A101 | Understanding the Self

Jervis Gonzales

Underscored by Socrates’ philosophy “ know thyself , ” show that understanding the

nature of the self is a primary concern throughout history.
• Thus, the philosophical questions, “who am I?” and “what am I?”
• Understanding the nature of the self is not simple – it takes time and effort.
• The course on Understanding the Self explores on key concepts, issues, and concerns
regarding the self and identity to arrive at a better understanding of one’s self.
• It strives to meet this goal by looking at a variety of explanations from different
disciplines.
• The self is sometimes referred to as the “soul, ” “ego, ” “psyche, ” “identity, ” “I, ” “me, ”
“am, ” or “being”.
• The self is the sense of who we are.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

• The etymological definition of philosophy is love of wisdom.
• Philosophy employs the inquisitive mind to discover the ultimate causes, reasons, and
principles of everything.
• The nature of the self is a topic of interest among philosophers.
• The philosophical framework for understanding the self as first introduced by ancient
Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato.
• Socrates suggests to “know thyself.”
• What is self and the qualities that define it?
• Philosophers agree that self-knowledge is a prerequisite to a happy and meaningful
life.

Notable Philosophers:
• SOCRATES: AN UNEXAMINED LIFE IS NOT WORTH LIVING
• PLATO: THE SOUL IS IMMORTAL
• ARISTOTLE: THE SOUL IS THE ESSENCE OF THE SELF
• ST. AUGUSTINE: I AM DOUBTING, THEREFORE I AM
• RENE DESCARTES: I THINK THEREFORE I AM
• JOHN LOCKE: THE SELF IS CONSCIOUSNESS
• DAVID HUME: THERE IS NO SELF
• IMMANUEL KANT: WE CONSTRUCT THE SELF
• SIGMUND FREUD: THE SELF IS MULTILAYERED
• GILBERT RYLE: THE SELF IS THE WAY PEOPLE BEHAVE
• PAUL CHURCHLAND: THE SELF IS THE BRAIN
• MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY: THE SELF IS EMBODIED SUBJECTIVITY

SOCRATES: AN UNEXAMINED LIFE IS NOT WORTH LIVING

• For ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, the self is synonymous with the soul.
• The soul is immortal. Socrates believed that every human possessed an immortal
soul.
• Human life does not end at one’s death.
• Socrates explained that death is the departure of the soul for the eternal world.
• One continues to live in the world after death.
• In Socrates' concept of Reality, it consists of two dichotomous realms: physical realm
and ideal realm.
• The physical realm is changeable, transient, and imperfect. The body belongs to the
physical realm.
• The ideal realm is unchanging, eternal, and immortal. The soul belongs to the ideal
realm.
• Socrates was the first thinker to focus on the full power of reason on the human self:
who we are, who we should be, and who we will become.
• The soul strives for wisdom and perfection, and reason is the soul’s tool to achieve an
exalted state of life.
• Our preoccupation with bodily needs such as food, drink, sex, pleasure, material
possessions, and wealth keep us from atttaining wisdom.
• Goodness or beauty is the most important of all.
• A person can have a meaningful and happy life only if he becomes virtuous and knows
the value of himself that can be achieved through constant soul-searching.
• For him, this is best achieved when one tries to separate the body from the soul as
much as possible.
• Soul searching must begin at the source of all knowledge and significance – the self.
• The Socratic method, the so-called introspection, is a method of carefully examining
our thoughts and emotions – to gain self-knowledge.

PLATO: THE SOUL IS IMMORTAL

• Plato believed that the self is synonymous with the soul.
• Plato’s philosophy of the self can be explained as a process of self-knowledge and
purification of the soul.
• The self consists of three-parts: reason, spirit or passion, and physical appetite.
• Reason is the divine essence that enables us to think deeply, make wise choices, and
achieve a true understanding of eternal truths.
• The spirit or passion includes basic emotions such as love, anger, ambition,
aggressiveness, and empathy.
• The physical appetite includes our basic biological needs such as hunger, thirst, and
sexual desire.
● Reason
● Spirit or Passion
● Physical Appetite
• These three elements of our selves are in a dynamic relationship with one another,
sometimes in conflict.
• When conflict occurs, Plato believes that it is the responsibility of our Reason to sort
things out and exert control, restoring a harmonious relationship among the three
elements of ourselves.
• Plato believes that genuine happiness can only be achieved by people who
consistently make sure that their Reason is in control of their Spirits and Appetites.

ARISTOTLE: THE SOUL IS THE ESSENCE OF THE SELF

• For Aristotle, the body and soul are not two separate elements but are one thing.
• The soul is simply the Form of the body, and is not capable of existing without the
body.
• The soul is that which makes a person a person. The soul is the essense of the self.
• Without the body the soul cannot exist.The soul dies along with the body.
• Aristotle suggested that anything with life has soul.
• His discussion about the self centers on the kinds of soul possessed by man.
• He introduced the three kinds of soul: vegetative, sentient, and rational.
• The vegetative includes the physical body that can grow.
• Sentient includes the sensual desires, feelings, and emotions.
• Rational is what makes man human. It includes the intellect that makes man know and
understand things.
• Aristotle suggests that the rational nature of the self is to lead a good, flourishing, and
fulfilling life.

ST. AUGUSTINE: I AM DOUBTING, THEREFORE I AM

• St. Augustine integrated the ideas of Plato and Christianity.
• He developed a more unified perspective on the body and soul.
• The soul is what governs and defines the human person or the self.
• The soul is an important element of man.
• The soul is united with the body so that man may be entire and complete.
• The physical body is different from and inferior to its inhabitant, the immortal soul.
• Augustine described that humankind is created in the image and likeness of God.
• Augustine believed that God is transcendent and everything created by God who is all
good is good.
• Therefore, the human person being a creation of God is always geared towards the
good.
• The self is known only through knowing God.
• Self-knowledge is a consequence of knowledge of God.
• For Augustine, “knowledge can only come by seeing the truth that dwells within us.”
• The truth of which Augustine spoke refers to the truth of knowing God.
• God is transcendent and that the self seeks to be united with God through faith and
reason.
• In Augustine's mission to discover the truth on the existence of God, he developed the
fundamental concept of the human person and thus, provided the philosophical
principle, “I am doubting, therefore I am.”

