —> Other classes besides
capitalists also came into existence
▪ Supervisors, engineers, public servants - fulfil diff
functions associated with capitalist economy
▪ In case of India — British — Zamindars and civil
servants
▪ Played an important role in maintaining the
domination of British
▪ Similarly OI - promote such values — support
domination of bourgeois class
▪ Traditional Intellectuals
▪ In reference to capitalism
▪ Existed before capitalism — Church fathers
▪ Feudal society —> Promoting values
supporting aristocracy — resisted change
▪ But once Capitalist society got established —
Started supporting the capitalist class
▪ Capitalist class integrated them also
o Capitalist class - maintained its domination — By Coalition of
Classes — who may not have identical but common interests
o So suggests - working class to develop a coalition of classes
— Coalition of Subaltern class
▪ Have some organic intellectuals of their own - technicians
and supervisors
▪ Some traditional ones also
o Thus working class needs to fight at 2 levels
▪ War of position
▪ War of manoeuvre

Gramsci 7
 o Gandhian movement was called a Gramscian movement as it was a
long draw out struggle against the British hegemony, with Gandhi
as the organic intellectual of the Indian masses.
o Acc to G - All men are intellectuals, but all do not perform the
role of intellectuals
▪ Every work requires some amount of intellectual labour —
no work is fully manual
▪ However, some intellectuals — specific function of
manufacturing consent.
5. CONCEPT OF HISTORICAL BLOC
o Gramsci's concept of the historical bloc challenges the
traditional Marxist notion of the base or structure (economic
relations) determining the superstructure (political and
cultural institutions and ideas). Instead, he proposes a more
nuanced understanding where the two elements are mutually
constitutive.
o The structure, represented by the economic base, encompasses the
material conditions of society, including the means of
production, the division of labor, and the distribution of
wealth. The superstructure, on the other hand, comprises the
political and cultural institutions, such as the state, legal
system, education system, and cultural norms.
o Gramsci uses the concept as a homogeneous politico-economic
alliance that does not have internal contradictions.
o Stephen Gill argues that a historical bloc is a process that is
initiated by a conscious social force that intends to establish
a new hegemony. In Stephen Gill’s words mentioned in Power and
Resistance in the New World order “A historical bloc refers to
a historical congruence between material forces, institutions
and ideologies, or broadly, an alliance of different class forces
politically organised around a set of hegemonic ideas that gave
strategic direction and coherence to its constituent elements.
Moreover, for a new historical bloc to emerge, its leaders must
engage in consciously planned struggle. Any new historical bloc
must have not only power within the civil society and economy,
but it also needs persuasive ideas, arguments and initiatives
that build on, catalyse and develop its political networks and
organization – not political parties”
o The concept of the historical bloc is important because it refers
to a moment during the process of change that indicates that a
political party has been built and is seeking to establish
hegemony. To do that, Gramsci argued that this social class,
through its political party, has to organise other social classes
and political parties as well to take part in their wider
political, economic alliance, which in theory by Gramsci called
a “historical bloc”.
o In that process, the organic intellectuals of the political party
and the social class also play a fundamental role in producing
the persuasive ideas and arguments needed in convincing other
classes to be a part of their historical bloc, thus their
upcoming hegemony.

