minerals

Review
Gravity Concentration in Artisanal Gold Mining
Marcello M. Veiga * and Aaron J. Gunson
Norman B. Keevil Institute of Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver,
BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; ajgunson@gmail.com
* Correspondence: veiga@mining.ubc.ca




Received: 21 September 2020; Accepted: 13 November 2020; Published: 18 November 2020


Abstract: Worldwide there are over 43 million artisanal miners in virtually all developing countries
extracting at least 30 different minerals. Gold, due to its increasing value, is the main mineral
extracted by at least half of these miners. The large majority use amalgamation either as the final
process to extract gold from gravity concentrates or from the whole ore. This latter method has been
causing large losses of mercury to the environment and the most relevant world’s mercury pollution.
For years, international agencies and researchers have been promoting gravity concentration methods
as a way to eventually avoid the use of mercury or to reduce the mass of material to be amalgamated.
This article reviews typical gravity concentration methods used by artisanal miners in developing
countries, based on numerous field trips of the authors to more than 35 countries where artisanal
gold mining is common.

Keywords: artisanal mining; gold; gravity concentration

1. Introduction
Worldwide, there are more than 43 million micro, small, medium, and large artisanal miners
extracting at least 30 different minerals in rural regions of developing countries (IGF, 2017) [1].
Approximately 20 million people in more than 70 countries are directly involved in artisanal gold
mining (AGM), with an estimated gold production between 380 and 450 tonnes per annum (tpa)
(Seccatore et al., 2014 [2], Thomas et al., 2019 [3], Stocklin-Weinberg et al., 2019 [4], UNEP, 2020 [5]).
One of the mistakes commonly used by many researchers and authorities is to categorize “artisanal”
and “small” miners in the same group. The term “artisanal” indicates only the elementary mining and
processing practices and not the size of the operation (Veiga, 1997) [6]. Often in developing countries
impacted by artisanal mining, mining regulations create barriers to formalizing artisanal miners due to
the lack of a clear definition of artisanal mining. Frequently, laws categorize miners into awkward
subdivisions such as “traditional, subsistence, panners, informal, formal, etc.” with different regulations
for each category; however, the distinctions between the types of miner are often unclear (Veiga and
Marshall, 2019) [7]. The opposite of artisanal mining is “conventional” mining, which refers to the
activities of organized companies. Conventional mining operations can be large, medium, or small but
typically use the most appropriate technical, legal, and environmental practices to mine and process
ores—some small conventional operations responsibly mine less than 20,000 tpa of raw material. On the
other hand, some artisanal mines can be large—artisanal operations processing more than 2 million tpa
of secondary (weathered or placer) ores are not uncommon. Typically, an artisanal miner works based
on instinct, the need to feed his/her family, and pay bills. There are no “classical” geological exploration
activities such as drilling and reserve definition or engineering studies undertaken. The concept of
survival is constantly the driving force for those miners. However, they are excellent gold prospectors.
One of the main concerns about AGM is the use of mercury to extract gold. AGM is the
largest world’s anthropogenic mercury pollution with approximately 2000 tpa of mercury lost to the

Minerals 2020, 10, 1026; doi:10.3390/min10111026 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 2 of 49

Minerals 2020, 10, x 2 of 51

environment (UNEP, 2020 [5], ArtisanalMining.org, 2018 [8]). Mercury is used as it forms an amalgam
with environment
gold (and most(UNEP, 2020metals,
other [5], ArtisanalMining.org,
except iron and2018 [8]). Mercury
platinum), is usedthe
allowing as itgold
formstoanbeamalgam
more easily
with gold (and most other metals, except iron and platinum), allowing the gold to be more easily
concentrated and recovered (Veiga et al., 2014 [9]). According to Pryor (1965) [10] amalgamation,
concentrated and recovered (Veiga et al., 2014 [9]). According to Pryor (1965) [10] amalgamation, or
or “the wetting of gold by mercury is not alloying, but a phenomenon of moderately deep sorption, involving
“the wetting of gold by mercury is not alloying, but a phenomenon of moderately deep sorption, involving some
some interpenetration
interpenetrationof ofthethe
twotwo elements”.
elements”. In aIn a large
large number
number of countries,
of countries, artisanal
artisanal miners miners
amalgamateamalgamate
the
the whole
whole ore eitherinin
ore either small
small ballball mills
mills or passing
or passing the ground
the ground ore on
ore on sluices sluices
made madeplates
of copper of copper
coveredplates
covered
withwith mercury
mercury (Figure(Figure 1). These
1). These procedures
procedures are theare thecauses
main main of
causes
large of largeoflosses
losses of mercury
mercury to the to
the environment, but it is hard to change miners’ behavior as they believe that gravity concentration
environment, but it is hard to change miners’ behavior as they believe that gravity concentration
methods
methods are are inefficient
inefficient to to extractfine
extract fine particles
particles ofofgold.
gold.However,
However, the the
amalgamation
amalgamation of whole ore is ore
of whole
generallynot
is generally nota agood
goodsolution
solution toto capture
capture fine
finegold
goldasasamalgamation
amalgamation is typically inefficient
is typically whenwhen
inefficient
mercury is oxidized and gold particles are smaller than 0.05 mm (Marsden and House, 2006 [11]).
mercury is oxidized and gold particles are smaller than 0.05 mm (Marsden and House, 2006 [11]).

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 1. Whole
1. Whole oreore amalgamationinin(a)
amalgamation (a)small
small ball
ball mills
millsininColombia
Colombiaand (b) (b)
and in copper-amalgamating
in copper-amalgamating
sluices in Nicaragua.
sluices in Nicaragua.

When gravity concentrates are amalgamated, mercury losses are drastically reduced but
When gravity concentrates are amalgamated, mercury losses are drastically reduced but
amalgamation-tailings, still with mercury, cannot be discharged into a water stream or recirculated
amalgamation-tailings, still with mercury, cannot be discharged into a water stream or recirculated to
to the grinding circuit or leached with cyanide. In reality, the largest mercury polluters are the
the grinding circuit or leached with cyanide. In reality, the largest mercury polluters are the processing
processing centers that offer amalgamation services to artisanal miners and retain the mercury-
centers that offer amalgamation
contaminated tailings to leach withservices to artisanal
cyanide miners
(Veiga et al., 2014 and
[12]).retain
In thisthe mercury-contaminated
process, mercury forms
tailings to leach with cyanide (Veiga et al., 2014 [12]). In this process,
cyanide complexes that become retained in the final tailings. These mercury-cyanide mercury forms cyanide complexes
complexes
that become
pollute muchretained
more in the final
aquatic biota tailings. These
than metallic mercury-cyanide
mercury alone (Drace etcomplexes
al., 2016 [13],pollute
Marshall much
et al.,more
2020
aquatic [14],than
biota Seney et al., 2020
metallic [15]). An
mercury additional
alone (Draceproblem is that
et al., 2016 miners
[13], rarelyetuse
Marshall al.,retorts to condense
2020 [14], Seney et al.,
2020 mercury
[15]). An vapors generated
additional when they
problem burn miners
is that amalgams in an use
rarely openretorts
pan with to acondense
torch. The mercury
vapors have vapors
been intoxicating millions of individuals directly involved in the gold-processing
generated when they burn amalgams in an open pan with a torch. The vapors have been intoxicating steps, such as
miners and gold buyers, as well as community members in mining towns (Malm, 1998 [16], Hentschel
millions of individuals directly involved in the gold-processing steps, such as miners and gold
et al., 2002 [17], Hilson et al., 2007 [18], Esdaile and Chalker, 2018 [19], Zolnikov and Ramirez, 2018
buyers, as well as community members in mining towns (Malm, 1998 [16], Hentschel et al., 2002 [17],
[20]).
Hilson et Theal., 2007 [18],
ratio Hg Esdaile and Chalker, 2018 [19], Zolnikov and Ramirez, 2018 [20]).
lost:Auproduced has been used to assess the efficiency of the amalgamation process and
The ratio Hg
mercury losseslost :Au very lowhas
can be produced whenbeen
onlyused to concentrates
gravity assess the efficiency of the amalgamation
are amalgamated and retorts are used process
and mercury
(Table 1).losses can be
This ratio very
must below whenused,
carefully only gravity
as it canconcentrates
cause confusion are amalgamated
when just a little andgold
retorts
is are
usedproduced.
(Table 1).For This ratio must
a national be carefully
or regional used,ofasmercury
assessment it can cause
losses,confusion
it is a goodwhen just(Veiga
indicator a littleand
gold is
Baker, 2004)
produced. For a [21].
national or regional assessment of mercury losses, it is a good indicator (Veiga and
Baker, 2004) [21].
Table 1. Approximate mercury losses depending on the amalgamation process.
Table 1. Approximate mercury losses
Amalgamation depending on Hg
Method thelost
amalgamation
:Auproduced process.
Whole ore with amalgamating sluices ≥3
Amalgamation Method Hglost : Auproduced
Whole ore in small ball mills >6
Whole ore with amalgamating sluices ≥3
Concentrates with no retort ~1
Whole ore in small ball mills >6
Concentrates
Concentrates with nowith
retortretorts ~1<0.1
Concentrates with retorts <0.1
artisanal miners do not have the skills and financial resources to change their primitive practices. A
better policy would be to reduce first the use of mercury and later eliminate its use.
There are many methods of gold extraction—some, such as panning and sluices, have been used
for thousands
Mineralsof years,
2020, many others are more recent developments. For instance, Grayson3 of(2007)
10, 1026 49 [22]
identified 75 gold separation and leaching methods that do not use mercury or cyanide.
This paperForfocuses
more than on40
describing the most
years, researchers, common gravity
non-governmental processes (NGOs),
organizations used or international
tested by artisanal
miners inagencies,
variouscompanies,
countries, etc.discussing
have tried tosome of the
eradicate theuse
limitations
of mercury the miners
in AGM, facedemonstrating
usually in adopting these
techniques.
appropriate processing techniques to concentrate gold. This has been a great challenge, as most
artisanal miners do not have the skills and financial resources to change their primitive practices.
A better policy would be to reduce first the use of mercury and later eliminate its use.
2. Gold Concentration Used by Artisanal Gold Mining (AGM)
There are many methods of gold extraction—some, such as panning and sluices, have been used
for thousands of years, many others are more recent developments. For instance, Grayson (2007) [22]
2.1. General Aspects75 gold separation and leaching methods that do not use mercury or cyanide.
identified
This paper focuses on describing the most common gravity processes used or tested by
Many gravity concentration methods used by artisanal miners are discontinuous, i.e., miners
artisanal miners in various countries, discussing some of the limitations the miners face in adopting
stop the process to discharge the concentrate after some time of operation. Some miners have the
these techniques.
perception that when they see a yellow concentrate, the gold recovery is good, and the equipment
2. Gold
works well. ThisConcentration
is a common Used by Artisanal
mistake. HighGoldgoldMining
grade(AGM)
in concentrates does not necessarily mean
that the gold recovery
2.1. General is high. Usually, in gravity concentration processes, the grade of gold in a
Aspects
concentrate is antagonistic to the gold recovery (Figure 2) (Veiga et al., 2014 [9]). An interesting
Many gravity concentration methods used by artisanal miners are discontinuous, i.e., miners stop
perception of mosttoartisanal
the process dischargeminers is thatafter
the concentrate the some
only time
wayoftooperation.
produceSome more goldhave
miners is totheprocess more ore.
perception
They never
that think
when they about
see aimproving gold recovery
yellow concentrate, by using
the gold recovery better
is good, and concentration
the equipment worksmethods.
well. They
generally do not even know how to assess the gold recovery in their rudimentary processes.
This is a common mistake. High gold grade in concentrates does not necessarily mean that the gold
recovery
Another is high. Usually,
important point toinstress
gravityisconcentration
that chemical processes,
analyses the grade of gold
of gravity in a concentrate
concentrates areisusually
antagonistic to the gold recovery (Figure 2) (Veiga et al., 2014 [9]). An interesting perception of most
fraught with imprecision due to the “nugget effect” caused by some gold specks. Analyses of feed
artisanal miners is that the only way to produce more gold is to process more ore. They never think
and tailings
aboutgenerally
improving goldprovide more
recovery accurate
by using gold recovery
better concentration results
methods. Theythan analyses
generally of gravity
do not even
concentrates.
know how to assess the gold recovery in their rudimentary processes.

Less mass in the conc. = high

grade, low recovery

Recovery

Concentrate Grade

Mass of concentrate
More mass in the conc. = low grade, high recovery
Figure 2. More gold in the concentrate, less Au recovery had the process. Source: Veiga et al. (2014) [9].
Figure 2. More gold in the concentrate, less Au recovery had the process. Source: Veiga et al. (2014) [9].
Another important point to stress is that chemical analyses of gravity concentrates are usually
Mostfraught
gravity
withconcentration processes
imprecision due to the “nuggetconsist of a single
effect” caused by some pass of theAnalyses
gold specks. feed material
of feed andthrough
equipment where
tailings gold isprovide
generally recovered
more based ongold
accurate therecovery
gravitational force
results than (G) applied
analyses to the
of gravity particles. These
concentrates.
Most gravity concentration processes consist of a single pass of the
methods often do not provide high gold recoveries, particularly with respect to fine gold feed material throughparticles.
equipment where gold is recovered based on the gravitational force (G) applied to the particles.
For centuries, gravity methods were gold miners’ preferred separation method as there is a large
These methods often do not provide high gold recoveries, particularly with respect to fine gold particles.
difference between the specific gravity (sg) of gold (sg ≈ 19.3) and common silicate gangue minerals
(sg ≈ 2.7) such as quartz sand. The selection of a concentration equipment depends on several
variables, such as the mineralogy of the ore, shape of gold particles, pulp density, pulp viscosity,
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 4 of 49

For centuries, gravity methods were gold miners’ preferred separation method as there is a large
difference between the specific gravity (sg) of gold (sg ≈ 19.3) and common silicate gangue minerals
(sg ≈ 2.7) such as quartz sand. The selection of a concentration equipment depends on several variables,
such as the mineralogy of the ore, shape of gold particles, pulp density, pulp viscosity, equipment cost,
the availability of spare parts, and the grain size of the gold particles. Generally, the applicability of
Minerals 2020, 10, x 4 of 51
gravity concentration equipment for different gold ores is related to the grain size of the liberated gold
particles. As shown
equipmentin Figure 3, some of
cost, the availability types of equipment
spare parts, and the grain are much
size of more
the gold efficient
particles. Generally,totheconcentrate fine
applicability of gravity concentration equipment for different gold ores is related to the grain size of
gold particles than othersgold
the liberated but mostAsofshown
particles. them in are
Figurenot very
3, some efficient
types for grain
of equipment are muchsizes finer than 0.074 mm
more efficient
(200 Tyler mesh). The exception
to concentrate is the centrifugal
fine gold particles concentrators,
than others but most of them are not referred toforingrain
very efficient Figure
sizes 3 as “Knelson
finer than 0.074 mm (200 Tyler mesh). The exception is the centrifugal concentrators, referred to in
Centrifuge”, which are capable of recovering fine and coarse gold particles.
Figure 3 as “Knelson Centrifuge”, which are capable of recovering fine and coarse gold particles.