RENE DESCARTES: I THINK THEREFORE I AM

• The phrase “I think therefore I am” is the keystondimene of Descartes’ concept of self.
• For him, the act of thinking about the self – of being self-conscious – is in itself proof
that there is self.
• For Descartes, the essence of the self – a thinking entity that doubts, understands,
analyzes, questions, and reasons.
• There are two dimensions of the self: the self as a thinking entity and the self as a
physical body.
• The thinking self (or soul) is the nonmaterial, immortal, conscious being, and
independent of the physical laws of the universe.
• The physical body is the material, mortal, non-thinking entity, fully governed by the
physical laws of nature.
• The soul and body are independent of one another and each can exist and function
without the other.
• The self as a thinking entity is distinct from the self as a physical body. In other words,
the thinking self can exist independently of the physical body.

JOHN LOCKE: THE SELF IS CONSCIOUSNESS

• For Locke, the human mind at birth is tabula rasa or blank slate.
• He felt that the self, or personal identity, is constructed primarily from sense
experiences – or more specifically, what we see, hear, smell, taste, and feel. These
experiences shape and mold the self throughout a person’s life.
• Self-consciousness is necessary to have a coherent personal(self) identity or
knowledge of the self as a person.
• Consciousness is what makes possible our belief that we are the samfreudself e
identity in different situations.
• Using the power of reason and introspection enables people to understand and
achieve accurate conclusions about the self.

DAVID HUME: THERE IS NO SELF

• Hume suggests that if people carefully examine their sense experience through the
process of introspection, they will discover that there is no self.
• According To Hume , what people experience is just a bundle or collection of different
perceptions, impressions, sensations, ideas, thoughts, and images.
• The idea of personal identity is a result of imagination.

IMMANUEL KANT: WE CONSTRUCT THE SELF

• According to Kant, it is the self that makes experiencing an intelligible world possible
because it is the self that is actively organizing and synthesizing all of our thoughts and
perceptions.
• In other words, the self constructs its own reality creating a world that is familiar and
predictable.

SIGMUND FREUD: THE SELF IS MULTILAYERED

• According to Freud, the self consists of three layers: conscious, unconscious, and
preconscious.
• The conscious self is governed by the reality principle and is organized in ways that are
rational, practical, and appropriate.
• The unconscious contains the basic instinctual drives that would be considered
socially taboo and is governed by the pleasure principle. Much of the self is determined
by the unconscious.
• The preconscious is located between the conscious and unconscious part of the self
that is not threatening and is easily brought to mind.

GILBERT RYLE: THE SELF IS THE WAY PEOPLE BEHAVE

• The self is best understood as a pattern of behavior, the tendency or disposition for a
person to behave in a certain way in certain circumstances.
• Ryle’s concept of the human self thus provided the philosophical principle, “I act
therefore I am.”
• In short, the self is the same as bodily behavior

PAUL CHURCHLAND: THE SELF IS THE BRAIN

• The self is inseparable from the brain and the physiology of the body.
• All we have is the brain and so, if the brain is gone, there is no self.
• For Churchland, the physical brain and not the imaginary mind, gives us our sense of
self.
• The mind does not really exist.
• It is the brain and not the imaginary mind that gives us our sense of self.
• The self is the brain.

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY: THE SELF IS EMBODIED SUBJECTIVITY

• All knowledge of ourselves and our world is based on subjective experience.
• The self can never be truly objectified or known in a completely objective sort of way.

The Sociological Perspective of the Self: The Self as a Product of Society

THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF SOCIAL INTERACTION

• The self is not present at birth. It develops only with social experience wherein
language, gestures, and objects are used to communicate meaningfully.
• The sociological perspective of the self is based on the assumption that human
behavior is influenced by group life.
• A particular view of oneself is formed through interactions with other people, groups,
or social institutions.
• For sociologists like George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley, the self is not
dependent on biological predispositions; rather, it is a product of social interaction.
• Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley introduced the looking-glass self to highlight that
the people whom a person interacts become a mirror in which he views himself.
• Since these perceptions are subjective, there might have wrong interpretations of how
other people evaluate him.
• It would be critical if he thinks others judge him unfavorably because he could develop
a negative self-image.
• George Herbert Mead’s theory of the social self, explained that the self has two
divisions: the “I” and the “me”.
• The “I” is the subjective element and the active side of the self.
• It represents the spontaneous, and unique traits of the individual.
• 'The "I" is the response of the individual to the “Me”
• The “Me” is the objective element of the self. It represents the “internalized” attitudes,
expectations, and demands of other people.
• The "Me" is what is learned in interaction with others and with the environment.
• The full development of the self is attained when the “I” and the “me” are united.
THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF MODERN AND POSTMODERN SOCIETIES
• According to Gerry Lanuza, in modern societies the attainment and stability of
selfidentity is freely chosen. It is no longer restricted by customs and traditions.
• In postmodern societies, self-identity continuously change due to the demands of
multitude of social contexts, new information technologies, and globalization.
• These freedom and changes offer opportunities for self-cultivation but problems may
also arise (e.g., alienation and dehumanization).
• For instance, it limits the face to face, close relationships with others especially among
family members.
• It limits close contacts and communication with others.
• According to Sociologist Jean Baudrillard, in postmodern societies, individuals achieve
self-identity through prestige symbols that they consume.
• The cultural practices of advertising and mass media greatly influence individuals to
consume goods not for their primary value and utility but to give them a feeling of
goodness and power when compared with others.
• The postmodern person has become an insatiable consumer and may never be
satisfied in his life.
• Thus, the self may be a never-ending search for prestige in the postmodern society.

The Anthropological Conceptualization of the Self: The Self as Embedded in Culture

• Anthropology holds a holistic view of human nature. It is concerned with how cultural
and biological processes interact to shape the self.
• Anthropology considers human experience as an interplay of “nature” referring to
genetic inheritance which sets the individual’s potentials and “nurture” which refers to
sociocultural environment .
• Both biological and cultural factors have significant influence in the development of
self.

• In the Anthropological perspective, there are two ways in which the concept of self is
viewed in different societies: egocentric and sociocentric.
• The egocentric concept of the self suggests that each person is defined as a replica of
all humanity but capable of acting independently from others.
• In the sociocentric concept of the self, the self is viewed as dependent on the situation
or social setting.

• For example, the Japanese possess a sociocentric view of the self, wherein the
membership of a person in a particular social group defines the boundaries of the self.
• The Chinese prioritize kin ties and cooperation. They put importance to compliance
and subordination of one’s will to the authority figures in the family
• In egocentric view, the self is viewed as autonomous and distinct individual with
inherent characteristics.
• the Americans are egocentric. They believe that they should be assertive and
independent

• From the similarities and differences in characteristics among individuals, people

construct their social identities.
• The identity toolbox refers to the “features of a person’s identity that he or she chooses
to emphasize in constructing a social self.”
• Self-identification may be attained by: kinship, family membership, gender, age,
language, religion, ethnicity, personal appearance, and socioeconomic status.