Gramsci 8
 o However, as Anne Show stack Sassoon rightly points out, “a
historical bloc is not to be reduced to a mere political alliance
since it assumes a complex construction within which there can
be sub-blocs such as, for example, an agrarian bloc, a complex
formation of its own right, and an industrial bloc, each of these
containing different elements and potential contradictions. The
historical bloc can produce various political blocs made up of
different combinations of political allies which nonetheless
maintain the general configuration of the fundamental historical
bloc.”
o Sassoon explains, “the historical bloc in implying necessarily
the existence of hegemony also implies that to create a new
historical bloc alternative to the existing one, the new,
progressive class must create its hegemonic apparatuses.”
o How the working class is able to do this, according to Gramsci,
is through the party. Thus, for Gramsci, the historic bloc was
a situation when both objective and subjective forces combined
to produce a revolutionary situation. It is a situation when
older is collapsing and their people with the will and historical
insight to take advantage of the situation.
6. Gramscian view of state
o Gramsci rejected the traditional Marxist view of the state as a
mere instrument of coercion, an "apparatus of repression" in the
hands of the ruling class. Instead, he proposed a more
comprehensive understanding of the state as an "integral" entity,
encompassing both political society and civil society.
o Political society, according to Gramsci, represents the coercive
aspect of the state, comprising institutions like the government,
the police, and the military. It maintains order and enforces
the law, ensuring the continuation of the ruling class's
dominance.
o Civil society, on the other hand, encompasses non-state
institutions and organizations, such as schools, churches, the
media, and the family. These institutions play a crucial role in
shaping public opinion, disseminating dominant ideologies, and
reinforcing cultural norms that support the existing power
structure.
o Gramsci argued that the state's power is not solely based on
coercion but also on consent, which is achieved through the
ideological and cultural hegemony exercised by the ruling class
in civil society. The ruling class maintains its hegemony by
shaping the beliefs, values, and norms that are considered common
sense, making its rule seem natural and inevitable.
o Relations between the political, economic, and cultural
ideological spheres have been transformed since Antonio Gramsci.
From the Gramscian perspective, the base/superstructure model is
inverted. From Marx’s perspective the `economic structure’ is
the primary and subordinating one, while the superstructure is
the secondary and subordinate one. In Gramsci, it is the
opposite.
o Perry Anderson argues that in “Gramsci hegemony means the
ideological subordination of the working class by the

Gramsci 9
 bourgeoisie, which enables it to rule by consent. In Gramsci,
the state is an instrument of socialisation and cultural
transformation, of passing on, and disseminating, world views
and ideology. Hence, he argues that the entire function of the
state has been transformed; the state has become an educator.”
o The Gramscian inversion : belief, consensus, and agreement are
the basis of state power rather than state power being the basis
of belief and consensus.

Key Concept Description

Gramsci viewed the state not just as an instrument
State as an
of coercion but also as a means of achieving
Apparatus of
hegemony, the dominance of one group's worldview and
Hegemony
values over society.
Gramsci argued that the state is not a monolithic
entity but a complex totality, encompassing both the
State as a
coercive apparatus (the government, police,
Totality
military) and the ideological apparatus (schools,
media, religious institutions).
Gramsci emphasized that the state is not a static
State as a institution but a dynamic historical bloc, shaped by
Historical Bloc the ongoing struggle for hegemony between different
social classes or groups.
Gramsci saw the state as a site of constant
State as a Site contestation, where subordinate groups can challenge
of Contestation the dominant hegemony and potentially transform the
state's role and functions.

7. Some value addition

Scholars positive views:

Gramsci 10
 1. Robert Cox: A British scholar who developed the concept of `world
order' to analyze the global distribution of power and the role
of hegemony in maintaining the existing international order.
2. Stuart Hall: A Jamaican-British sociologist who applied
Gramsci's concept of hegemony to cultural studies, exploring how
dominant ideologies are produced, disseminated, and contested
within cultural institutions and practices.
3. Raymond Williams: A British cultural theorist, Williams drew
upon Gramsci's ideas to analyze the role of culture in
maintaining and challenging hegemony. He explored how dominant
ideologies are embedded in everyday language, cultural
practices, and institutions, shaping our understanding of the
world and our place within it.
4. Carl Boggs: A historian and political activist, Boggs applied
Gramscian concepts to analyze the African American struggle for
freedom and equality. He emphasized the importance of cultural
and ideological struggle in challenging racial oppression.
5. Chandra Talpade Mohanty: An Indian-American feminist scholar who
employed Gramsci's concepts to analyze gender oppression and
feminist struggles, emphasizing the importance of counter-
hegemonic strategies.
6. Ernesto Laclau: An Argentine political philosopher who developed
the concept of `post-foundationalism' to examine how hegemonies
are constructed and maintained through contingent and unstable
power relations.
7. Judith Butler: An American philosopher and gender theorist who
utilized Gramsci's ideas to explore the performative nature of
gender and the role of hegemonic discourses in shaping gender
identities.