Figure 3. Grain Figure

size of goldsize
3. Grain particle
of gold versus the type
particle versus of of
the type gravity concentration
gravity concentration equipment
equipment (Adapted (Adapted from
from Knelson Concentrators’ catalog (no longer available) and Sampaio and Tavares, 2005 [23]).
Knelson Concentrators’ catalog (no longer available) and Sampaio and Tavares, 2005 [23]).
Gravity separation occurs primarily due to weight and size differences between different
Gravity separation occurs
particles. The primarily
size of the due
particles is an to weight
important andas size
parameter a largedifferences
grain of a ganguebetween different particles.
mineral (e.g.,
quartz) behaves like a small grain of gold in a classic gravity separation process. The rate at which a
The size of the particles is an important parameter as a large grain of a gangue mineral (e.g., quartz)
particle settles in a liquid depends on the particle weight and the viscosity of the liquid (in this case
behaves like a small
the pulpgrain
of ore).of
Asgold in a classic
a simplification, Gaudingravity separation
(1939) [24] established anprocess.
equation to The rate
calculate theat which a particle
ratio
of diameters
settles in a liquid dependsof on a spherical mineral particle
the particle weightto another,
and the bothviscosity
naturally sinking
of the in aliquid
fluid with
(ina certain
this case the pulp of
density under the gravity influence:
ore). As a simplification, Gaudin (1939) [24] established an equation to calculate the ratio of diameters
𝑑 𝜌 𝜌
of a spherical mineral particle to another, both𝑑naturally =
𝜌 𝜌 sinking in a fluid with a certain density under
the gravity influence:
where:
da and b ρ(heavy)
b − ρf
" #n
𝑑 and 𝑑 = diameter of mineral a (light) =
𝜌 and 𝜌 = specific gravity of the minerals db a andρab − ρ f
𝜌 = density of the fluid (or suspension)
where: 𝑛 = coefficient ranging from 1 (Newtonian regime) to 0.5 (Stokesian regime), transitional regime
between 0.5 and 1
da and db = diameter of mineral
For example, a (light)
considering andregime
a Stokesian b (heavy)
(very diluted pulps with spherical particles flowing
ρa and ρb = specific gravity of the minerals a and b
slowly. The drag forces around particles sinking, at low Reynolds number conditions, occur due to
the viscosity of the liquid (Sampaio and Tavares, 2005) [23]), the formula above reveals that a particle
ρ f = density of of
the fluid
quartz (ormm
of 0.25 suspension)
should behave in a classical gravity concertation process like a 0.074 mm particle
of gold. Stokesian regime considers spheres falling in a stationary, non-turbulent fluid (low Reynolds
n = coefficient ranging from 1 (Newtonian regime) to 0.5 (Stokesian regime), transitional regime
between 0.5 and 1

For example, considering a Stokesian regime (very diluted pulps with spherical particles flowing
slowly. The drag forces around particles sinking, at low Reynolds number conditions, occur due
to the viscosity of the liquid (Sampaio and Tavares, 2005) [23]), the formula above reveals that a
particle of quartz of 0.25 mm should behave in a classical gravity concertation process like a 0.074 mm
particle of gold. Stokesian regime considers spheres falling in a stationary, non-turbulent fluid (low
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 5 of 49

Reynolds number, usually below 2000), in which a particle reaches the terminal velocity, vt (zero
acceleration) when:  
g·d2 ρp − ρ f
vt =
18·µ

g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2 )

Minerals 2020, 10, x 5 of 51

d = particle diameter
number, usually inbelow
meter2000), in which a particle reaches the terminal velocity, 𝑣 (zero acceleration)
ρp = density
when:of the particle (kg/m3 ), gold = 19,300
ρ f = density of the liquid (kg/m3 ), water =𝑣 1000 =
𝑔. 𝑑 𝜌 𝜌
18. µ
µ = viscosity of the liquid, for example, water at 20 ◦ C = 1.002 × 10−3 (Pa·s)
𝑔 = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
While𝑑 =this is a diameter
particle simplification
in meter of a complex system, it provides us with a strong reason to believe
that size classification
𝜌 = density of the (screening
particle (kg/m or3),hydrocyclone)
gold = 19,300 of the particles is very important for any type of
𝜌 = density of the
gravity concentration. liquid (kg/m3), water
Unfortunately, = 1000
artisanal miners typically do not use size classification, frequently
leading toµ low
= viscosity of the liquid, for example, water at 20 °C = 1.002 × 10−3 (Pa·s)
gold recoveries in gravity concentration processes.
While
Another important this is afactor
simplification
is that of a complex
gold system,
particles canitbe
provides
flaky us
andwith
cana strong
be lostreason
easilyto believe
to the tailings in
that size classification (screening or hydrocyclone) of the particles is very important for any type of
laminar concentration systems, such as sluices or tables. In addition, gold is naturally hydrophobic: thin,
gravity concentration. Unfortunately, artisanal miners typically do not use size classification,
flat particles tend to
frequently “float”
leading on gold
to low the recoveries
surface ofinsluices or tables (Wang
gravity concentration and Poling, 1983 [25]). As gold is
processes.
very malleable, particles
Another can change
important factor is their morphologies
that gold during
particles can be thecan
flaky and comminution
be lost easily toprocess thus affecting
the tailings
in laminar concentration
gravity concentration, systems, in
in particular such as sluices or
a laminar tables. In(Ofori-Sarpong
system addition, gold is naturally hydrophobic: 2011 [26]).
and Amankwah,
thin, flat particles tend to “float” on the surface of sluices or tables (Wang and Poling, 1983
Flaky particles can be characterized by their Corey shape factor (CSF) = C/(A.B)1/2 , [25]). As
for particles with
gold is very malleable, particles can change their morphologies during the comminution process thus
dimensions: A, B, C such that A ≥ B ≥ C. Small CSFs indicate flattened
affecting gravity concentration, in particular in a laminar system (Ofori-Sarpong and Amankwah, grains (Figure 4). Particles
with a CSF <0.15
2011 [26]).are very
Flaky hard to
particles canconcentrate
be characterizedin laminar regimes
by their Corey (Walsh
shape factor and
(CSF)Rao, 19881/2[27],
= C/(A.B) , for Wang and
particles with dimensions: A, B, C such that A ≥ B ≥ C. Small CSFs indicate
Poling, 1983 [25], Gupta and Yan, 2016 [28]). Giusti (1986) [29], studying placer deposits from the flattened grains (Figure
4). Particles with a CSF <0.15 are very hard to concentrate in laminar regimes (Walsh and Rao, 1988
North Saskatchewan River, Canada, observed 0.125 mm gold flakes, with the average CSF of 0.173,
[27], Wang and Poling, 1983 [25], Gupta and Yan, 2016 [28]). Giusti (1986) [29], studying placer
being lostdeposits
from sluicefrom boxes.
the North The author found
Saskatchewan in Canada,
River, sediments from0.125
observed this river,
mm gold andflakes,
in the Athabasca
with the River
as well, that as gold
average CSF of particles
0.173, beingbecome flattened
lost from theirThe
sluice boxes. sizes
authorincreased. Ofori-Sarpong
found in sediments from thisand Amankwan
river,
(2011) [26]and in the Athabasca
highlighted River as well, that
the importance as gold
of the particlesprocess
grinding become flattened their sizes of
in the recovery increased.
gold asOfori-
some pieces of
Sarpong and Amankwan (2011) [26] highlighted the importance of the grinding process in the
equipment, such as hammer mills (very popular in artisanal mining), produce less flaky gold particles
recovery of gold as some pieces of equipment, such as hammer mills (very popular in artisanal
(higher CSF) thanproduce
mining), the ball lessmill.
flaky gold particles (higher CSF) than the ball mill.

Figure 4. Dimension of a particle to calculate Corey Shape Factor.

Figure 4. Dimension of a particle to calculate Corey Shape Factor

The dominant idea held

The dominant by many
idea held by manyresearchers and
researchers and implementers
implementers of solutions
of solutions for miners,
for artisanal artisanal miners,
as well as authorities, is that most artisanal miners work only with placer (alluvial)
as well as authorities, is that most artisanal miners work only with placer (alluvial) deposits. deposits. In fact, In fact,
artisanal miners often process alluvial, colluvial and eluvial, or secondary, ore deposits until they
artisanal miners often process alluvial, colluvial and eluvial, or secondary, ore deposits
reach bedrock. However, based on the idea that gold in most alluvial ores is liberated, artisanal
until they reach
bedrock. However,
miners rarely based
investonin the ideacomminution
efficient that gold inprocesses
most alluvial ores is liberated,
when processing colluvial orartisanal miners rarely
eluvial ores.
invest in efficient
They oftencomminution processes
use hydraulic monitors whena processing
to create colluvial
slurry and then pump the orore
eluvial
pulp toores. They often use
a gravity
hydraulicconcentration
monitors to process
create as awas common
slurry andwith Californian
then pump the goldore
prospectors
pulp toinathe Gold Rush
gravity from 1848
concentration process
to 1855 (Limbaugh, 1999) [30]. With no comminution, their gold recoveries for these secondary types
as was common with Californian gold prospectors in the Gold Rush from 1848 to 1855 (Limbaugh,
of ores are typically low, usually below 30%. However, the capital and operating costs for mining
1999) [30].(usually
With no comminution,
dredges and hydraulictheir goldand
monitors) recoveries
processingfor thesesluice
(usually secondary types of ores
boxes) weathered oresare
are typically
low, usually below
typically 30%.
lower thanHowever, the capital
those for primary and5).operating costs for mining (usually dredges and
ores (Figure
hydraulic monitors) and processing (usually sluice boxes) weathered ores are typically lower than
those for primary ores (Figure 5).
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 6 of 49

Minerals 2020, 10, x 6 of 51

(a)

(b)
Figure 5. (a) Characteristics of the ores processed by artisanal gold miners (Spiegel and Veiga, 2010)
Figure 5. (a) Characteristics of the ores processed by artisanal gold miners (Spiegel and Veiga, 2010) [31];
[31]; (b) Photo of an old Californian miner using a hydraulic monitor and sluice box in a placer gold
(b) Photo of an old
depositCalifornian miner
(Hardcore Miner, 2017 using
[32]). a hydraulic monitor and sluice box in a placer gold deposit
(Hardcore Miner, 2017 [32]).
An interesting observation when analyzing tailings from artisanal miners is a usual U-shape
distribution of gold with the grain size analysis (Figure 6) (Andrade-Lima et al., 2008 [33], Veiga et
An interesting
al., 2014observation when
[9]). The gold in the coarseanalyzing
fractions of thetailings from artisanal
tailings is unliberated, associatedminers is a usual U-shape
with the coarse
grains of gangue minerals, due to poor comminution processes,
distribution of gold with the grain size analysis (Figure 6) (Andrade-Lima et al., 2008 while the fine fractions usually have
[33], Veiga et al.,
fine gold particles (liberated or not) not recovered due to the rudimentary concentration methods
2014 [9]). The gold
used byin thethe coarse
artisanal fractions
miners. However, itof is the tailings
important is unliberated,
to highlight that in many casesassociated
gold does notwith the coarse
grains of gangue need to be liberated
minerals, from
due toa poor
ganguecomminution
particle to be concentrated (Koppalkar,
processes, while 2009the
[34]).fine
For example, a usually have
fractions
quartz particle (sg = 2.65) with an inclusion of 15% of gold (sg = 19.3) by volume, generates a grain
fine gold particles
with(liberated or not)
an sg of 5.15, which maynot recovered
be recoverable due to
by gravity the rudimentary
processes, especially whereconcentration
there are multiple methods used
by the artisanalpasses.
miners. However, it is important to highlight that in many cases gold does not need to
be liberated from aIt gangue
is also important to stress that gold is very malleable and usually liberates from the gangue
particle to be concentrated (Koppalkar, 2009 [34]). For example, a quartz
minerals by detachment, as demonstrated by Khalesi et al. (2011) [35]. Therefore, the comminution
particle (sg = 2.65) with an inclusion
and classification methods playof a15% ofrole
critical goldin the = 19.3)
(sgtotal by liberation
or partial volume,processgenerates a grain with an sg
of the gold
grains (Bode, 2020) [36].
of 5.15, which may be recoverable by gravity processes, especially where there are multiple passes.
Minerals 2020, 10, x 7 of 51

30 6
Gold Distribution (%)

25 5
Gold Grade (g/t)

20 4
15 3
10 2
5 1
0 0
601 357 274 194 126 89 58
Grain Size (µm)

Au Grade(g/t) %DAu

Figure 6. Grain size distribution of gold in artisanal mining tailing from Brazil (Adapted from
Figure 6. Grain size distribution of gold in artisanal mining tailing from Brazil (Adapted from
Andrade-Lima et al., 2008 data) [33].
Andrade-Lima et al., 2008 data) [33].
The main gravity concentration processes used by artisanal gold miners worldwide are:
It is also
•
important to stress that gold is very malleable and usually liberates from the gangue
Panning
minerals by• detachment,
Sluicing as demonstrated by Khalesi et al. (2011) [35]. Therefore, the comminution
• Jigging
• Tabling
• Centrifuging

2.2. Panning
Panning is the most ancient and traditional form of gravity concentration. The movement of
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 7 of 49

and classification methods play a critical role in the total or partial liberation process of the gold grains
(Bode, 2020) [36].
The main gravity concentration processes used by artisanal gold miners worldwide are:

• Panning
• Sluicing
• Jigging
• Tabling
• Centrifuging

2.2. Panning
Panning is the most ancient and traditional form of gravity concentration. The movement of
water in the pan flushes out the light minerals allowing the heavy minerals to sink. A pan is the main
companion of an artisanal miner, either if he/she is prospecting gold or using it as a final concentration
tool. For the micro-miners, those processing less than 2 tonnes of ore per day (Veiga et al., 2018) [37],
a pan can be the main equipment used for gravity concentration, especially working with alluvial ores.
There are different types of gold pan in the market. In Africa, artisanal miners use gourds, kitchen
bowls, or cooking pans to concentrate gold. Wooden and plastic pans have the advantage of buoyancy
and of being lighter. In North America, flat bottom plastic or aluminum pans have been used for over
150 years to trap coarse gold specks. These types of pans are 380 to 460 mm in diameter and 50 to 60 mm
in depth, with sides sloping 30–45◦ containing ridges to catch gold (Silva, 1986) [38]. The movement of
the flat-bottom pans
Minerals 2020,is
10,usually
x back and forth, which is easy for experienced operators,
8 of 51(Figure 7).