• Some characteristics such as kinship, gender, and age are almost universally used to
differentiate people.
• Other characteristics , such as ethnicity, personal appearance, and socioeconomic
status are not always used in every society.
• Family membership could be the most significant feature to determine the person’s
social identity.

• Another important identity determinant that is often viewed as essential for the
maintenance of a group identity is language.
• In other societies, religious affiliation is an important marker of group identity.
• In Mindanao, being a Christian or a Muslim is possibly the most important defining
feature of social identity.

• Personal naming, a universal practice with numerous cross-cultural variations

establishes a child’s birthright and social identity. A name is an important device to
individualize a person and to have an identity.
• One’s identity is not inborn. It is something people continuously develop in life.
• Changes in one’s identity usually involve rites of passage that prepares individuals for
new roles from one stage of life to another.

• Changes in one’s status and identity are marked by a three-phased rite of passage:
separation, liminality (transition), and incorporation.
• In the separation phase, people detach from their former identity to another.
• For example, in a wedding, the bride walking down the aisle to be “given away” by the
parents to the groom implies the separation from one’s family to become part of a new
one.
• In the liminality phase, a person transitions from one identity to another. For example,
the wedding ceremony itself is the process of transition of the bride and groom from
singlehood to married life.
• In the incorporation phase, the change in one’s status is officially incorporated. For
example, the wedding reception and parties that celebrate the wedding serve as the
markers that officially recognize the bride and groom’s change towards being husband
and wife.

Psychological Perspective of the Self

WILLIAM JAMES' CONCEPT OF SELF: THE ME-SELF AND THE I-SELF

• The self is divided into two categories: the "I-Self" and the "Me-Self".
• The "I-Self" refers to the self that knows who he or she is.
• James believed that the "I-Self" is the thinking self.
• The “I-Self” reflects the soul of a person or what is now thought of as the mind and is
called the pure ego.
• The "Me-Self" is the empirical self. It refers to describing the person’s personal
experiences and further divided into sub- categories: material self, social self, and
spiritual self.
• The material self consists of things that belong to a person such as the body, clothes,
house etc.
• The social self refers to whom and how a person acts on social situations.
• The spiritual self refers to the most intimate and important part of the self that
includes the person’s purpose, motives, emotions, values, conscience, and moral
behavior.
• James believed that the path to understanding the spiritual self is through
introspection.

CARL ROGERS’ SELF THEORY: REAL AND IDEAL SELF

• Another aspect of self-understanding is self- concept.
• Self-concept refers to the image of oneself.
• Psychologist Carl Rogers defined the self as a flexible and changing perception of
personal identity.
• The self develops from interactions with significant people and self-awareness.
• According to Rogers, human beings are always striving for self- fulfillment, or
self-actualization.
• When the needs of the self are denied, severe anxiety may result.
• Central to achieving self-actualization is the development of self-concept.
• Rogers suggest that there are two components of self-concept: real self and ideal self.
• Real self consists of all the ideas, including the awareness of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I
can do’.
• The ideal self is the person’s conception of what one should be or wanted to be that
includes one’s goals and ambitions in life.
• The closer (congruent) the ideal self is to the real self, the more fulfilled and happy the
individual becomes. The farther (incongruent) the ideal self is to the real self leads to
unhappy and dissatisfied person

MULTIPLE VERSUS UNIFIED SELF

• Self-understanding in adolescents also includes conceptualizing the self as multiple or
unified and true or false.
• The construction of multiple selves varies across different roles and relationships.
• Coping with different selves constitutes a formidable task among adolescents.
• These challenges contribute heavily to the young person’s struggle for a unified self.

TRUE VERSUS FALSE SELF

• Winnicott suggests that the self is composed of the true self and the false self.
• The function of the false self is to hide and protect the true self.
• People tend to display a false self to impress others.
• The self can change depending on situations.

THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC

• Albert Bandura suggests that humans have the ability to act and make things happen.
• In his theory of the self, people are viewed as proactive agents of experiences.
• Agency embodies the endowments, belief systems, self-regulatory capabilities, and
structures and functions through which personal influence is exercised, rather than
residing as a distinct entity.
• The main agentic features of human agency are: intentionality, forethought, self -
reactiveness, and self - reflectiveness.
• Intentionality refers to acts done intentionally.
• Forethought enables the person to anticipate the likely consequences of prospective
actions.
• Self-reactiveness enables the person to make choices and choose appropriate courses
of action, as well as motivate and regulate their execution.
• Self-reflectiveness gives the person the ability to reflect upon oneself and the
adequacy of one's thoughts and actions. People are not only agents of action but
self-examiners of their own functioning.
• Efficacy beliefs are the foundation of human agency.
• Self-efficacy refers to the individual’s belief that he or she is capable to perform a task.
• It influences whether people think pessimistically or optimistically and in ways that are
self-enhancing or self- hindering.
• Efficacy beliefs play a central role in self regulation.

THE SELF AS THE CENTRAL ARCHETYPE

• Jung suggested that the psyche continues to develop throughout life, but the psyche
starts to show a definite form and content during adolescence.
• Jung conceived the structure of personality (psyche) as a complex network of
interacting systems that strive toward harmony. The main systems are: ego, personal
unconscious, and collective unconscious.
• The ego is one's conscious mind, the part of the psyche that includes perceptions,
thoughts, feelings, and memories that may enter consciousness. It is through the ego
that we establish sense of stability.
• Personal unconscious includes the repressed and forgotten experiences.
• The collective unconscious consists of the fundamental elements of the human
psyche that includes experiences all humans share or in common.
• Within the collective unconscious lie archetypes.
• Central to Carl Jung’s theory of the self is the concept of archetype.
• An archetype is a universal thought form or predisposition to respond to the world in
certain ways.
• The archetype represents the hidden potentialities of the psyche, or total personality.
• For Jung, there are four major ar chet types : per sona, shadow, animus/anima, and
self.
• The persona refers to social roles that individuals present to others.
• The shadow refers to the repressed thoughts that are unacceptable. This archetype is
often considered as the dark side of the psyche.
• The anima is the feminine side of the male psyche while the animus is the masculine
side of the female psyche.
• The self is the central archetype that unites all parts of the psyche. The ego is the
individual’s conscious perception of the self.