Scholar’s criticism:

1. Ralph Miliband: A British Marxist political theorist who

criticized Gramsci's concept of hegemony for downplaying the
role of the state in maintaining capitalist dominance. Miliband
argued that the state is not simply a tool of the ruling class
but is instead an autonomous institution with its own interests.
2. Joseph Schumpeter: An Austrian-American political economist who
criticized Gramsci's concept of hegemony as being too vague and
lacking in empirical support. Schumpeter argued that hegemony is
not a distinct concept but rather a form of political leadership
that can be achieved through various means, including both
coercion and consent.
3. Nicos Poulantzas: A Greek Marxist political theorist who
criticized Gramsci's concept of the historical bloc for failing
to adequately account for the role of contradictions and
conflicts within the capitalist system. Poulantzas argued that
the state is not simply a product of the historical bloc but is
instead a relatively autonomous force that shapes the historical
bloc itself.
4. Norberto Bobbio: An Italian philosopher and political scientist
who criticized Gramsci's concept of the historical bloc as being

Gramsci 11
 too deterministic and overlooking the role of individual agency
in shaping history. Bobbio argued that social change is not
simply a product of the struggle between different social classes
but is also influenced by the actions and choices of individuals.
5. Giovanni Sartori: An Italian political scientist who criticized
Gramsci's concept of the war of position and war of maneuver as
being too simplistic and not applicable to all political
situations. Sartori argued that the distinction between the two
strategies is not always clear-cut and that both coercion and
consent may be used in both types of struggles.
6. Bob Jessop: A British Marxist sociologist and political theorist
who criticized Gramsci's concept of hegemony for its emphasis on
ideology and culture, arguing that it neglects the material basis
of power. Jessop argued that the state is not simply a product
of ideology but is instead a material institution that is
embedded in the capitalist mode of production.
7. John Keane: An Australian political scientist who criticized
Gramsci's concept of the state as being too monolithic and not
capturing the diversity of state forms and their relationship to
society. Keane argued that the state is not a single entity but
rather a network of institutions with varying degrees of autonomy
and power.
8. Theda Skocpol: An American political sociologist who criticized
Gramsci's concept of the state as an integral entity for
overemphasizing the state's autonomy and downplaying the role of
social forces and historical conjunctures in shaping state power.
Skocpol argued that Gramsci's focus on the state's internal
dynamics overlooked the external constraints and opportunities
that shape state action.

Overall criticism

1. Overemphasis on Ideology: Some critics argue that Gramsci's

emphasis on ideology and hegemony overlooks the material
realities of power and class struggle. They suggest that
Gramsci's focus on cultural and ideological factors downplays
the role of economic factors and material conditions in shaping
political outcomes.
2. Pessimistic View of Subordinate Groups: Gramsci's concept of war
of position, which emphasizes the protracted nature of
challenging hegemony, has been criticized for presenting a
pessimistic view of the ability of subordinate groups to bring
about social change. Critics suggest that Gramsci's emphasis on
the power of the ruling class to maintain hegemony may
underestimate the potential for resistance and transformative
action from subordinate groups.
3. Vagueness and Ambiguity: Some critics have pointed to the
vagueness and ambiguity of certain Gramscian concepts, such as
the precise definition of hegemony and the historical bloc. They
argue that these concepts lack clear operationalization, making
it difficult to apply them rigorously in empirical research.

Gramsci 12
 4. Eurocentrism: Gramsci's work has
Eurocentric focus, primarily drawing
develop his theories. Critics argue
fully translate to other cultural
limiting the generalizability of his
been criticized for its
on European experiences to
that his insights may not
and historical contexts,
ideas.

9. PYQS
1. According to Gramsci, 'hegemony is primarily based on the
organization of consent.' Comment. [250words, 20marks] [2019]
2. Comment on Gramsci’s concept of hegemony. [2016/10m/150w/1e]
3. Discuss Gramsci’s notion of organic intellectuals.
[2015/15m/200w/4b]
4. Explain, as per Gramsci, the distinction between hegemony and
domination. [2013/15m/200w/2c]

Gramsci 13