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 7. (a) North American flat bottom pan in Zimbabwe (b) Wooden “batea” in Venezuela (c) Steel
Figure 7. (a) North American flat bottom pan in Zimbabwe (b) Wooden “batea” in Venezuela (c) Steel
“batea” in Indonesia.
“batea” in Indonesia.
2.3. Sluicing
In South America andare
Sluice boxes most Asian
inclined, countries,troughs,
flat-bottomed the main with popular
or withoutpanning equipment
riffles on the surface andis the conical
“batea”, alsousually
known aswith
lined Chinese
a carpethat, with
to trap a diameter
the gold fromwith
particles together 0.6 other
to 1.5 m minerals.
heavy and edges with
Sluices are an angle of
usually used in alluvial, eluvial, and colluvial ores but many artisanal operations concentrate gold
from primary ore ground in hammer mills or Chilean mills. An ore pulp usually with 10–20% (in
mass) of solids is pumped to the sluices and gold and heavy minerals sink to the bottom of the box
allowing the lighter particles to pass over and be carried and discharged off at the end of the sluice.
Sluices are made in various sizes, from small hand-fed sluices to large sluices found on dredges
(Veiga et al., 2006) [39]. With low capital and operating costs, worldwide the artisanal miners prefer
the sluices to concentrate gold as they achieve very high ore to concentrate ratio, typically ranging
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 8 of 49

150◦ to 155◦ . Panning with a “batea” demands experience from the operator and the movements are
circular, removing the lighter minerals by overflow.

2.3. Sluicing
Sluice boxes are inclined, flat-bottomed troughs, with or without riffles on the surface and usually
lined with a carpet to trap the gold particles together with other heavy minerals. Sluices are usually
used in alluvial, eluvial, and colluvial ores but many artisanal operations concentrate gold from
primary ore ground in hammer mills or Chilean mills. An ore pulp usually with 10–20% (in mass) of
solids is pumped to the sluices and gold and heavy minerals sink to the bottom of the box allowing the
lighter particles to pass over and be carried and discharged off at the end of the sluice. Sluices are made
in various sizes, from small hand-fed sluices to large sluices found on dredges (Veiga et al., 2006) [39].
With low capital and operating costs, worldwide the artisanal miners prefer the sluices to concentrate
gold as they achieve very high ore to concentrate ratio, typically ranging from 10,000:1 to as high as
500,000:1 (Vieira, 2006) [40]. Michaud (2015) [41] described in detail how to make different types of
sluice box and provided good tips on how to operate them. Teschner et al. (2017) [42] assessed the
gold recovery of an artisanal operation mining alluvial ore in the Guiana region (site not identified)
with an average grade of 0.852 Au g/t. After a metallurgical balance of nine samples and microscopic
examination, the authors concluded that “more than 90% of the gold being captured by the sluice is sized
between 0.075 and 0.5 mm”. Most of the gold particles were liberated.
A well-designed sluice can provide high recoveries for relatively coarse gold particles. The rate
of the gold particles settling in the sluice box depends on the gold particle weight, size, and shape.
When the ore is naturally classified, which is usually the case with alluvial sand, gold recovery is much
higher than unclassified feed, since coarse particles of gangue with low specific gravity can settle at the
same velocity as finer gold particles.

2.3.1. Main Variable in Sluicing

Some of the main variables affecting the concentration process in a sluice are listed and discussed
below (Sivamohan and Forssberg, 1985 [43], Veiga et al., 2006 [39], Lehmann, 2020 [44]):
• Feed rate;
• Water flow;
• Particle size and shape;
• Cleanup period (removal of concentrates);
• Slope angle;
• Riffles and/or carpets lining the sluice;
• Width and length of sluice;
• Pulp density; and,
• Arrangement of the sluices.
The feed rate of material entering a sluice depends on the sluice width, water flow, and pulp
density. Most sluices in artisanal mining operations are 1 to 2 m long, 30 to 50 cm wide, with walls 10
to 30 cm high. The relationship between the height of the sluice walls (H) and width (W) is usually
H = 0.3 W (Lins and Farid, 1992) [45]. The use of screens on top of the sluices is critical to providing a
basic size classification of the ore fed into the process. Most sluices in artisanal mining observed in
alluvial operations in the Katingan District, Kalimantan, Indonesia, have a feed rate of 10 to 12 tonnes
per hour (tph) operating with 15–20% of solids and producing between 3 to 6 g of gold after 10 h of
operation (Veiga, 2003) [46].
The water flow, driving pulp density, is an important variable for efficient gold concentration.
Silva (1986) [38] highlighted that too much water flow reduces the opportunities for small gold particles
to settle and too little water creates a muddy sludge that does not allow the fine gold particles to
settle. The adequate water flow for a 60 cm-wide sluice should be around 15 m3 /min (Sampaio and
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 9 of 49

Tavares, 2005) [23]. McCraken (2013) [47] mentioned that in a sluice with riffles, it is not recommended
to pass large amounts of water after ore has stopped being fed to the sluice. The author alleged that
water flows can remove gold particles already concentrated behind the riffles. Water flow and velocity
increase with the sluice slope. Mitchell et al. (1997a) [48] described an operation in Yukon using
riffled sluices with slopes of 7 to 12◦ , a feed rate of 20 m3 /h of material, and the water flow of 40 L/s.
This operation was designed to recover gold finer than 1 mm. Higher water flows, for example, 80 L/s,
according to the authors, could be used to recover gold specks coarser than 1 mm.
The particle size of gold that is concentrated in a sluice is usually coarser than 200 mesh (0.074 mm)
but the efficiency of the concentration of fine gold particles does not depend only on the size but also
on other variables herein discussed, in particular on the particle shape. As discussed above, flaky gold
particles can be lost due to the hydrophobicity of the mineral, particularly with laminar flow.
Cleanups to remove the concentrates are necessary, as sluices are batch-type equipment. The gold
recovery increases with frequent cleanups, however this decreases the gold grades of the concentrates.
The choice of the number of cleanups depends on the grain size of gold, the angle of the sluice
(low angles accumulate more material), and the type of minerals associated with the gold. In some
operations in Indonesia as well as in Colombia, Guyana, and Suriname, it was observed that miners
clean the sluices every 8 h. In Brazil, some miners remove the concentrate from river dredges every
10–15 days. In Portovelo, Ecuador, concentrating fine gold, miners use to clean the low slope angle
(5◦ ) wool-carpeted sluices every hour (Gonçalves et al., 2017 [49]). Lehmann (2020) [44] mentioned a
placer gold ore study conducted by Russian researchers in which the gold recovery increased from
90% with cleanups every 12 h to 94% with cleanups every 2 h of operation. The best time of cleanup
must be tested for each type of sluice and ore to determine the ideal gold recovery and mass of
concentrate generated.
The slope angle of a sluice depends on the type of gold ore being processed. The sluices are
usually inclined with angles ranging from 5◦ to 15◦ . The flow velocity of the pulp in a sluice is primarily
controlled by the sluice slope. For efficient operation, the flow must be fast enough to assure that
the sluice bed is not full and blocked and yet slow enough to allow as much fine gold as possible to
settle to the bottom, where it can be trapped. Litvintsev et al. (2012) [50], in an experimental work
with sluice boxes using a pulp density of 4% solids, concluded that the best gold recovery for their
placer ore occurred when the slope was 7◦ . In southern Ecuador, miners concentrate gold coming from
Chilean mills in 7 m long cement sluices operating with an angle of 5◦ . For an operation with an ore
grade of 3 g/t Au, the concentrates obtained after one hour was around 17 g/t. At the end of the process,
the Ecuadorian miners have a large mass of concentrate (200–225 kg/day) or 3% of the original feed
(Velasquez et al., 2010) [51]. They then pan this large mass of concentrate, losing significant amounts of
gold during panning, and then add mercury to extract gold from the final pan concentrates.
Riffles retard the flow of heavy minerals that are settled on the sluice bed. There are many types of
riffle. Hungarian ones promote fluidization of the bed as a “boiling” condition is created that expelled
the light particles. Shallow riffles and milder water flow are recommended to trap small gold particles
(McCracken, 2013) [47]. Riffles are good for coarse and medium-sized particles and carpets for fine gold.
There are many manufacturers of riffled sluices. Keene Engineering (2020a) [52] offers a large selection
of sluices with metallic frames, riffles, or expanded metal and carpets (Figure 8). It is common to
observe sluices in artisanal plants operating in a very turbulent fashion. This is caused by the presence
of riffles on the sluice or by gravels and cobbles as the initial screening is not sufficient to remove coarse
particles. Turbulence is one of the reasons for poor gold recoveries as the fine gold particles are often
lost. Professor Herman Wotruba, from the University of Aachen, Germany, has demonstrated to the
Brazilian artisanal miners the difference in turbulence between carpeted and a riffled sluice (Figure 9).
Most North American prospectors concentrating alluvial ores use expanded metal on top of the carpets
to trap gold, as they create less turbulence and keep the carpet firmly set at the bottom of the sluice.
Hamilton (1988) [53] also recommended expanded metals instead of riffles in conjunction with Nomad
carpets to recover placer gold as fine as 150 Mesh (0.105 mm).
325 grade of 3 g/t Au, the concentrates obtained after one hour was around 17 g/t. At the end of the
326 process, the Ecuadorian miners have a large mass of concentrate (200-225 kg/day) or 3% of the
327 original feed (Velasquez et al., 2010). Then they pan this large mass of concentrate, losing significant
328 amounts of gold during panning, and then add mercury to extract gold from the final pan concentrates.
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 10 of 49

329
Water Flow
330

14

350 Hamilton (1988) also recommended expanded metals instead of riffles in conjunction with Nomad
351 carpets to recover placer gold as fine as 150 Mesh (0.105 mm).

352 Carpets are also used to retard the flow of heavy minerals in the sluice. When turbulence is low, the
353 settling process occurs smoothly. In a sluice, there are two types of movement of the particles: rolling
354 and sliding. The rolling velocity increases with the weight of the particle, but the sliding velocity
331 355 decreases thanks to the friction on the sluice surface. For efficient separation, the friction force must
356 Riffles
be high. must
Carpets areoperate half fullfriction and are more suitable for fine gold particles than
ideal for increasing
332
333 357 riffles. In the 1990s, approximately 1 million artisanal miners were distributed in the jungles of South
334 (a) (b)
358 America producing 200 tonnes of gold per year. At that time, the approximately 400,000 Brazilian
335 8. (a) Hungarian
Figureartisanal
359
Figure 7 - (a) Hungarian riffles (McCracken, 2013)
gold miners riffles (McCracken,
in the Amazon were the2013) [47].
world’s (b) carpet
largest Keeneconsumers
sluice with
per expanded metal
capita (Feijão and on top
336 (b) Keene sluice with expanded metal on top (Keene Engineering, 2020a).
(KeenePinto,
360 Engineering, 2020a
1992, Veiga [52]). 2002).
and Hinton,

337 Riffles retard the flow of heavy minerals that are settled on the sluice bed. There are many types of
338 riffles. Hungarian ones promote fluidization of the bed as a “boiling” condition is created that expelled
339 the light particles. Shallow riffles and milder water flow are recommended to trap small gold particles
340 (McCracken, 2013). Riffles are good for coarse & medium size particles and carpets for fine gold.
341 There are many manufacturers of riffled sluices. Keene Engineering (2020a) offers a large selection of
342 sluices with metallic frames, riffles, or expanded metal and carpets (Figure 7). It is common to observe
343 sluices in artisanal plants operating in a very turbulent fashion. This is caused by the presence of riffles
361
344 on the sluice or by gravels and cobbles as the initial screening is not sufficient to remove coarse
362 (a) (b)
345 particles.
363Turbulence
Figureis
8 –one of box
(a) Sluice thewith
reasons formore
riffles provokes poor goldthan
turbulence recoveries as the
the one with carpet (photofine gold particles are often
H. Wotruba)
Figure 9. (a) Sluice box with riffles
364 provokes
(b) Riffled sluice withmore turbulence
high turbulence than the one with carpet (photo H.
in Indonesia
346 lost. Professor
Wotruba).Herman Wotruba,
(b) Riffled from
sluice with highthe University
turbulence of Aachen, Germany, has demonstrated to the
in Indonesia.
365 Artisanal miners use a large variety of carpets to concentrate gold. In Ecuador and Indonesia, miners
347 Brazilian
366artisanal
use woolminers
rags, butthe difference
the most in turbulence
popular ones in the North ofbetween carpeted
South America are thoseand a riffled sluice (Figure 8).
with grooves
Carpets are also used to retard the flow of heavy minerals in the sluice. When turbulence is low,
348 Most 367 American
(Figure 9 andprospectors
Figure 10). Brazilian suppliers of equipment for artisanal gold miners sellmetal
these carpets
theNorth
settling process occurs smoothly. concentrating
In a sluice, alluvial ores
there are usetypes
two expanded
of movementon oftop
theof the carpets
particles:
368 for prices ranging from US$ 50 to 70/m2. In laboratory tests with placer ores, Nomad carpets provided
349 to rolling
trap 369andas
gold, sliding. The rolling
they create lessvelocity
turbulence increases with the
and keep theweight
carpetof the particle,
firmly set at thebutbottom
the sliding
excellent recoveries of gold particles as fine as 0.105 mm (Poling and Hamilton, 1986). The vinyl loop
velocity
of the sluice.
decreases thanks to the friction on the sluice surface. For efficient separation, the friction force must be
370 carpets, similar to the 3M Nomad mats, have the same price range as the grooved carpets. These
TM