SIGMUND FREUD’S CONSTRUCTION OF SELF AND PERSONALITY

• According to Sigmund Freud, there are three structures of personality: id, ego, and
superego.
• The id is the pleasure-seeking side, immature, impulsive, child-like and cannot delay
gratification.
• It has no regard of others and the law.
• The ego refers to the “I” and works on the reality principle, controls the id, and can
delay pleasure.
• The ego can conform with existing societal consideration.
• The superego refers to the “conscience” and “moral judge” of conduct.
• Violation of rules lead to guilt feelings.
• It strives for perfection rather than pleasure.
• It appears that the id is the devil within the self, the superego is the angel, and ego is
the person in the middle.
• The id, ego, and superego are often in conflict with each other.
• Freud used the term ego strength to refer to the ego's ability to resolve the conflict
between the three structures.
• If this constant state of conflict is unresolved, personality problems may arise.
• In Freud’s view, the id, ego, and superego develop in a series of stages.
• Freud called these the psychosexual stages of development that progresses through
five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
• Each of the stage is associated with conflicts that the individual must resolved so that
he or she can successfully forward to the next stage.
• Freud also believed that each stage has needs and dissatisfaction of needs may result
in fixation which could have lasting negative effects on personality.
• The first stage is the oral stage, which lasts from birth up to the first year of life. During
this stage, babies derive pleasure from oral activities like sucking and biting.
Overindulgence of the oral needs may lead to oral incorporative personality disorder
such as overeating, smoking, and alcoholism while dissatisfaction may lead to oral
aggressive personality disorder such as sarcasm a n d tactlessness.
• The next stage is anal stage, which occurs around the second year of life. During this
stage, the child derives pleasure from the elimination of body wastes. Through toilet
training, the child learns the basic rules of society. Anal fixations can lead to anal
retentive personality disorder such as obsession with cleanliness or anal expulsion
personality disorder such as clumsiness.
• Freud called the third stage, phallic stage, that usually occurs around the ages of 3 and
6. Children during this stage derive pleasure from examining, touching, fondling, or
displaying their genitals, or others. These behaviors are likely motivated by curiosity on
the differences between the anatomy of man and woman.
• Sex curiosity will remain high during the elementary years and children tend to ask
questions with regard to anatomical structures, sex, and how babies are made. During
this stage, parents and teachers need to properly educate the children about sexuality.
Fixations at this stage may lead to abnormal sex behaviors in later life.
• The fourth stage is the latency stage, which lasts from 7 to 12. At this stage, sexual
energy is repressed because children become busy with school.
• The last stage is genital stage, which starts from adolescence to adulthood. During
this stage, pleasure is again derived from the genital area and individuals seek to satisfy
their sexual drives from sexual relationships. Sexual problems may result as a
consequence of inappropriate sex behaviors.

THE ROLE OF ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY IN UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

• Another important aspect of self - understanding involves views of identity
development of the self.
• In Erik Erikson’s theory, adolescence stage is a period of identity development.
• Identity formation is usually viewed as a process that requires adolescents to distance
themselves from the strong expectations and definitions imposed by parents and other
family members.
• To achieve an individual identity, one must create a vision of the self that is authentic
and having hold of one’s destiny in an effort to reach goals that are personally
meaningful.
• Erikson’s theory proposes that individuals go through eight psychosocial stages of
development.
• While Erikson believed that each stage is important, he gave a particular emphasis on
the development of the ego.
• The ego is the positive force that contributes to identity formation and lay the
foundation for certain strengths
• and virtues in life.
• Each stage consists of developmental tasks that one needs to accomplish in order to
develop successfully.
• During each stage, the person experiences life crisis which could have negative
consequences if not properly resolved.

The Psychosocial Stages of Development

The Western and Eastern Concepts of Self

Western Thoughts
• The Western thoughts conducted scientific investigations in the effort to understand
the self and have developed theories and concepts to account for the similarities and
differences among them.
• They emphasized the importance of scientific methods of investigation to provide
satisfactory answers to understanding the self.

Eastern Thoughts
• Many movements of Eastern thoughts raise questions about the ultimate meaning of
human life and have developed theories of self insofar as they have investigated what it
means to be a human being.
• Eastern thoughts aim at transformations in consciousness, feelings, emotions, and
one's relation to other people and the world.
• In the Eastern thought, the emphasis is relational rather than individual. The self is
considered not in isolation but in relation to others, society, and the universe.
• Eastern theories are highly practical.
• They offer a variety of techniques for cultivating a deeper understanding of the self.
they do not utilize the scientific techniques of investigation.

Models and Approaches of Understanding the Self

Dimension Western Thought Eastern Thought

Frame of Reference There is a separation Religion and philosophy

between philosophy and are intertwined.
religion/spirituality.

Examples of School of Scholasticism Hinduism

Thought/Belief System Rationalism Buddhism
Empiricism Confucianism
Phenomenology Taoism

Notable Philosophers Socrates, Plato, Aristotle Confucius Lao Tzu

Rene Descartes John Siddharta Gautama
Locke (Buddha)

Source of Knowledge Has made use of reason Has trusted intuition and is
rather than faith to pursue often associated with
wisdom. religious beliefs.
Modes of Cognition Analytic and Deductive Synthetic and Inductive

Emphasis Distinctions and Commonalities and

oppositions harmonies

View of the Universe and Linear Circular

Life

Subject-Object Distinction Duality of self as subject Simultaneously subject

(Bipolar Qualities of Self) (knower) and self as object and object (The experience
(known) of self as both the knower
and known)

Theological View Monotheistic Polytheistic (Pluralistic)

Ideal Self-actualization through To achieve a balanced life

personal growth and find one’s role in
society.