high. Carpets are ideal for increasing friction and are more suitable for fine gold particles than riffles.
371 mats, used in homes and offices to clean the shoes, are very efficient for trapping both coarse and fine
In the 1990s, approximately 1 million artisanal miners were distributed in the jungles of South America
372 gold particles. One of the main problems with a typical vinyl loop mat is that the rubber on the back of
producing 200 tonnes of gold per year. At that time, the approximately 400,000 Brazilian artisanal
373 the mat makes it difficult to wash out the gold particles entangled in the carpet. In Indonesia, miners
gold miners in the Amazon were the world’s largest carpet consumers per capita (Feijão and Pinto,
374 were observed burning carpets to recover trapped gold. The Gold Hog (2012) has a series of good
1992 [54], Veiga and Hinton, 2002 [55]).
Artisanal miners use a large variety of carpets to concentrate gold. In Ecuador and Indonesia,
miners use wool rags, but the most popular ones in the North of South America are those with grooves
(Figures 10 and 11). Brazilian suppliers of equipment for artisanal gold miners sell these carpets for
prices ranging from US$ 50 to 70/m2 . In laboratory tests with placer ores, Nomad carpets provided
excellent recoveries of gold particles as fine as 0.105 mm (Poling and Hamilton, 1986 [56]). The vinyl
loop carpets, similar to the 3M NomadTM mats, have the same price range as the grooved carpets.
These mats, used in homes and offices to clean shoes, are very efficient for trapping both coarse and
fine gold particles. One of the main problems with a typical vinyl loop mat is that the rubber on the
back of the mat makes it difficult to wash out the gold particles entangled in the carpet. In Indonesia,
miners were observed burning carpets to recover trapped gold. The Gold Hog (2012) [57] has a series of
 carpets for prices ranging from US$ 50 to 70/m2. In laboratory tests with placer ores, Nomad carpets
provided excellent recoveries of gold particles as fine as 0.105 mm (Poling and Hamilton, 1986 [56]).
The vinyl loop carpets, similar to the 3M NomadTM mats, have the same price range as the grooved
carpets. These mats, used in homes and offices to clean shoes, are very efficient for trapping both
coarse and fine gold particles. One of the main problems with a typical vinyl loop mat is that the
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 11 of 49
rubber on the back of the mat makes it difficult to wash out the gold particles entangled in the carpet.
In Indonesia, miners were observed burning carpets to recover trapped gold. The Gold Hog (2012)
[57] has a series of good videos explaining the advantages of different types of carpet. The company 15
good videos explaining the advantages of different types of carpet. The company Gold Dog (2016) [58]
Gold Dogusing
recommends (2016)unbacked
[58] recommends using loop
Moss vinyl unbacked Moss
carpet vinylmm
(10–12 loopthick)
carpetthat(10–12 mmup
is set thick)
on topthatof
is a felt
375 set up on top of
videos explaininga felt or grooved
the advantages rubber carpet
of different (Figure
types 12).
of carpets.There is a
The companyvariety of
Gold unbacked
Dog vinyl loop
(2016) available for
or grooved rubber carpet (Figure 12). There is a variety of unbacked vinyl loop carpets
carpets available for artisanal miners but some of them are of poor quality and tear with little
376 recommends
artisanal using
miners but unbacked
some Moss
of them arevinyl loop carpet
of poor (10-12
quality and mm tearthick)
with that
littleis pressure.
set up on top of a felt or
pressure.
377 grooved rubber carpet (Figure 11). There is a variety of unbacked vinyl loop carpets available for
378 artisanal miners but some of them are of poor quality and tear with little pressure.

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Rubberized Rubberized
carpet carpet sluices
used in Brazilian used Source:
in https://www.construvolts.com.br/calha-
Brazilian sluices Source:
379
https://www.construvolts.com.br/calha-eclusa-galvanizada-50x185cm-desmontavel-e-mercurio-
380 eclusa-galvanizada-50x185cm-desmontavel-e-mercurio-azougue-100g-para-garimpo-p25277.
Minerals 2020, 10, x Figure 9 - Rubberized carpet used in Brazilian sluices 12 of 51
381 azougue-100g-para-garimpo-p25277.
Source: https://www.construvolts.com.br/calha-eclusa-galvanizada-50x185cm-desmontavel-e-mercurio-azougue-100g-para-
382 garimpo-p25277
383

384 Figure 11. Rubber carpets with grooves. Sources:

Figure 11. Rubber carpets with grooves. Sources: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WyswDAk6iMQ and
385 v=WyswDAk6iMQ Figure 10 – Rubber carpets with grooves
and https://produto.mercadolivre.com.br/MLB-1202232696-carpete-feltro-pra-
https://produto.mercadolivre.com.br/MLB-1202232696-carpete-feltro-pra-garimpo-ouro-fino-verde-
386 Sources: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WyswDAk6iMQ
387 garimpo-ouro-fino-verde-30cm-x-70cm-_JM.
30cm-x-70cm-_JM.
https://produto.mercadolivre.com.br/MLB-1202232696-carpete-feltro-pra-garimpo-ouro-fino-verde-30cm-x-70cm-_JM
388

389
390 Figure 11 – Gold Dog Vinyl loop unbacked MOSS carpet with a metal grid to hold the carpet
391 Figure 12. Gold Dog Vinyl loop unbacked MOSS carpet with a metal grid to hold the carpet
Sources: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLmNY4mN5SQ
392 Sources: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLmNY4mN5SQ, and https://www.youtube.com/watch?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WyswDAk6iMQ
v=WyswDAk6iMQ.

The importance of the width and length of sluices are poorly understood by artisanal miners.
It is important to highlight to artisanal miners that the production capacity of a sluice box is given by
the width of the sluice and not by the length. Nevertheless, there is a perception among the miners
that the longer the sluice, the better it is at capturing fine gold. Sluices with lengths up to 40 m were
observed in manyFigure countries. Some
12. Gold Dog Vinyl loopold Asian
unbacked sluices,
MOSS such
carpet with as the
a metal grid“Palong”, were
to hold the carpet up to 300 m long
Sources:
(Sivamohan and Forssberg (1985) [43]. In Brazil, Indonesia, and Sudan artisanal miner
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLmNY4mN5SQ, and built sluices
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WyswDAk6iMQ.
with lengths over 10 m. A simple calculation can reveal the error of the perception that longer is better.
For example, letTheus calculate
importance thewidth
of the finaland
velocity
length of a sphere
of sluices rolling
are poorly down aby
understood 3 artisanal
m-longminers.
sluiceItbox with a
◦
slope of 15is important
with friction, but not
to highlight considering
to artisanal miners the
that drag force ofcapacity
the production the air of (or water):
a sluice box is given by
the width of the sluice and not by the length. Nevertheless, there is a perception among the miners
that the longer the sluice, the better it is at capturing fine gold. Sluices with lengths up to 40 m were
observed in many countries. Some old Asian sluices, such as the “Palong”, were up to 300 m long
(Sivamohan and Forssberg (1985) [43]. In Brazil, Indonesia, and Sudan artisanal miner built sluices
with lengths over 10 m. A simple calculation can reveal the error of the perception that longer is
better. For example, let us calculate the final velocity of a sphere rolling down a 3 m-long sluice box
𝑔 = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2)
𝑣 = initial velocity of the sphere = zero
𝑣 = final velocity of the sphere
𝑟 = radius of the sphere
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 12 of 49
𝐼 = momentum of inertia of the sphere at the Center of Mass
 = angular acceleration (rad/s2)
Considering the diagram (Figure 13):
𝑎 = acceleration of the sphere at the Center of Mass
F g = gravitational force
𝒯 = Torque
F f = frictional force
Not considering
N = Normal the Drag Force and considering the sphere only rolling:
force
.
𝐹 ==mass
𝒯 = 𝑟. m 𝐼. 𝛼 ofthen… 𝐹 =
the particle
𝑎 d =𝑟 sluice
= 𝛼. then… 𝛼=
length
θ = slope of the sluice (θ = 15◦ )
g =the
Forces at x-axis: acceleration (9.8 m/s2 )
gravitational
𝐹 = 𝑚. v𝑔.
i =𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ =
initial 𝐹 of
velocity 𝑚.the
𝑎 sphere = zero
𝐼. 𝑎
v f = final velocity of the sphere
𝑚. 𝑔. sin  = 𝑚. 𝑎
𝑟 sphere
r = radius of the
I = momentum of2inertia of the sphere at the Center of Mass
𝐼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = . 𝑚. 𝑟
5
= angular acceleration (rad/s2 )
𝑎 = aCM. 𝑔.
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ (rolling)
acceleration of the sphere at the Center of Mass
𝑣 T== Torque
𝑣 2 𝑎 .𝑑

13. Diagram of a sphere of gold rolling down in a sluice box with carpet (no drag force considered).
Figure Figure
13. Diagram of a sphere of gold rolling down in a sluice box with carpet (no drag force
considered).
Not considering the Drag Force and considering the sphere only rolling:

T = r·F = I·α then . . . F =

f f
I·α
Then the velocity (𝑣 ) ofaCM
the sphere
r with the distance is:
aCM = α·r then . . . α = r

Forces at the x-axis: 10

𝑣 = ∙ 𝑔 ∙ 𝑑 ∙ sin 
F g = m·g·sin θ = F f + m·aCM
7
The speed
m·g·sin of θthe
= sphere
I·aCM inCM
+ m·a the first meter of the sluice is: 𝑣 (in the first 1 m) = 1.9 m/s, in the
r2
second meter, is sphere
I ( f or 2.7 m/s,
) = 25and
·m·r2 in the third meter is 3.3 m/s. Frictional forces are usually constant in
 
sluice boxes
aCM =but 5 they depend on the type of sluice bed (carpet or wood). At a certain point, the sphere
7 ·g·sin θ (rolling)
will reach thev f 2 terminal
= vi 2 + 2 avelocity
CM ·d when the acceleration is zero. Now, if we think this sphere represents
the pulp flow, then the speed increases with the distance. Therefore, the fine particles of gold must
Then the velocity (v f ) of the sphere with the distance is:
be concentrated where the flow velocity is slowest, in the first few meters.
1
Burt (1984) [59] showed that the majority of 10the gold is 2recovered in the first meter of a sluice and

vf = ( · g·d·sin θ )
for most of the coarse (−2 + 1 mm), medium (−1 7 + 0.1 mm), and fine gold particles (−0.1 mm) the
cumulative The gold recovery
speed essentially
of the sphere in the flattens after
first meter of the lengths ofv2f (in
sluice is: m. the
Testing
first 1 different gold
m) = 1.9 m/s, placer ores,
in the
Litvintsev et al.,
second (2012)
meter, is 2.7[50]
m/s, also
and inconcluded that
the third meter is approximately 88% of
3.3 m/s. Frictional forces arethe goldconstant
usually was recovered
in sluice within
boxes but they depend on the type of sluice bed (carpet
the first meter of the sluice, 10% in the second meter, and 2% in the third. or wood). At a certain point, the sphere will
Thereach
pulp thedensity
terminal velocity
(whichwhen is thethepercentage
acceleration solids
is zero. in
Now,theif pulp
we think
bythis sphere
mass) of represents
the slurry theshould be

low, in the range of 10% to 20% solids, and the thickness of the flow cannot be higher than 3 cm. This
 Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 13 of 49

pulp flow, then the speed increases with the distance. Therefore, the fine particles of gold must be
concentrated where the flow velocity is slowest, in the first few meters.
Burt (1984) [59] showed that the majority of the gold is recovered in the first meter of a sluice and
for most of the coarse (−2 + 1 mm), medium (−1 + 0.1 mm), and fine gold particles (−0.1 mm) the
cumulative gold recovery essentially flattens after lengths of 2 m. Testing different gold placer ores,
Litvintsev et al., (2012) [50] also concluded that approximately 88% of the gold was recovered within
the first
Minerals 2020, 10, xmeter of the sluice, 10% in the second meter, and 2% in the third. 14 of 51
The pulp density (which is the percentage solids in the pulp by mass) of the slurry should be low,
in the range of 10% to 20% solids, and the thickness of the flow cannot be higher than 3 cm. This allows
allows gold particles to sink to the bottom of the flow to be trapped by the sluice. If a portable digital
gold particles to sink to the bottom of the flow to be trapped by the sluice. If aortable digital scale is
scale is available, weigh a top-cut Coca-Cola bottle with water and afterward weigh again with pulp
available, weigh a top-cut Coca-Cola bottle with water and afterward weigh again with pulp coming
coming from thesluice
from the sluice boxbox (Figure
(Figure 14).volume
14). The The volume
of solidsof solids
plus plus the
the volume volume
of water of water
will equal will equal the
the volume
volume of thethebottle
bottle
(for(for example
example 1.5 L).1.5
TheL). The
mass of mass of the
the bottle withbottle with
pulp will pulptowill
be equal be equal
the mass of theto the mass of
solids
the solidsplus
plusthethe
massmass
of theofwater.
the water.

FigureFigure
14. Pulp with
14. Pulp solids
with solidscollected atthe
collected at thedischarge
discharge of sluice
of the the sluice
box. box.

The specific gravity of the solids, sgs , can be determined by picnometry using the same bottle or a
The specific gravity of the solids, sgs, can be determined by picnometry using the same bottle or
vial or a beaker. The sg of solids can be calculated using the following formula (picnometry):
a vial or a beaker.
The sg of solids can be calculated using (M − P) formula (picnometry):
the following
sg =s
(W + (M − P) − S)
𝑀 𝑃
𝑠𝑔 =
sgs = specific gravity of the ore sample 𝑊 𝑀 𝑃 𝑆
P = weight of the empty picnometer (a vial or a beaker)
sgs = specific gravity
M = weight of of thesample
solid ore sample
+ picnometer
P = weight
W =ofweight
the empty picnometer
of pycnometer full of (a vial(full
water or vial
a beaker)
or beaker)
S = weight
M = weight of solid sample ++pycnometer
of sample picnometer + water (same volume as before)
W + (M − P) − S =
W = weight of pycnometer full of water (full vial
weight of water displaced or beaker)
by the solid sample
S = weight ofUsually,
sample the+ sg
pycnometer + water (same
of most ores processed volume
by sluices as before)
is around 2.7, but it is always useful to obtain it
W + (M −byP)picnometry.
− S = weightThenofthe
water
mass displaced bypulp
of solids in the the solid
can be sample
algebraically solved:
Usually, the sg of most ores processed by sluices is around 2.7, but it is always useful to obtain
VT (total volume of the bottle) = Vsolids + Vliquid
it by picnometry. Then
MT (total mass thebottle
of the masswith
of solids
pulp) =inMthe pulp can be algebraically solved:
solids + Mliquid

VT (total volume of the bottle) = Vsolids + Vliquid

MT (total mass of the bottle with pulp) = Msolids + Mliquid
The specific gravity of solids, sgs = Msolids/Vsolids or Vsolids= Msolids/sgs
As the sgw (water specific gravity) is 1, Vliquid = Mliquid, then… VT − Vsolids = MT − Msolids
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 14 of 49

The specific gravity of solids, sgs = Msolids /Vsolids or Vsolids = Msolids /sgs
As the sgw (water specific gravity) is 1, Vliquid = Mliquid , then . . . VT − Vsolids = MT − Msolids
Msolids = Vsolids + MT − VT = (Msolids /sgs ) − MT − VT
 
Msolids 1− sg1 = MT − VT
s

Total mass of bottle with pulp − Total volume of bottle

Mass of solids =  
1 − sg1
s

For example, in a 1.5 L bottle:

• Mass of the full bottle with pulp = 2.00 kg (obtained in the scale);
• Total volume = 1.50 L (measured);
• Specific gravity of solids, sgs = 2.7 (determined by picnometry);
• Mass of solids = 0.79 kg (calculated by equation above);
• %S(%Mass ofx solids) = Mass of solids/Mass of the pulp = 0.79/2.00 = 40%;
Minerals 2020, 10, 15 of 51

• Then, this slurry has a pulp density of 40% solids by mass, too high for sluicing!
• %S (%Mass of solids) = Mass of solids/Mass of the pulp = 0.79/2.00 = 40%;
•In the
Then, this slurry
market, therehas
areascales
pulp density of 40% solids
to determine by mass,
the pulp too high
density for sluicing!
of slurries that are very affordable
and easy Into the
operate butthere
market, the are
sgs scales
is stilltonecessary
determine(Pulp Density
the pulp densityScales, 2011)that
of slurries [60].
are very affordable
The easy
and to operate of
arrangement butthe
thesluice is another
sgs is still important
necessary variable
(Pulp Density for 2011)
Scales, efficient
[60].sluicing but is frequently
overlooked Thebyarrangement of the Gold
artisanal miners. sluiceores
is another
usually important variable of
contain a mixture forcoarse
efficientandsluicing but is gold
fine-grained
particles. As fine gold can be lost to the tailings when the pulp flow speed is high, it is always fine-
frequently overlooked by artisanal miners. Gold ores usually contain a mixture of coarse and beneficial
to have multiple-stage sluices. As most of the gold is recovered in the first meter of a sluice, ait way
grained gold particles. As fine gold can be lost to the tailings when the pulp flow speed is high, is to
always beneficial to have multiple-stage sluices. As most of the gold is recovered in the first meter of
increase the gold recovery is by using a zigzag arrangement. In this case, the velocity of the flow will
a sluice, a way to increase the gold recovery is by using a zigzag arrangement. In this case, the velocity
be broken every time the direction of flow changes. Zigzag sluices also allow variable flow velocities
of the flow will be broken every time the direction of flow changes. Zigzag sluices also allow variable
changing the slopechanging
flow velocities and using thedifferent
slope and carpets in each deck.
using different carpetsIninSuriname,
each deck.zigzag sluiceszigzag
In Suriname, were used
for the concentration of gold from both colluvial and alluvial ore. Local miners
sluices were used for the concentration of gold from both colluvial and alluvial ore. Local miners mentioned that they
learned
mentioned that they learned how to make zigzag sluices from Brazilian artisanal minersin the
how to make zigzag sluices from Brazilian artisanal miners (“garimpeiros”). In fact,
(“garimpeiros”).
Brazilian Amazon, there In fact,
areinsluices
the Brazilian
with up Amazon,
to fourthere
decksarearranged
sluices with up to fourIndecks
in zigzags. arranged
Zaragoza, in
Colombia,
zigzags.
artisanal In Zaragoza,
miners Colombia,from
process material artisanal
a dryminers
alluvialprocess
gold material
deposit from
usingabackhoe
dry alluvial gold deposit
excavators to feed a
usingzigzag
two-deck backhoe excavators
sluice (Figureto feed
15). a two-deck engineer
A Colombian zigzag sluice (Figurethat,
mentioned 15). unfortunately,
A Colombian engineer
some miners
mentioned that, unfortunately, some miners add mercury into the lower deck of the sluice box.
add mercury into the lower deck of the sluice box.

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 15. Zigzag
15. (a) (a) Zigzag sluice
sluice operatingdry
operating dryalluvial
alluvial gold
goldore
oreininZaragoza,
Zaragoza,Colombia (b) Zigzag
Colombia sluicesluice
(b) Zigzag
in Suriname.
in Suriname.

2.3.2. Dry Sluices

A less popular sluice is the dry washers or waterless sluices. These sluices are very useful for
regions where water is scarce, for example in the desert in Sudan (Figure 16), but they are not as
efficient as the wet sluices. For example, in water, the weight difference between gold and quartz
particles is around 11, however, in the air, this difference drops to 7 (911-Metallurgist, 2017) [61]. Dry
washers work using pressured air that flows through a perforated bed expelling the light minerals
 Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 15 of 49

2.3.2. Dry Sluices

A less popular sluice is the dry washers or waterless sluices. These sluices are very useful for
regions where water is scarce, for example in the desert in Sudan (Figure 16), but they are not as efficient
as the wet sluices. For example, in water, the weight difference between gold and quartz particles is
around 11, however, in the air, this difference drops to 7 (911-Metallurgist, 2017) [61]. Dry washers
work using pressured air that flows through a perforated bed expelling the light minerals from the
sluice bed (Keene Engineering. 2020b) [62]. The main problem with this equipment is the amount of
dust generated and most artisanal miners are reluctant to use masks. 20

20

497
498 Figure 14 – Artisanal miners in Sudan using a waterless sluice
Figure 16. Artisanal miners in Sudan using a waterless sluice.
497
499 498Primitive Sluices Figure 14 – Artisanal miners in Sudan using a waterless sluice
2.3.3. Primitive Sluices
500 499
ManyPrimitive
primitive Sluices
sluice boxes have been seen in different countries. In Indonesia, a wooden sluice with
Many primitive sluice boxes have been seen in different countries. In Indonesia, a wooden sluice
501 500
no carpet and a low
Many primitive slope
sluice is used
boxes by artisanal
have been miners countries.
seen in different to concentrate alluviala cassiterite
In Indonesia, (SnO
wooden sluice with2) and
with no carpet and a low slope is used by artisanal miners to concentrate alluvial cassiterite (SnO2 )
502 501
sometimes gold
no carpet andas well.
a low Theis amount
slope of sand miners
used by artisanal accumulated in the alluvial
to concentrate sluice cassiterite
serves as(SnO
a carpet
2) andto trap the
and sometimes gold as well. The amount of sand accumulated in the sluice serves as a carpet to trap
the502
503 heavy
heavy sometimes
minerals.
minerals. gold
Theascalculated
The well. The amount
calculated SnOSnO2of sand accumulated
recovery in thein
in operations sluice serves as a carpet
Bangka-Belitung wastoestimated
trap the at
2 recovery in operations in Bangka-Belitung was estimated
504 503 heavy minerals.
approximately 12% The
12% (Maiacalculated SnO recovery in operations in Bangka-Belitung was estimated at
at approximately (Maiaetetal.,al.,2019).
2019)Another
2 rudimentary
[63]. Another sluice was observed
rudimentary sluice was in Uganda,
observed where
in Uganda,
504 approximately 12% (Maia et al., 2019). Another rudimentary sluice was observed in Uganda, where
whereartisanal
505 artisanal miners
miners makemake
sluicesluice
boxes boxes
carvingcarving
a tree atrunk.
tree Instead
trunk. Instead
of carpetsoftocarpets to particles,
trap gold trap goldthose
particles,
505 artisanal miners make sluice boxes carving a tree trunk. Instead of carpets to trap gold particles, those
thosemicro-miners
506 micro-miners useuse a bed
a bed of grass
of grass (Figure
(Figure 15a).17a). In Mozambique,
In Mozambique, artisanalartisanal miners
miners create createtoatrap
a sluice sluice to
506 micro-miners use a bed of grass (Figure 15a). In Mozambique, artisanal miners create a sluice to trap
trap gold
507 simply
gold simply excavating
excavating the ground
the ground and expecting
and expecting that the
that the rough rough
surface surface
of the of the
soil traps goldsoil traps gold
specks
507 gold simply excavating the ground and expecting that the rough surface of the soil traps gold specks
specks
508 508 from
fromfrom weathered
weathered ores.ores. In
InInSouth South Africa, some miners use the same system as in Mozambique but
weathered ores. SouthAfrica, someminers
Africa, some miners useuse
thethe
samesame system
system as in Mozambique
as in Mozambique but the but the
the improvised excavated sluice is lined with wool carpets (Figure 17b).
509 509
improvised excavated
improvised sluice
excavated sluiceisislined withwool
lined with woolcarpets
carpets (Figure
(Figure 15b).
15b).

510
511 (a) (b)
510
512 Figure 15 – (a) Small sluice box in Uganda made of a tree trunk (photo: S. Siegel)
Figure 17. (a) Small sluice
511 513 (a)box(b)inGround
Uganda made
excavated ofwith
sluice a tree trunk
carpets (photo:
in South Africa. S. Siegel).
(b) (b) Ground excavated
512 sluice with carpets in South Africa.
Figure 15 – (a) Small sluice box in Uganda made of a tree trunk (photo: S. Siegel)
513 (b) Ground excavated sluice with carpets in South Africa.
2.3.4. Amalgamating Sluice
A common type of sluice used in AGM is the amalgamating sluice, observed in the field in some
countries such as Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ghana, Guyana, Honduras, Indonesia, Nicaragua,
 21

Minerals 10, 1026

5142020,Amalgamating Sluice 16 of 49

515 A common type of sluice used in AGM is the amalgamating sluice, observed in the field in some
516 countries such as Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ghana, Guyana, Honduras, Indonesia,
Suriname, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe. These are copper plates covered with mercury and set up as a
517 Nicaragua, Suriname, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe. These are copper plates covered with mercury and
sluice after a grinding process, either by stamp or hammer or Chilean mills. The plates are not very
518 set up as a sluice after a grinding process, either by stamp or hammer or Chilean mills. The plates are
efficient to trap unliberated gold when the ore is poorly ground, usually below 1 mm (Figure 18).
519 not very efficient to trap unliberated gold when the ore is poorly ground, usually below 1 mm (Figure
The flow of pulp must be interrupted and the plates scratched with a blade of steel or plastic card to
520 16). The flow of pulp must be interrupted and the plates scratched with a blade of steel or plastic card
remove the amalgam formed on the surface (Figure 19). The efficiency of the process is low due to
521 to remove the amalgam formed on the surface (Figure 17). The efficiency of the process is low due to
the short time of contact between the liberated gold and mercury. These sluices are 1 or 2 m long and
522 the short time of contact between the liberated gold and mercury. These sluices are 1 or 2 m long and
require about 0.3 m2 of copper plate to treat 1 tonne per day (tpd) of ore for pulps with 20% solids.
523 require about 0.3 m2 of copper plate to treat 1 tonne per day (tpd) of ore for pulps with 20% solids. The
The friction between
Minerals 2020, the
10, x pulp and the plate surface removes mercury droplets that17 are
of 51lost with the
524 friction between the pulp and the plate surface removes mercury droplets that are lost with the tailings.
tailings. In Venezuela, tailings were analyzed containing 60 to 100 ppm mercury (Veiga et al., 2005) [64].
525 In Venezuela,
require about tailings
0.3 mwere analyzed
2 of copper containing
plate to treat 160 to 100
tonne perppm mercury
day (tpd) (Veiga
of ore et al.,with
for pulps 2005).
20%Assolids.
shown
As shown inThe Table 1, the
friction
copper-amalgamating
between the pulp andsluices
the plate
sluices aremercury
responsible for Hglostwith: Authe produced ratios
526 in Table 1 the copper-amalgamating aresurface removes
responsible for Hglost: Audroplets that are lost
produced ratios around 3. These
around 3. These sluices
tailings. are fabricated
In Venezuela, byanalyzed
tailings were the artisanal
containingminers
60 to 100who
ppm buymercurycopper
(Veigaplates (2–5 mm thick)
et al., 2005)
527 sluices are fabricated by the artisanal miners who buy copper plates (2 – 5 mm thick) and clean the
and clean the[64]. As shown
plate surface in Table
with1, acids
the copper-amalgamating
to remove copper sluices are responsible
oxidation for Hg
before lost: Auproduced ratios
adding a layer of mercury.
528 plate surface
around with acids
3. These to remove
sluices copper
are fabricated byoxidation before
the artisanal adding
miners a buy
who layercopper
of mercury.
plates (2–5 mm thick)
and clean the plate surface with acids to remove copper oxidation before adding a layer of mercury.

529
530 Figure 16 - Amalgamating sluices in Venezuela after hammer mills and after stamp mills in Zimbabwe
Figure 18. Amalgamating sluicessluices
Figure 18. Amalgamating in Venezuela after
in Venezuela hammer
after hammer mills
mills andstamp
and after aftermills
stamp mills in Zimbabwe.
in Zimbabwe.