Cultural Framework Individualism Collectivism

1.The self is a distinct and
autonomous entity; it is an
independent part of the
universe and the society.
2.Independence and self
reliance are core values.
3.Prioritize personal goals
over group goals
4.Characterized by
exchange relationship
5.Uniqueness, sense of
direction, purpose and
volition are the
acknowledged features of
self.
6.Personal success is
important.
Buddhism
• Siddharta Gautama known as Buddha is the founder of Buddhism.
• The root word of Buddhism is buddha meaning awake.
1.The self is an integrated
part of the universe and
the society.
2.Interdependence and
connectedness are core
values.
3.No distinctions between
personal and group goals,
or if there is a distinction,
the personal goals are
subordinate to the group
goals.
4.Characterized by
communal relationship
5.Conformity and
obedience are essential
social behaviors.
6.Duty towards all others is
important.
• To be awake may imply that when the eyes are open, it would lead to understanding
more about the self and the world.
• According to the teachings of Buddhism, every person has the seed of enlightenment,
hence, potential to be a Buddha. But the seed should be nurtured.
• In Buddhist philosophy, man is just a title for the summation of the five parts (matter,
sensation, perception, mental constructs, and consciousness) that compose the
individual, however each of the parts distinctly is not man.
• There is no self (or no-soul).
• There is only nothing and all else is an illusion.
• There is nothing permanent, but change.
• In Buddhism, anicca (impermanence) means that everything in life is always changing,
that nothing lasts forever.
• The ignorance of the impermanence of everything may lead to an illusion of selfhood.
• The ideal is to experience Nirvana, a state of transcendence devoid of self-reference.
• This state of transcendence can be achieved through meditation

Hinduism
• The goal of man is to have a knowledge of the true reality – Brahman.
• Law of karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism.
• All actions are subject to karma.
• Individual actions will lead to either a good or bad outcomes in one’s life.
• Hindus believe that Atman being an immortal soul continues to be reincarnated from
lifetime to lifetime until it is freed from the cycle of rebirth and reach a state of nirvana
or non-birth.
• Karma does not end with a body’s death, so its influence may extend through
incarnation of the soul.

Confucianism
• The core of Confucian thought is the Golden Rule or the principle of reciprocity: “Do
not do to others what you would not want others to do to you”.
• Another important feature in Confucian thought is the individual’s greatest mission of
attaining self-realization wherein self- cultivation is instrumental.
• Self - cultivation would be accomplished by knowing one’s role in the society and act
accordingly.
• Moral character is perfected through continuously taking every opportunity to improve
oneself in thought and action.

Taoism
• To them, the self is an extension of the cosmos, not of social relationships.
• The self is described as one of the limitless forms of the Tao.
• The Tao is commonly regarded as Nature that is the foundation of all that exists.
• It is not bounded by time and space.
• The ideal is to identify with the Tao.
• The perfect man has no self.
• The selfless person leads to a balanced life, in harmony with both nature and society.
• Taoists believe that simplicity, spontaneity, and harmony with nature should govern
one’s life.
• There should be unity and harmony among opposing elements: the Yin and Yang.

Eastern perspective proposes that the self is part of a bigger something (ex. universe or society)
True
Western concept of the self is highly practical than theoretical.
False
The stages proposed by Erik Erikson overlaps with each other. It means that you can
experience 2 crises at the same time or even 3.
True
For Carl Rogers, he believed that the self is the central Archetype.
False
For William James, I-self is the thinking self.
True
Neurotic people have an incongruent sense of self.
True
Buddha believed that there is no forever.
True
Eastern perspective of the self is better than the Western Perspective in all aspects.
False
The true name of Buddha is Siddharta Taugama.
False
Sigmund Freud developed Psychosocial Stages of Development.
False

This is a view of oneself which suggest that each person can act independently from others
- Egocentric
For Carl Rogers, humans are always striving for
- Self-actualization
Frodo struggles to show his real feelings to other people. He always says that he is okay but in
reality, he is lonely and sad. What can be said to the situation of Frodo?
- His persona is too strong
He theory of the social self, explained that the self has two divisions: the “i” and the “me”
- George herbert mead
It contains the basic instinctual drives that would be considered socially taboo and is governed
by the pleasure principle.
 - Unconscious
When Legolas was a baby, he was not given enough attention by his caregiver. When he cried,
no one will give him milk right away. What can happen to Legolas according to Erik Erikson?
- Legolas will not become orally fixated
- Legolas will become untrusting when he grows up
- Legolas will get hungry
According to this sociologist, in postmodern societies, individuals achieve self-identity through
prestige symbols that they consume.
- Jean Baudrillard
Changes in one's identity usually involve ____that prepares the individuals for new roles
- B. Rites Of Passage
For him, “knowledge can only come by seeing the truth that dwells within us.”
- St. Augustine
If you want to be treated with respect, you have to give respect. Whose philosophy/religion is
applicable in this statement?
- Confucianism
His philosophical principle is, “I think therefore I am.”
- Descartes
According to Buddhism, life is suffering because
- We desire for permanence
- There is no good thing in life
Eastern concepts of the self, almost always include _____
- All of the above
Which of the following can be applied to eastern culture?
- It emphasizes the importance of role in society
His philosophical principle is, “I am doubting therefore I am.”
- St. Augustine
It gives the person the ability to reflect upon oneself and the adequacy of one's thoughts and
actions. People are not only agents of action but self-examiners of their own functioning.
- Self-reflectiveness
This eastern philosophy proposes that there should be unity in opposing elements of yin and
yang.
- Taoism
All knowledge of ourselves and our world is based on subjective experience.*
- Merleau-ponty
The self may be a never-ending search for ______ in the postmodern society.*
- Prestige
Gimli is a jolly person. He believes that he is capable of surmounting any problem that he
encounters. What can be said about Gimli?
- Gimli has high self-efficacy
For him, the physical brain and not the imaginary mind, gives us our sense of self.*
- Churchland
This refers to the features of a person's identity that he or she chooses to emphasize in
constructing social self*
 - D. Identity Toolbox
This particular eastern philosophy place emphasis on providing honor for the society or family
- Confucianism
Aragorn wants to become a doctor; however, due to financial constraints in their family, he was
forces to take a different path and enrolled information technology instead. Which of the
following can be said with regards to Aragorn’s self?
- It is incongruent
The self consists of three-parts: reason, spirit or passion, and ______________.
- Physical appetite
He suggested that everything that has life has soul.*
- Aristotle
It the unchanging, eternal and immortal realm.*
- Ideal
All of which are example of sociocentric society except
- A. Philippines
- C. Italy
- D. Singapore
An unexamined life is not _______ living.
- Worth
Samwise is now 65 years old. He is often grumpy and always scolds children playing across his
house. He has so many regrets in life and struggles to find meaning in his experience. What can
be said about Samwise?
- He is experiencing intimacy
- He is experiencing despair
- He acquired the value of ego integration
This refers to the principle that if you do good things, good things happen to you and if you do
bad things, bad things happen to you.
- Karma
He introduced the looking-glass self to highlight that the people whom a person interacts
become a mirror in which he views himself.
- Charles Horton Cooley
According to him, it is the self that makes experiencing an intelligible world possible because it
is the self that is actively organizing and synthesizing all of our thoughts and perceptions.
- Kant
According to him, in modern societies the attainment and stability of self-identity is freely
chosen. It is no longer restricted by customs and traditions.
- Gerry Lanuza
He believed that every human possessed an immortal soul.
- Socrates
Is the nonmaterial, immortal, conscious being, and independent of the physical laws of the
universe?
- Thinking entity
The idea of personal identity is a result of imagination.
- Hume
People always have a choice. This statement is closely related to the theory of
- Albert Bandura
Americans have good social services to help people in need. Their view of self is _________.
- C. Egocentric
___ could be the most significant feature to determine the person's social identity*
- B. Family Membership
Philippines is a multicultural country but generally, it's view of self is ______.
- A. Sociocentric
It is a method of carefully examining our thoughts and emotions to gain self-knowledge.
- Introspection
Cherry is about to be married to Tony. She is now being "given away" by her parents. This is an
example of*
- C. Separation Phase
His philosophical principle is, “i act therefore i am.”
- Ryle
Realizing that nothing is permanent is a foundation in what eastern religion/philosophy?
- Buddhism
Nymeria suddenly caught herself immersed in scrolling through her facebook feed. What part of
the self that made it possible for Nymeria to catch herself scrolling mindlessly? According to
William James, it would be the _____.
- I-self
One advantage of western culture is that generally _____.
- Progress is fast
He conceptualized the “tabula rasa”.*
- Locke
Sonya and tony are now married. This is an example of*
- B. Liminality Phase
- C. Separation Phase
The ______ is the subjective element and the active side of the self.
- I
08 THE MATERIAL SELF
According to William James, the material self is the:
“sum total of all that he can call his, not only his body and his psychic powers, but his
clothes and his house, his wife and children, his ancestors and friends, his reputation
and works, his lands, and yacht and bank-account. All these things give him the same
emotions. If they wax and prosper, he feels triumphant; if they dwindle and die away, he
feels cast down - not necessarily in the same degree for each thing, but in much the
same way for all.”
• A person’s possessions like the body, family, clothes, money, house, car, and other
tangible objects make up the material self.
• The basic component of the material self includes the body.
• One of the tasks of adolescents is that of accepting and appreciating the physical
characteristics of their body.
• Few adolescents are able to do this successfully.
• Adolescents tend to worry about their bodies and physical appearance.
• Another component of the material self is the clothes that people wear.
• Clothes represent the self.
• The style and brand of clothes becomes a symbolic significance.
• The material component of the self can include books, bed, money, car, house and
other things that a person can call his own possession.
• The material components of the self also includes people such as immediate and
extended family members (my family) as well as close friends (my friend) that the
person feels psychologically connected
• These people are likely to shape and influence the development of self and identity.
• Pets could also symbolically define a person’s identity.

Effects of Material Possessions

• Regardless of how much or how little material possessions people have, they are
interested in material possessions.
• Possessions can be used as status symbol. Cars, house, gadgets, and clothes are the
most valuable possessions because they are the most visible in the eyes of others.
• The more expensive, the more other people are impressed.
• Material possessions can be a reflection of hard work and success.
• People tend to measure success through material possessions.
• Material possessions can make people more motivated to work harder to achieve
them.
• Defining the self by material possessions can also contribute to feelings of well- being,
including a sense of personal growth and purpose or meaning in life.
• However, lack or loss of material possessions can be disruptive to the mental health of
some people.
• The strong desire for material possessions could have negative effects.
• Materialism is the importance people give on material possessions.
• Someone with a high level of materialism is called materialistic.
• A materialistic person is excessively concerned with the acquisition of material
possessions.
• The strong desire for material possessions could lead to psychological dysfunction or
impairment in func tioning such as compulsive buying disorder (CBD) which is
characterized by an obsession with shopping and buying behaviors that causes adverse
consequences (e.g., debts).
• Psychologists are identifying social and cultural factors that seem strongly implicated
in the etiology of materialism.
• Lack or loss of material possessions could lead to anxiety, insecurity, and depression.
• Thus, when a person is about to make a purchase, he should ask himself/herself a very
important question:
09 SPIRITUAL SELF

Spirituality
• The root meaning of spirituality is taken from the Latin word spiritus, meaning breath or life
force.
• Spirituality can be understood as a search for the sacred, a process through which people
seek to discover, hold on to, and, when necessary, transform whatever they hold sacred in their
lives.
• The sacred could refer to God and transcendence.
• The term "spirituality" originally developed in early Christianity.
• Christians use the term "Spirit" to describe the Holy Spirit.
• In Christian Ethics, the experience of the sacred is characterized by reverence, faith, fear,
trust, love and admiration which is intimately connected to God.
• Worship is regarded as an essential act to realize the ultimate meaning of transcendence and
human life.
• Acts of worship may include prayer, reading the bible, attending sacraments, and doing
sacrifices.
• Through acts of faith, hope, and love, man is able to encounter God and understand God’s
words of salvation.

Spiritual Self
• The spiritual aspect of the self is the inner essence, the part of the self that connects the
person to the sacred, the supernatural, and the universe.
• People develop spirituality through interaction, observation, and imitation.
• The family, school, and church play a very important role in the child’s spiritual development.

The Importance of Understanding and Nurturing the Spiritual Self

• Understanding and nurturing the spiritual self is as important as the other aspects of the self.
• Understanding and developing awareness of the spiritual self gives the person a feeling of
oneness with God and the universe.
• It also gives a deeper purpose or meaning of one’s life.
• All religions recognize the importance of spirituality in one’s life.
• Spirituality is connected with religion.
• To know God is the central function of religion.
• Religious beliefs and practices make people closer to God.

Logotherapy and the Search for Meaning of Life

• Viktor Frankl’s personal experiences in the Nazi concentration camps during World War II led
him to develop the basic tenets of logotherapy.
• Frankl embraced both the bright and dark sides of human existence and believed that human
sufferings could contribute to human achievement and meaning in life.
• Logotherapy is the pursuit of human existence as well as on mans’ search for such a meaning.
• Logos is a Greek word that denotes meaning.
• In logotherapy, man can discover the meaning in life in three different ways: by doing a deed,
by experiencing a value, and by suffering

Belief in Spirits
• Spirituality is also associated with animism.
• As the child embodies spiritual beliefs about God and the sacred; it also includes the primitive
concept about animism.
• Animism or the belief that creatures, objects, and places possess spirits.
• Despite of all the scientific progress and technological advancements, existence of animism
still remains.
• Among the sources of animism is ignorance or lack of education especially in distant and
isolated places.
• The other source of animism is the lack of faith in God.
• However, one must admit that there are forces in this world that are unusual and cannot be
explained by science and modern technology.