Figure 19. Scratching the surface of the amalgamating plate to remove the amalgam (Brazil and
Scratching the surface of the amalgamating plate to remove the amalgam
Figure 19. Venezuela).
(Brazil and Venezuela).
Amalgamation is a simple and effective way to trap liberated gold particles, usually coarser than
0.074 mm. When the gold particles are too small, the surface tension of the mercury makes it hard for
Amalgamation is a simple and effective way to trap liberated gold particles, usually coarser
the fine gold particles to form an amalgam. The three main types of gold amalgam are AuHg2, Au2Hg,
than 0.074 mm.and Au When the gold particles are too small, the surface tension of the mercury makes
3Hg (Taggart, 1945) [65]. The amalgams vary in composition depending on how much force

it hard for the fine gold particles

is used to squeeze off the to form
liquid an amalgam.
mercury The three
from the amalgam duringmain types process.
the filtration of goldAnamalgam are
amalgam manually squeezed usually contains 40 to 60% mercury. If a filter is made with a polyvinyl
AuHg2 , Au2 Hg, and Au3 Hg (Taggart, 1945) [65]. The amalgams vary in composition depending on
chloride (PVC) tube and a piece of cloth, a Knelson centrifuge can be used, as observed in Venezuela,
how much force is used
to remove to squeeze
the excess of mercuryofffromthe
the liquid
amalgam.mercury from the
The final amalgam amalgam
is less during
than 20% mercury. Anthe filtration
process. An amalgam manually squeezed usually contains 40 to 60% mercury. If a filter is made with a
improvised centrifuge (or even a bicycle wheel) can also be locally manufactured for this end. (Figure
20) (Veiga et al., 2006) [39].
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tube and a piece of cloth, a Knelson centrifuge can be used, as observed in
Venezuela, to remove the excess of mercury from the amalgam. The final amalgam is less than 20%
mercury. An improvised centrifuge (or even a bicycle wheel) can also be locally manufactured for this
end. (Figure 20) (Veiga et al., 2006) [39].
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 17 of 49
Minerals 2020, 10, x 18 of 51

Minerals 2020, 10, x 18 of 51

Figure
Figure 20.20. Improvised
Improvisedcentrifuge to remove
centrifuge excess mercury
to remove excess from amalgams
mercury from(devised by Edmundo
amalgams (devised by
Veiga).
Edmundo Veiga).

A major reason Figure for mercury losses to theexcess

tailings during the amalgamation process is the
A major reason for20. Improvised
mercury centrifuge
losses totothe
remove
tailingsmercury
during fromthe
amalgams (devised by Edmundo
amalgamation process is the oxidation
oxidation of theVeiga). copper plate beneath the mercury and oxidation of the mercury layer itself. Some
of the copper plate beneath the mercury and oxidation of the mercury layer itself. Some miners,
miners, when they observe yellow spots on the surface of the plates, stop the operation and remove
when A major reason for
onmercury losses to the tailings during
stopthe
theamalgamation process is the
thethey observe
oxidation with yellow
oxidation a of
tablet spots
of sodium
the copper
the cyanide
surface
plate beneath
of
or the plates,
a cyanide
the mercury solution
and oxidation asoperation
of the observed
mercury
and remove
initself.
layer Zimbabwe
Some
the oxidation
(Veiga
withetaal.,
tablet of
2014 [12],sodium
Green
miners, whencyanide
etthey or
al., observe a
2019 [66]) cyanide
yellowand solution
Nicaragua.
spots as
Miners
on the surface observed in
do notstop
of the plates, takeZimbabwe
theany (Veiga
precautions
operation and remove et al.,
in handling2014 [12],
Green et al., 2019
the [66])
oxidation and
with aNicaragua.
tablet of sodium Miners
cyanide or do
a not
cyanide take
solution any
as
tablets of cyanide in neutral pH when HCN (gas) is formed (Figure 21). In Chile, artisanal miners precautions
observed in Zimbabwein handling
(Veiga tablets of
et al., 2014 [12], Green et al., 2019 [66]) and Nicaragua. Miners do not take any precautions in handling
cyanide in neutral
eliminate thetabletspH
yellow when
spots by HCN (gas)urine
rubbing is formed
on the (Figure 21). InasChile,
copper plates, observedartisanal
of cyanide in neutral pH when HCN (gas) is formed (Figure 21). In Chile, artisanal miners
miners eliminate the
in Andacollo.
yellow spots byeliminate
rubbing urinespots
the yellow on the copper
by rubbing urineplates, as observed
on the copper in Andacollo.
plates, as observed in Andacollo.

(a) (b)

Figure 21. (a) Copper-amalgamating plate showing oxidation yellow spots (Brazil) (b) Miner using a
Figure 21. (a) Copper-amalgamating plate showing oxidation yellow spots(b)
(a)cyanide to clean the amalgamating sluice (Zimbabwe).
tablet of sodium
(Brazil) (b) Miner using a
tablet of sodium cyanide to clean the amalgamating sluice (Zimbabwe).
Figure 21. (a)Environmental
2.3.5. Copper-amalgamating plate showing oxidation yellow spots (Brazil) (b) Miner using a
Impacts of Sluicing
2.3.5. Environmental
tablet of sodium Impacts
cyanide
As sluice toof
boxes areSluicing
clean
thethe amalgamating
main sluice
equipment used (Zimbabwe).
by artisanal gold miners, the environmental
impacts are remarkable, as many operations are conducted near the water streams. In 1987, the
As sluice
2.3.5. boxes areImpacts
Brundtland
Environmental the main
Report equipment
mentioned
of Sluicing used
that poverty byofartisanal
is one goldofminers,
the main causes the environmental
environmental problems impacts
(WCED, 1987) [67]. Artisanal miners often are not concerned about their
are remarkable, as many operations are conducted near the water streams. In 1987, the Brundtlandimpacts on the land and
As sluice boxes
water are
streams thatthe main
provide equipment
their used
food nor on their byhealth.
own artisanal goldinstinct
The survival miners,is thethe environmental
main, and
Report mentioned that poverty is one offorthe main causes of environmental problems (WCED, 1987) [67].
impacts are sometimes the sole,
remarkable, asdriving
manyforce their
operations work.
areMost miners,
conducted fornear
example,
thedowater
not believe in mercury
streams. In 1987, the
Artisanal
Brundtland
pollution
miners often
Report
andareintoxication,
mentioned that
and they see
not concernedpoverty is
all warnings
about one their
of the
and awareness
impacts
main on the
causes
campaigns
of land asand
efforts
environmental
by
water streams that
problems
governments to stop their activities (Veiga, 2009) [68].
provide
(WCED, their food
1987) norArtisanal
[67]. on theirminers
own health.
often areThe survival instinct
not concerned is the
about their main,onand
impacts the sometimes
land and the
sole,water
driving forcethat
streams forprovide
their work. Mostnor
their food miners, forown
on their example, do not
health. The believe
survival in mercury
instinct pollution
is the main, and and
intoxication,
sometimesand theydriving
the sole, see allforce
warnings and
for their awareness
work. campaigns
Most miners, as efforts
for example, do notby governments
believe in mercuryto stop
theirpollution
activitiesand intoxication,
(Veiga, and they see all warnings and awareness campaigns as efforts by
2009) [68].
governments
In Ghana, atotruckstop their activities (Veiga,
was observed 2009)
with two [68]. boxes set up after two hammer mills. The truck
sluice
follows the ore deposits that feed the mills using water from a local creek. The system does not use any
dam to retain the tailings, which are simply dumped into the rivers or spread on the ground (Figure 22).
 Minerals 2020, 10, x 19 of 51

In Ghana, a truck was observed with two sluice boxes set up after two hammer mills. The truck
follows the ore deposits that feed the mills using water from a local creek. The system does not use
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 18 of 49
any dam to retain the tailings, which are simply dumped into the rivers or spread on the ground
(Figure 22).

(a) (b)
Figure 22. (a) Sluice boxes on a truck in Ghana, (b) River impacted by artisanal mining in French
Figure 22. (a) Sluice boxes on a truck in Ghana, (b) River impacted by artisanal mining in French Guiana.
Guiana.

The use of amalgamating copper-plate

The use of amalgamating copper-plate sluices has
sluices has obvious
obvious chemical chemical
impacts onimpacts on the operators,
the operators,
due to constantdue to constant evaporation of mercury, as well as on the environment as droplets of metallic mercury
evaporation of mercury, as well as on the environment as droplets of metallic mercury
are carried with the tailings. But another invisible impact occurs when miners add mercury into the
are carried withriffles
theoftailings. Butfriction
the sluice. The another
of the invisible
pulp with theimpact occurs
liquid metal resultswhen miners
in high levels add mercury
of mercury in into the
the tailings. Some miners throw mercury in an excavated hole with water and
riffles of the sluice. The friction of the pulp with the liquid metal results in high levels of mercury in colluvial or alluvial
ore believing that mercury has a “magic” property to go after the gold. When pumping the ore pulp
the tailings. Someto theminers throw
sluices, free mercury
gold particles meetinthean excavated
mercury trapped onhole
the with water and
riffles, generating colluvial or alluvial ore
the impression
believing that mercury has a “magic” property to go after the gold. When pumping
that mercury found the gold specks on the ground. Artisanal miners in Suriname, Venezuela, and the ore pulp to
some places in Indonesia are still using this primitive method. The environmental pollution is
the sluices, freenoteworthy
gold particles meet the mercury trapped on the riffles, generating the impression that
as not all mercury spread out on the ground is recovered when the pulp is processed in
mercury foundthe the gold
sluice specks on the ground. Artisanal miners in Suriname, Venezuela, and some
boxes.
places in IndonesiaThe aresystematic releases of tailings, sometimes with mercury, into the local rivers in the Brazilian
still using this primitive method. The environmental pollution is noteworthy as
Amazon have been creating problems for the communities downstream that have fish as their main
not all mercurystaple
spread food.out on thefrom
For example, ground is recovered
3 to 6 million when
tpa of tailings fromthe pulp
sluices is processed
dumped inofthe sluice boxes.
into an affluent
the Tapajós
The systematic River, the
releases of second mostsometimes
tailings, important riverwith
in the mercury,
Amazon region, into thethe
pulplocal
of tailings flowin the Brazilian
rivers
over 150 km downstream (Figure 23). Telmer et al. (2006) [69] highlighted that “mining-induced
Amazon have been sedimentcreating
plumes haveproblems
been a source offor the to
sediment communities downstream
the Tapajós River system for decades”. that have fish as their main
staple food. For example, from 3 to 6 million tpa of tailings from sluices dumped into an affluent of the
Tapajós River, the second most important river in the Amazon region, the pulp of tailings flow over
150 km downstream (Figure 23). Telmer et al. (2006) [69] highlighted that “mining-induced sediment
plumes have been a source of sediment to the Tapajós River system for decades”.
Minerals 2020, 10, x 20 of 51

Figure 23. Tailings from

Figure 23. thefrom
Tailings Crepori River
the Crepori Riverpass tothethe
pass to Tapajós
Tapajós River
River and goes and
more goes more
than 150 km than 150 km
downstream. (Image obtained from Google Earth, 2020).
downstream. (Image obtained from Google Earth, 2020).
The GEF/UNDP/UNIDO Global Mercury Project assessed the volume of 20 abandoned open pits
The GEF/UNDP/UNIDO Global
that ranged from 10,000 Mercury
m3 to 50,000 m3. EveryProject assessed
year up to 600 new pitsthearevolume of Tapajós
opened in the 20 abandoned open
region. When miners reach
3 depths of 10 m,3 they move their equipment (pumps and sluices) to
pits that ranged from 10,000 m to 50,000 m . Every year up to 600 new pits are opened in the
another pit. The project used these old pits to receive sluice tailings that were dumped into the
Crepori River. A straw barrier was used to “filter” the pulp recirculating the water. After the pits
were filled, organic soil was generated planting legumes on the top of the reclaimed pits (Figure 24)
(Sousa and Veiga, 2009) [70].
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 19 of 49

Tapajós region. When miners reach depths of 10 m, they move their equipment (pumps and sluices)
to another pit. The project used these old pits to receive sluice tailings that were dumped into the
Crepori River. A straw barrier was used to “filter” the pulp recirculating the water. After the pits
were filled, organic soil was generated planting legumes on the top of the reclaimed pits (Figure 24)
(Sousa and Veiga, 2009) [70].
Minerals 2020, 10, x 21 of 51

Figure 24. Instead of dumping tailings from sluices into the Crepori River, the tailings were conducted
Figure 24. Instead of dumping tailings from sluices into the Crepori River, the tailings were conducted
to open
to open pits,
pits, filtered
filteredwith
withaabarrier
barrierof
ofstraw,
straw,and
andreclaimed
reclaimed(Sousa
(Sousaand
andVeiga,
Veiga,2009)
2009)[70].
[70].

2.3.6. Sluicing—Summary
Sluice boxes are a very adequate technology for artisanal miners and can be very efficient if well
designed and operated. The main points related to sluicing are listed as follows:
• Large amounts of water are needed: 10–15 m3/min for a typical 60-cm wide sluice; the water is
rarely recycled;
• Artisanal miners do not use an efficient size classification of the sluice box feed. They only
remove the large cobbles with a grizzly screen. This provokes turbulence removing the fine gold
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 20 of 49

2.3.6. Sluicing—Summary
Sluice boxes are a very adequate technology for artisanal miners and can be very efficient if well
designed and operated. The main points related to sluicing are listed as follows:

• Large amounts of water are needed: 10–15 m3 /min for a typical 60-cm wide sluice; the water is
rarely recycled;
• Artisanal miners do not use an efficient size classification of the sluice box feed. They only remove
the large cobbles with a grizzly screen. This provokes turbulence removing the fine gold particles
from the bed, reducing the recovery;
• Riffles are not good for fine gold particles, only for large gold specks, as high riffles can create
turbulence and fine gold particles are lost;
• Miners often work with high amounts of solids in the pulp (e.g., 30–40% in mass). This makes it
difficult for gold to sink in the sluice to be concentrated; 10–20% of solids in the pulp would be
more adequate;
• Miners use long sluices hoping to catch fine gold but this is not effective. Most gold is concentrated
within the first 2 m of the sluice;
• Fine gold is concentrated where the pulp flow speed is slower, i.e., at the beginning of the sluice.
Zigzag sluicing, with multiple decks, is a good way to break the flow velocity and capture more
fine gold than a turbulent single-deck sluice;
• Wide sluices can process more material than narrow sluices;
• The carpets cannot be allowed to clog as this stops further gold particles’ deposition. In sluices
with low angles, the material settles faster. The usual angle of a sluice box is 10–15◦ . Some miners
in Ecuador use 5◦ to increase the gold recovery, but they have to clean the carpets every hour,
and consequently, the concentrate grade is poor;
• There are a variety of carpets available in the market. The vinyl loop carpets are very efficient,
but they must be unbacked, i.e., no rubber at the back, otherwise the gold particles become
entrained in the carpet and are hard to dislodge at the end of the operation;
• Flat particles of gold can float on the sluices and are lost; and,
• Spirals or other types of sluice such as pinched sluices or Reichert cones, have not been observed
in use in AGM operations. These would bring relevant improvements since the operations
do not need to be interrupted to discharge the concentrates. The main reasons for not using
these pieces of equipment in AGM are: (1) high price, (2) no local availability, (3) high mass of
concentrates to be treated after concentration, and (4) lack of knowledge of the artisanal miners
about these technologies.