10 POLITICAL SELF

Political Self
• As an essential part of the self, the political self organizes self-relevant information about
politics.
• The political self is an essential part of the self because it constitutes knowledge about the
Constitution, government, and governance.
• The political self helps in defining the structure and functions of the government; in telling the
relationship between the State and the citizens; and in describing their rights, freedom, and
obligations as citizens.
• The political self exemplifies the ideals and aspirations of the people; embodies the rules and
principles of the State; and determines the status and power of the people.
• One important component of political self is identity, the person’s understanding of who and
what he is or she is.
• Thus, citizenship becomes a salient basis for political self. The political self is often defined by
citizenship.
• The political self is also in part defined by reference to other members in the political group or
community where one belongs.
• The political self is developed through socialization.
• Social interaction may significantly influence a person’s understanding of politics, and perhaps
a person’s political actions in the future.
• Through social interaction, people learn the status, duties, rights, and power necessary to
interact successfully with other people in the group or community.

The Origins of Political Self

• The family has a hierarchical structure, which requires that each member performs their roles.
• From an early age, individuals are taught to obey and treat parents with respect and conform
to their rules.
• This shows that authority is necessary in the development of the political self and identity,
which is established by the father and mother.
• Schools have the responsibility to teach the moral, spiritual, and political values that will
develop the students to become patriotic and morally upright citizens.
• The Church also helps shape the ideals of citizenship and democracy through their teachings,
homily, and pastoral letters.
• Peers become increasingly important in influencing the political self.
• Mass media could also be a key source of information of politics

11 DIGITAL SELF

Digital Self
• Among Filipino youth, the use of digital technology has now become part of the self – the
digital self.
• The digital self is the aspect of the self that is expressed or shared to others through the use of
digital technology especially the internet and social networking.
• On networking sites, users normally disclose personal information such as name, age,
birthdate, address, and contact number.
• Some users provide very personal information about themselves such as likes and dislikes etc.
• This sharing of personal information on social networking sites may be related to the
adolescents’ strong desire for social approval and acceptance.

Digital Technology
• Digital technology includes all types of electronic equipment and applications that use
information in the form of numeric code.
• Digital technology includes the use of devices that process and use digital information.
• Forms of digital technology include the use of mobile phones. The rise of mobile phones has
resulted in the widespread use of internet and social networking.
• Digital technology allows the users to keep in touch, connect with people, and be updated on
the activities and whereabouts of others.
• However, the use of digital technology limits the face to face interaction with others and drawn
people away from meaningful and intimate communication with families and friends.
• The growing use of the internet and social networking changes the social behaviors of
individuals, families, and societies.

Social Networking in the Philippines

• The Philippines has the fastest growing internet population in Southeast Asia.
• The rise is attributed social networking.
• Majority of the Filipinos use the internet primarily for social networking.
• The Filipino youth are the biggest users of social networking in the past few years.
• They mostly use social networking for c o m m u n i c a t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d
entertainment
• However, it i s also through social networking that identity theft, false information, and fake
news circulate.
• Thus , the Church , schools , and government in the Philippines make efforts to prevent and
effectively manage the spread of identity theft, false information, and fake news in the country.

07 SEXUAL SELF

IMPORTANT NOTE
• At the outset, I want to make it clear that when approaching this topic on the sexual self, it
should not just be as a biological process, but as a preparation to entering into and sustain an
intimate, happy, and long-time relationships in the future.

DEVELOPMENT OF SEX CHARACTERISTICS AND THE HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM
• The beginning of adolescence is marked by rapid physical changes, including the maturation
of the reproductive system and development of the primary and secondary sex characteristics.
• The primary sex characteristics are physical characteristics that are present at birth.
• In women, these characteristics include the vagina, uterus, and ovaries.
• In men, the primary sex characteristics include the penis, testes or testicles, scrotum, and
prostate gland. The primary sex characteristics are directly involved in reproduction.
• The secondary sex characteristics develop during the onset of puberty.
• For women, the earliest evidences of puberty are the enlargement of the breasts, menstrual
cycle, widening of hips, enlargement of buttocks, and growth of pubic hair.
• Testicular growth, sperm production, appearance of facial, pubic, and other body hair, and
deepening of voice are some of the first signs of puberty in men.
• During puberty, testosterone and other androgens stimulate the development of primary and
secondary sex characteristics and also increase sex drive.
• The level of testosterone production is fairly constant.
• In women, the ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone as well as small amount of
testosterone.
• Estrogen promotes female reproductive capacity and secondary sex characteristics.
• The production of female sex hormones follows a cyclical pattern, on an approximately 28-day
monthly cycle.
• The greatest production occurs during ovulation period, when an egg is released from the
ovaries.
• The two ovaries produce, store, and release egg cells during ovulation.
• Ovulation period can occur 14 days after the beginning of the menstrual period.
• The reproductive system is a system of sex organs designed for reproduction or sexual
function.
• The female reproductive system comprises the two ovaries, the fallopian tubes, the uterus, the
vagina, and the clitoris.
• The male reproductive system includes the penis, the testes, the scrotum, the prostate gland,
the seminal vesicles, the vas deferens, and the epididymis.

SEXUAL AROUSAL AND EROGENOUS ZONES: WHAT TURNS PEOPLE ON

• Human sexual arousal may be produced by direct stimulation of the body’s erogenous zones.
• According to Freud, erogenous zones are areas of the body that provide pleasure.
• Erogenous zones include the genitals, mouth, breast, ears, anus, and to a lesser degree, the
entire surface of the body.
• One of the most basic sexual stimulation is masturbation or self- stimulation that causes
sexual pleasure or orgasm.
• Other sexual activities such as intimate kissing, cuddling, necking, petting, or touching the
erogenous zones may be uniquely important to sexual arousal.
• In many species, sexual arousal is closely tied to variations in hormonal levels; in humans,
however, hormones play less of a role.
• In one sense, the brain is where sexual desire originates and where sexual behavior is
controlled.
• Cognitive factors thus play an important role in sexual arousal in humans.
• Culture also influences the expression of sexual desire.