2.4. Jigging
Gravity concentration by jigging has been used in conventional mining operations for more than
100 years (Abols and Grady, 2006 [71]), but they are not common in AGM operations. Jigs have been
used for gold concentration since the Old Egyptian times (Sampaio and Tavares, 2005) [23]. Jigging is a
continuous gravity concentration process that separates heavy from lighter particles by a pulsating
flow of water caused by a piston. This pumps and sucks water, creating a flow that throws the light
particles upwards. This process fluidizes the particles, and the heavy particles sink into a bed of steel
balls (or pebbles) called “ragging”. The ragging is held by a steel screen but during the pulsation, it also
moves up and down opening room for the heavy particles to pass through it to be discharged at the
bottom of the jig. Wills and Finch (2016) [72] explained the mechanisms involved in a jig, showing that
the action of pulsing and suction are responsible for the stratification and, therefore, the concentration
of the heavy particles (Figure 25). The smaller and lighter particles are expelled from the jig and the
heavier particles, by density or by size, settle down faster.
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 21 of 49
Minerals 2020, 10, x 23 of 51

Figure
Figure 25.
25. Snapshot of of
Snapshot a jig cycle.
a jig Water
cycle. pulses
Water and concentration
pulses (adapted
and concentration from Wills
(adapted from and Finch,
Wills and
2016) [72].
Finch, 2016) [72].
Minerals 2020, 10, x 23 of 51

In most et
Priester Colombian operations
al. (1993) [73] showedvisited, theby
a jig used discharge
artisanalofminers
a ballwith
mill awas classified
manual system in that
a trommel
creates
with a 1 to 2 mm screen attached to the ball mill (Figure 28). The coarse particles (+1 mm)
a pulsating effect on a bed of minerals to concentrate gold specks at the bottom of the jig. Jigs are very are returned
to the balltomill
sensitive manually
particle with
size and a shovel.
shape The tailings
and usually from to
are effective theseparate
jig are processed
particles ofingold
a shaking
coarsertable
than
without any further classification (Figure 29). As the jig concentrates are not very rich
100 mesh (0.15 mm). Mitchell et al. (1997a) [48] reinforce the idea that jigs should process separately in gold due to
large amounts of sulfides and coarse particles of gangue, some miners amalgamate
screened fractions and highlighted that recovery falls to less than 50% for gold finer than 0.1 mm. the concentrates
in small
Jigs balllarge
accept millsamounts
or leach of
with
orecyanide
and canafter re-grinding.
process up to 1000Thistph
configuration
of ore (Willswas
andanFinch,
initiative of[72].
2016) the
government that hired a company
Pulp density is usually 10–30% solids. to implement this design in over 70 formalized operations, without
taking
Ininto consideration
Antioquia, the mineralogical
Colombia, many artisanal differences
operations among
use 8them.
inch × 12 inch jigs with the capacity
to process 0.3–1.5 Figure
tph, 25.butSnapshot of a jig cycle. Water pulses and concentration (adapted from Wills and Finch,
in many cases processing less than 0.07 tph. These jigs have 0.75 kW
2016) [72].
electric motors kW (1 HP), use 2.4 L/min of water, and are located at the discharge of the ball mills
(Figures 26 and 27).InThemost Colombian operations visited, the discharge of a ball mill was classified in a trommel
pulp entering these small jigs, after the addition of water, averaged 25% solids.
with a 1 to 2 mm screen attached to the ball mill (Figure 28). The coarse particles (+1 mm) are returned
The Colombiantojigs usemill
the ball a lateral
manuallyplunger which
with a shovel. is an adaptation
The tailings from the jig areof the Harz
processed jig. The
in a shaking plunger, located
table
outside the jig, without
movesany further classification
vertically and presses(Figure 29).
downAs theonjig the
concentrates
waterare innot
thevery
jigrich in gold
tank in due to but frequent,
small,
large amounts of sulfides and coarse particles of gangue, some miners amalgamate the concentrates
pulses (aroundin100 pulses/min).
small ball mills or leachThis movesafter
with cyanide there-grinding.
water flow against the
This configuration wasragging.
an initiativeNew
of the jigs are sold in
Colombia for US$ 2000–5000/unit depending on whether the jig is locally made or imported.
government that hired a company to implement this design in over 70 formalized operations, without
taking into consideration the mineralogical differences among them.

Figure 26. Jig in Colombia uses a bed of small steel balls.

Despite some gold concentration, the Colombian jigs seem to work merely as a size classification
device for the shaking tables, since the coarse particles of gangue are reported to the jigs’ concentrates
together with the heavy
Minerals 2020, 10, xminerals. Most
Figure 26. Jiglocal artisanal
in Colombia uses a bedminers criticize
of small steel balls. this arrangement
24 of 51 as it is not
Figure 26. Jig in Colombia uses a bed of small steel balls.
very efficient for gold concentration and the jig provides a low concentration ratio. Most Colombian
Despite some gold concentration, the Colombian jigs seem to work merely as a size classification
artisanal plantsdevice
abandoned
for the shakingthistables,
configuration
since the coarse to use of
particles a gangue
1 mmaretrommel
reported to atthe the ball mill discharge and
jigs’ concentrates
together
only the shaking tables. with the heavy minerals. Most local artisanal miners criticize this arrangement as it is not
very efficient for gold concentration and the jig provides a low concentration ratio. Most Colombian
artisanal plants abandoned this configuration to use a 1 mm trommel at the ball mill discharge and
only the shaking tables.

FigureFigure 27. Plunger jig used in Colombia.

27. Plunger jig used in Colombia.
 677 Despite some gold concentration, the Colombian jigs seem to work
678 merely as a size classification device for the shaking tables, since the
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 679 coarse particles of gangue are reported to the jigs’ concentrates22 of 49
680 together with the heavy minerals. Most local artisanal miners criticize
In most Colombian681 operations visited, the discharge
this arrangement as it is notof a ball
very mill was
efficient classified
for gold in a trommel
concentration and
with a 1 to 2 mm screen attached to the ball mill (Figure 28). The coarse particles (+1 mm) are returned
682 the jig provides a low concentration ratio. Most Colombian artisanal
to the ball mill manually with a shovel. The tailings from the jig are processed in a shaking table
683
without any further classification plants abandoned
(Figure thisjig
29). As the configuration
concentratestoare
usenot
a 1very
mmrich
trommel at the
in gold dueball
to
large amounts of sulfides684 mill discharge
and coarse and
particles of only the
gangue, shaking
some minerstables.
amalgamate the concentrates in
small ball mills or leach with cyanide after re-grinding. This configuration was an initiative of the
government that hired a 685 company to implement this design in over 70 formalized operations, without
686 taking
Figure 25into consideration
– Plunger the mineralogical differences among them.
jig used in Colombia

32

732 (Figure 29). Some AGM operators use another shaking table to upgrade the concentrates. Gemeni
733 tables operate with no lateral slope, unlike traditional shaking tables, and with grooves, instead of
687
734 rifles, following the trapezoidal shape of the table. Gemeni tables have low capacity and can process
688 Figure 28.26The
Figure ground
- The ground material
material isisscreened:
screened:thethe −1 mm
-1 mm goes goes
to theto
jig the
and jig
+1 and +1 mmto returns
mm returns to the
the ball mill
735 from ball
27 kg/h
mill. to 455 kg/h of material (MD Mineral Technologies, 2005).
689 Jigging - Summary
690 The main points related to jigs in AGM are as follows:

691  Jigs operate much better with feed classified into narrow particle size ranges. Jigs are sensitive
692 to wide ranges of particle size fractions and without size classification are not efficient as the
693 coarse particles of gangue minerals concentrate together with the heavy minerals;
694  Jigs are not efficient for fine gold particles;
695  Jigs require large amounts of water;
696  For primary ores, particles ground and screened through 1 mm sieves rarely contain liberated
697 gold, therefore the gold grade of the concentrates is not high; and
736
698  In Colombian AGM operations, jigs work as size classifiers, basically removing the coarse
699
737 Figure
particles before Tailings
29. 27
the
Figure shaking from
–Tailings the
table
from jigjigare
areprocessed
processed by
concentration.
the by aa shaking
shakingtable
table(Colombia).
(Colombia).

Despite some gold concentration, the Colombian jigs seem to work merely as a size classification
device for the shaking tables, since the coarse particles of gangue are reported to the jigs’ concentrates
together with the heavy minerals. Most local artisanal miners criticize this arrangement as it is not
very efficient for gold concentration and the jig provides a low concentration ratio. Most Colombian
artisanal plants abandoned this configuration to use a 1 mm trommel at the ball mill discharge and
only the shaking tables.

Jigging—Summary
The main points related to jigs in AGM are as follows:
• Jigs operate much better with feed classified into narrow particle size ranges. Jigs are sensitive to
wide ranges of particle size fractions and without size classification are not efficient as the coarse
738 particles of gangue minerals concentrate together with the heavy minerals;
739 Figure 28 –Shaking tales in Colombian artisanal plants in Antioquia.
740
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 23 of 49

• Jigs are not efficient for fine gold particles;

• Jigs require large amounts of water;
• For primary ores, particles ground and screened through 1 mm sieves rarely contain liberated
gold, therefore the gold grade of the concentrates is not high; and
• In Colombian AGM operations, jigs work as size classifiers, basically removing the coarse particles
before the shaking table concentration.

2.5. Tabling
A shaking table is a riffled inclined deck that shakes horizontally. The most popular is the Wilfley
table developed in 1896 (Gupta and Yan, 2016) [28]. The height of the riffles depends on the grain size of
the ground ore but is usually 3 to 5 mm. Shaking tables operate in the conventional gold mining sector
to obtain the final product for gold smelting after a previous concentration in a centrifuge, for example.
The tables are efficient to recover gold grains as fine as 200 mesh (0.074 mm) but the efficiency depends
on the particle size distribution range. The narrower the grain size fraction, the more efficient is the
operation. Therefore, classification by screening can improve the gold recovery, which is also applicable
for all gravity concentration processes. Shaking tables can process up to 2 tonnes per hour (tph) of
ore ground to 1 to 1.5 mm and 1 tph for ore ground to 0.10 mm (150 mesh) operating with a pulp of
20–25% solids by mass. The length of the horizontal movement of the table has a great influence on the
gold recovery. Fast speed is useful for fine grain sizes of gold (Wills and Finch, 2016) [72]. Industrial
tables usually have decks 2 to 4.5 m long made of rubber or fiberglass or wood (Silva, 1986) [38].
The operation of shaking tables is not complicated but the two table slopes, ranging from 0 to 6◦
(higher in some cases as mentioned by Mitchell et al., 1997b [74]), must be adjusted according to the
type of ore and its grain size (Sampaio and Tavares, 2005) [23]. Higher angles of the lateral slope of the
table allow more ore to be processed. Lower angles of the frontal slope allow the retention of finer and
lighter materials on the table. Heavy particles (coarse and/or dense) are moved along the table’s riffles
by the throw/stroke (horizontal movement), while small/light particles are washed across the riffles,
down into the tailing discharge. The table also discharges the “middling” fraction (with intermediate
specific gravity) between the concentrate and the tailings, which is usually composed of unliberated
heavy minerals such as iron oxides, sulfides, and gold. Most artisanal miners do not recirculate the
middlings to the grinding circuit and submit concentrates plus middlings to amalgamation. As a result,
the mercury traps only the liberated gold leaving behind a rich gold and mercury-contaminated tailing.
Operators must find the adequate table slope for the type of ore and the grain size they are
processing. Shaking tables are usually inclined in two directions. There are tables specifically designed
to process very fine particles of ground ore, also known as “slimes table” (Silva, 1986) [38].
Shaking tables are becoming popular in AGM operations in Latin America. In many operations
in Colombia, usually with processing capacity below 30 tpd, miners use the shaking table to process
tailings from the jig (Figure 29) or just at the discharge of the ball or Chilean mills (Figure 30).
Some Colombian plants use a spiral gold panning machine or a homemade elutriator to upgrade the
table concentrates. These machines are also used to separate the amalgam from the heavy minerals
(Figure 31). Some AGM operators use another shaking table to upgrade the concentrates. Gemeni tables
operate with no lateral slope, unlike traditional shaking tables, and with grooves, instead of rifles,
following the trapezoidal shape of the table. Gemeni tables have low capacity and can process from
27 kg/h to 455 kg/h of material (MD Mineral Technologies, 2005) [75].
736
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 24 of 49
737 Figure 27 –Tailings from the jig are processed by a shaking table (Colombia).