THE PHASES OF SEXUAL RESPONSE

• William Masters and Virginia Johnson use the term sexual-response cycle to describe the
changes that occur in the body as men and women become sexually aroused.
• They divide the sexual-response cycle into four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and
resolution.
• The excitement phase is the beginning of sexual arousal and can last from one minute to
several hours. Pulse rate increases, blood pressure rises, breathing quickens, and the skin
shows a rosy flush particularly on the chest and breast areas during this phase. The nipples
harden and erect in both men and women. In men, the penis becomes erect, the skin of the
scrotum thickens, and the testes increase in size. In women, the clitoris swells, the lips of the
vagina open, and the inside of the vagina moistens in preparation for sexual intercourse.
• In the plateau phase, the changes in the body are continued. In men, the penis becomes more
erect, the circumference of its head increases, and releases few drops of fluid. In women, the
outer part of the vagina swells with increased amounts of blood to that area, while the clitoris
retracts under the clitoral hood but remains highly sensitive. The outer lips of the vagina become
redder in color. Breathing becomes more rapid, heart rate increases, body temperature rises,
and blood pressure increases during this stage.
• During the orgasmic phase, the orgasmic contractions of the muscles in and around the penis
stimulate the release of the semen which contains the sperm cells. Men usually achieve one
intense orgasm. In women, orgasm involves the contraction of the pelvic muscles that surround
the vaginal walls and can happen multiple times.
• In the resolution phase, the body returns to its normal state after orgasm. In men, the erection
is lost, the testes decrease in size, and the skin of the scrotum thins again. In women, the
clitoris, the color of the outer lips of the vagina, and the lips of the vagina return to its normal
state.

ATTRACTION, LOVE, AND ATTACHMENT

• During adolescence, dating and courtship emerged become increasingly important. Puberty is
a stage when many boys and girls experience their first sexual attraction. Romantic love is
especially important among college students.
• Attraction is a positive attitude held by one person toward another person.
• Initial attraction is influenced by social norms, physical attractiveness, and process of
interpersonal exchange.
• Psychologist Robert Sternberg suggests that thereafter e component s of love: intimacy ,
passion, and commitment.
• The intimacy component refers to the feelings of closeness, connectedness, and bondedness.
• The passion component refers to the drives that lead to romance, physical attraction, and
sexual consummation.
• commitment component refers to the decision to love and the commitment to maintain that
love.
• Attachment May Also Be Called affectionate or companionate love.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION
• Sexual orientation refers to a person’s sexual and romantic interests either people of the
opposite sex or people of the same sex.
• The most common sexual orientation is heterosexual, in which people are sexually attracted to
members of the opposite sex.
• In homosexual orientation, people are attracted to and interested in relationship with people of
the same sex.
• Men with a homosexual orientation are referred to as gay while women with homosexual
orientation are referred to as lesbians.
• Bisexual people are attracted to both men and women.
• Transgender people are those who believe they were born with the body of the opposite sex.
Thus, some seek sex- change operation.
• Transsexual people are those whose genitals are surgically removed and are fashioned as the
genitals of the desired gender.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STIs) AND EARLY PREGNANCY

• Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are diseases
that are contracted primarily through sexual contact (vaginal, oral, or anal sex).
• STIs are increasing health problems.
• Some STI s affect the sex organs themselves, whereas others have broader and more
life-threatening effects.
• The bacterial infections are treatable with antibiotics, but those caused by viruses are more
difficult to treat and are often incurable such as HIV/AIDS.
• STIs commonly includes human immunodeficiency virus /acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (HIV/AIDS), gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia, genital herpes, and genital warts.
• Anyone who is sexually active is at risk to sexually transmitted infections.
• Hence, sexually active persons should practice safe sex.
• However, it is important to remember that not having sex can be the safest sex method to
avoid all forms of sexually transmitted infections as well as other sexual problems such as early
pregnancy.

METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION AND THE REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH LAW

• Contraception refers to methods that are used to prevent pregnancy.
• Some methods of contraception such as condom can also be used to prevent some sexually
transmitted infections (STIs). Other common methods of contraception available in the
Philippines include intrauterine device or IUD, birth control injection, withdrawal method,
calendar method, cervical mucus or the Billings method.
• Responsible Parenthood a n d Reproductive Health Act of 2012 or otherwise known as
Reproductive Health Law or RH Law, is a law that guarantees universal access to methods on
contraception, fertility control, sexual education, and maternal care.
• The RH bill provides for "prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS and other, STIs/STDs"
• The Reproductive Health Law or RH Law aims to keep couples and especially women,
well-informed about available family planning methods that they can freely use depending on
their needs and beliefs.
• As well, it aims to promote adolescent and youth health and propagate information on
sexuality and reproductive health through proper care and sex education.

12 Learning to be a Better Student

Learning
• Behaviorists define learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of
practice or experiences.
• Cognitive psychologists define learning as a process that leads to change as a result of
experience.
• Learning is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes through experience.
• It is a transformational process that leads to personal growth and development.
• Learning helps the individual to adapt in the environment.
• Learning is a constant process.

WHAT HAPPENS IN THE BRAIN DURING LEARNING

• Learning new knowledge and skills everyday keeps the structures of the brain changing and
increase its ability to learn.
• The process of neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to change that involves the addition of
neurons , new interconnections between neurons, and the reorganization of information
processing areas.
• The process of neuroplasticity or changes in the structure and functions of the neurons in the
brain usually happen in the cerebral cortex which is the wrinkled layer of the brain.
• The cerebral cortex is packed with neurons and is responsible for the most sophisticated
information processing in the brain.
• The cerebral cortex plays a key role in human learning, thought, memory, and language

METACOGNITION AND SELF REGULATED LEARNING

• Metacognition is the awareness of one's thinking and the strategies one is using to learn.
• The ‘meta’ in metacognition refers to higher-order cognition about cognition.
• Metacognition is simply defined as cognition about cognition or thinking about thinking
• Psychologist John Flavell identified two components of metacognition: metacognitive
knowledge and metacognitive regulation.
• Metacognitive knowledge includes knowledge of one’s own cognitive abilities, knowledge of
cognitive tasks, and knowledge of the strategies to complete the cognitive tasks.
• Metacognitive regulation refers to how the individual monitors and control one’s cognitive
processes.
• Barry J. Zimmerman defines self-regulated learning (SRL) as the process in which students
systematically direct their thoughts, feelings, and actions toward the attainment of their
academic goals.
• Self-regulated describes a process of taking control of and evaluating one's own learning and
behavior.
• In simple words, self-regulated learning is a process of taking control of and evaluating one's
own learning.