738
33
739 Figure
Figure –Shaking
30.28Shaking tales
tales ininColombian
Colombian artisanal
artisanal plants
plantsinin
Antioquia.
Antioquia.
740

741
742 Figure 29 – 31.
Figure Gemeni table, spiral
Gemeni table,gold wheel,
spiral goldandwheel,
elutriatorand
used by Colombian
elutriator usedartisanal miners to upgrade
by Colombian table
artisanal concentrates
miners to
upgrade table concentrates.
743 As using one shaking table often does not provide high gold recoveries, several Colombian miners use
744 twoAs
or using
three tables to re-process
one shaking tailings.
table often doesThere are many
not provide different
high arrangements
gold recoveries, of these
several tables miners
Colombian
745 use two orinthree
working tables
parallel or into re-process
series, tailings.
and then There
treating are many different
the concentrates through arrangements of these
amalgamation and tables
treating
746 working in parallel
the tailings or in series,
with cyanidation. Anand then treating
example theplant
of an AGM concentrates through
processing amalgamation
sulfide-rich and treating
gold ores and
the tailings with cyanidation. An example of a Colombian AGM plant processing sulfide-rich gold
747 suggestion of improvements using three tables as rougher, cleaner, and scavengers is shown in
ores using three tables as rougher, cleaner, and scavengers is shown in Figure 32a. The process of
748 Figure 30. concentrates
re-grinding The process ofbefore
re-grinding
usingconcentrates
amalgamation before usingconducting
or even amalgamation or even conducting
amalgamation in small ball
749 amalgamation in small ball mills, which is popular in many AGM sites, is a result of
mills, which is popular in many AGM sites, is a result of poor size classification in the primary grinding poor size
750 circuit. The amalgamation
classification in the primaryofgrinding
the concentrates
circuit. Theand middlings results
amalgamation in tailings rich
of the concentrates andinmiddlings
mercury that in
751 many cases are leached with cyanide exacerbating the toxicity of the final
results in tailings rich in mercury that in many cases are leached with cyanide exacerbating tailings. The amalgamation
the toxicity
is completely unnecessary if the miners upgrade the concentrate from the shaking table 3a in a Gemeni
752 of the final tailings. The amalgamation is completely unnecessary if the miners upgrade the
table smelting the concentrate and leaching the middlings and tailings with cyanide. Even with the
753 concentrate
suggested from the shaking
improvement shown table
in 3(a)
Figurein a32b,
Gemeni tabletailing
the final smelting the concentrate
from the scavenger andshaking
leachingtable
the 3b,
754 middlings
might and atailings
still have with cyanide.
high amount of fineEven with the gold
unliberated suggested improvement
since the trommel screenshownofin1Figure
mm at30b, the mill
the ball
755 discharge is too
final tailing fromcoarse. If the concentrate
the scavenger table 3(b), from
mighttable 2b has
still have goldamount
a high specksofabove 0.1 mm, itgold
fine unliberated is suggested
since
756 tothe
remove
trommel them in a of
screen Gemeni
1 mm attable, upgrading
the ball it forisa too
mill discharge final smelting
coarse. If theprocess with from
concentrate borax.
tableTherefore,
2b
more efficient classification methods should be used at the discharge of the ball or Chilean mills.
757 has gold specks above 0.1 mm, it is suggested to remove them in a Gemeni table, upgrading it for a
758 final smelting process with borax. Therefore, more efficient classification methods should be used at
759 the discharge of the ball or Chilean mills.
 Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 25 of 49 34

760
761 (a)

762
763 (b)
764 Figure 30 –32.(a)(a)Example
Figure Exampleofofa agold
goldconcentration
concentrationplant
plantininColombia
Colombiaand
(b)(b) suggested
Suggested simple
simple improvements
improvements
in the configuration of the shaking tables.
765 Homemade Shaking Tables
2.5.1. Homemade Shaking Tables
766 The CICAN (Colleges
The and Institutes
CICAN (Colleges Canada)
and Institutes Project
Canada) in Colombia
Project (Veiga
in Colombia (Veigaetetal.,
al., 2018), was
2018) [37], a aproject
was
767 projectby
sponsored sponsored by Global
Global Affairs Affairs Canada
Canada to provide
to provide technical
technical support
support to artisanal
to artisanal minersin
miners in Colombia.
Colombia. The
The project, led by the CÉGEP from l’Abitibi-Témiscamingue, Rouyn-Noranda, Québec, decided to
768 project, led by the CÉGEP from l'Abitibi-Témiscamingue, Rouyn-Noranda, Québec, decided to use
use inexpensive locally found materials to teach artisanal gold miners and their trainers how to make
769 inexpensive locally
their own found equipment.
processing materials to teach
This artisanal
approach gold miners
is extremely noble,and their trainers
valuable, and veryhow
much toinmake
line their
770 with what Schumacher
own processing (1973)approach
equipment. This [76] described as “appropriate
is extremely technology”
noble, valuable, andinvery
his best-seller
much in line“Small
with what
is Beautiful”. This, according to the author of this book, is the basis for the local sustainability of a
771 Schumacher (1973)
community. Thedescribed asa “appropriate
project built technology”
simple ore impact mill usingina his
steelbest-seller “Small
chain (Figure is Beautiful”.
33) using the same This,
principle as a hammer mill. The pieces of equipment do not have high capacity and are sufficient for
micro-miners producing less than 2 tpd. Beyond different types of grinder, the project also developed
Minerals 2020, 10, x 28 of 51

areMinerals 2020, 10,

sufficient forx micro-miners producing less than 2 tpd. Beyond different types of grinder, 28 of 51the
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026
project also developed homemade shaking tables and flotation cells and transferred the blueprints 26 of 49 to
are sufficient for micro-miners producing less than 2 tpd. Beyond different types of grinder, the
local mechanical shops to make these pieces of equipment at the artisanal mining sites in Colombia.
project also developed homemade shaking tables and flotation cells and transferred the blueprints to
Small shakingshaking
homemade tables were
tables built
and using
flotationplywood,
cells and plastic buckets,
transferred and iron bars. Themechanical
shaking tablesshopscan
local mechanical shops to make these pieces of equipment atthe
theblueprints to local
artisanal mining sites in Colombia.
process
to make 100–200 kg/h ofequipment
these pieces ground ore and work mining
either with a Colombia.
1 HP electric motor to tables
generate the
Small shaking tables of
were built using at the artisanal
plywood, sites in
plastic buckets, and iron bars. SmallTheshaking
shaking tableswere can
horizontal
built usingstroke or
plywood, by a pedal
plastic that
buckets,shakes
and the
iron table
bars. and
The provides
shaking energy
tables for
can a pump
process that
100–200 recirculates
kg/h of
process 100–200 kg/h of ground ore and work either with a 1 HP electric motor to generate the
thehorizontal
water.ore
ground Astroke
bucket
and workwith water
either withis afilled
1 HP on the
electric top
motorof the
to table
generate and
the the ground
horizontal
or by a pedal that shakes the table and provides energy for a pump that recirculates
ore
stroke is fed
or by manually
a pedal
(Figure
the 34). The
thatwater.
shakes Athe cost
tableof
bucket building
and
with water this
provides shaking
is energy
filled atable
forthe
on top can
pump range
ofthat
the tablefrom
and US$
recirculates 100
theground
the water.to 200
A depending
bucket
ore is fedwith on the
water
manually
accessibility
is filled on
(Figure ofThe
34).the materials
top of the
cost and
tablewelders.
of buildingandthis Tests, conducted
the shaking
ground ore is can
table on afrom
fed manually
range gold ore from
(Figure
US$ Quebec,
34).toThe
100 200cost ofusing the
building
depending chain
on this
the
shaking
mill grindingtable can
below range
0.5 from
to 1 US$
mm 100
followedto 200bydepending
the shakingon the accessibility
table, resulted
accessibility of materials and welders. Tests, conducted on a gold ore from Quebec, using the chain of
in materials
a gold and
recovery welders.
of 88%.
Tests,grinding
Projects
mill conducted
in Colombia on are
below a0.5
gold
to ore from
demonstrating
1 mm Quebec,
followed theseusing
by the the
techniqueschain
shaking mill
totable, grinding
artisanal below
miners
resulted 0.5 to
in a(Veiga
gold 1 mm
and
recovery followed
Correa,
of 88%.2019)
by
[77]. the shaking table, resulted in a gold recovery of 88%. Projects in Colombia
Projects in Colombia are demonstrating these techniques to artisanal miners (Veiga and Correa, 2019) are demonstrating these
techniques to artisanal miners (Veiga and Correa, 2019) [77].
[77].

Figure 33. Two

Figure
different chain mills from the CICAN
CICAN(Colleges
(Collegesand
andInstitutes
Institutes Canada) project.
Figure 33.
33. Two
Two different
different chain
chain mills
mills from
from the
the CICAN (Colleges and Institutes Canada) project.
Canada) project.

Figure 34. Shaking table operated by a foot-operated lever. (CICAN project).

Figure
Figure34.
34.Shaking
Shakingtable
tableoperated
operated by
by aa foot-operated
foot-operatedlever.
lever.(CICAN
(CICANproject).
project).
2.5.2. Tabling—Summary
2.5.2.
2.5.2. Tabling—Summary
Tabling—Summary
The main aspects related to shaking tables are as follows:
TheThe mainaspects
main aspectsrelated
relatedto toshaking
shaking tables
tables are
are as
asfollows:
follows:
• Shaking tables, when used as primary gravity concentrators, do not provide high production
• • Shaking
Shakingtables,
tables,when
rates, with
when usedas
productionused
as primary gravity
usually primary
between gravity
concentrators,
concentrators,
20 to 40 tpd of ores;
do
donot
notprovide
providehigh
highproduction
production
rates, with production usually between 20 to 40 tpd of ores;
• rates,
Ball with production
and Chilean millsusually
usually between 20 particles,
flatten gold to 40 tpdwhich
of ores;
can lead to the particles floating over
• Ball
theand Chilean
shaking mills
table usually
riffles flatten
to be lost gold
withparticles,
tailings. which
Gold is cannaturally
lead to the particles floating
hydrophobic over
and this
the shaking table riffles to be lost with tailings. Gold is naturally hydrophobic and this
 Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 27 of 49

Minerals 2020, 10, x 29 of 51

• Ball and Chilean mills usually flatten gold particles, which can lead to the particles floating over the
phenomenon
shaking table rifflesof “floating
to be lost flaky
withgold” is commonly
tailings. Gold is naturally observed in laminar
hydrophobic and gravity separation
this phenomenon
Minerals 2020, 10, x 29 of 51
methods;
of “floating flaky gold” is commonly observed in laminar gravity separation methods;
•• The classification of of the ground material
material (grinding in aaclosed circuit) isisimportant for
foran
anefficient
phenomenonThe of classification
“floating flaky the
gold” groundis commonly (grinding
observedinin closed
laminar circuit)
gravity important
separation efficient
gold concentration. The culture of the artisanal miners in all
gold concentration. The culture of the artisanal miners in all continents is to introduce re-grinding continents is to introduce re-
methods;
grinding
circuits circuits
rather rather
thanmaterial than
using closed using closed
grinding grinding
circuits. circuits. It is
It is interesting interesting
that that artisanal miners
• The classification of the ground (grinding in a closed circuit) is important forartisanal
an efficient miners usually
usually neglect the classification processes after and
milling andbelieve
do notinbelieve in any benefit of
gold concentration. The culture of the artisanal miners in all continents is to introduce re- of creating a
neglect the classification processes after milling do not any benefit
creating
circulating a circulating theload in thecircuit.
grinding Thecircuit. The return ofof100–400% of the oremill
mass to the
grinding circuits rather load
than in using grinding
closed grinding return
circuits. of
It is 100–400%
interesting theartisanal
that ore mass to the
miners typically
mill typically
reduces reduces
the retention time the retention
of the material time of the
insideand material
the mill inside
increasing the mill increasing the grinding
usually neglect the classification processes after milling do not believethe ingrinding
any benefit capacity,
of improving
capacity,
the energy improving
efficiency, the energy
resultingcircuit. efficiency,
in a more resulting in a more homogenous ground product
creating a circulating load in the grinding Thehomogenous
return of 100–400% ground of product
the ore(Jankovic
mass to the et al., 2013) [78].
(Jankovic
Artisanal et al.,
miners 2013) [78].
frequently Artisanal
grind in miners
open frequently
circuits with grind
the in
gravity open circuits
separation with the
equipment. gravity
It is
mill typically reduces the retention time of the material inside the mill increasing the grinding
separation
also worth equipment.
noting that It is alsogravity
putting worth noting
recovery thatequipment
putting gravityin a recovery
circuit with equipment
a circulating in aload
circuit
can
capacity, improving the energy efficiency, resulting in a more homogenous ground product
with
improvea circulating load can improve gold recovery given the inherently low single-pass efficiency
(Jankovic et al., 2013)gold[78].recovery
Artisanalgiven minersthe frequently
inherently low grind single-pass efficiency
in open circuits withof gravity
the gravityrecovery devices;
of gravity recovery devices;
•
separation equipment. It is also worth noting that putting gravity recovery equipment in a circuitconcentration
Over 50 plants in Colombia were observed using shaking tables as their main gravity
• Over 50 plants in Colombia were observed using shaking tables as their main gravity
with a circulatingstep, load
withcangold recoveries
improve goldrarely
recovery above 60%.
given the Gold is mainly
inherently lost in coarse
low single-pass grains (unliberated
efficiency
concentration step, with gold recoveries rarely above 60%. Gold is mainly lost in coarse grains
gold) and
of gravity recovery devices; the fines (not trapped by the table). For ores with fine-sized gold particles and/or high
(unliberated gold) and the fines (not trapped by the table). For ores with fine-sized gold particles
• Over 50 plants in Colombia were observed using shaking tables as their main gravity can obtain
concentration of sulfides, AGM plants combining gravity separation with flotation
and/or high concentration of sulfides, AGM plants combining gravity separation with flotation
concentrationgold step,recoveries
with goldabove 85%; rarely above 60%. Gold is mainly lost in coarse grains
recoveries
can obtain gold recoveries above 85%;
•
(unliberated The
gold)adjustment
and the fines of (not
the length
trappedofbythe thestroke
table).and For the
oresslope of the shaking
with fine-sized tables are critical for
gold particles
• The adjustment of the length of the stroke and the slope of the shaking tables are critical for
efficient separation
and/or high concentration of fineAGM
of sulfides, gold particles; and,
plants combining gravity separation with flotation
efficient separation of fine gold particles; and,
can obtain • gold recoveries
Homemade above 85%;
shaking tables have been proven an affordable solution for micro-miners processing
• Homemade shaking tables have been proven an affordable solution for micro-miners processing
• The adjustment less of
thanthe2 length
tpd. of the stroke and the slope of the shaking tables are critical for
less than 2 tpd.
efficient separation of fine gold particles; and,
• Homemade 2.6. Centrifuging
shaking tables have been proven an affordable solution for micro-miners processing
2.6. Centrifuging
less than 2 tpd. Centrifugal concentrators are the most efficient pieces of equipment for gravity separation.
Centrifugal concentrators are the most efficient pieces of equipment for gravity separation. The
The main initial application of the centrifugal concentrators was to recover fine gold (Sampaio and
main initial application of the centrifugal concentrators was to recover fine gold (Sampaio and
2.6. CentrifugingTavares, 2005) [23]. The principle of gold concentration in centrifugal equipment is the separation
Tavares, 2005) [23]. The principle of gold concentration in centrifugal equipment is the separation of
Centrifugalof gold from gangue
concentrators mineral
are the mostparticles based on
efficient pieces the difference
of equipment in the settling
for gravity separation. velocity
The (Chen et al.,
gold from gangue mineral particles based on the difference in the settling velocity (Chen et al., 2020)
main initial 2020) [79]. When
application of the thecentrifugal
particles are subjected to the
concentrators wasnormal gravitational
to recover fine gold force (G-forceand
(Sampaio = 1), like in a jig,
[79]. When the particles are subjected to the normal gravitational force (G-force = 1), like in a jig, a
Tavares, 2005) [23]. The principle of gold concentration in centrifugal equipment is the separation of velocity as a
a gold particle with a diameter of 0.02 mm falling in water reaches the same terminal
gold particle with a diameter of 0.02 mm falling in water reaches the same terminal velocity as a
gold from gangue quartzmineral
particleparticles
of 0.07 mm. based If aon verythenarrow
difference graininsizetheclassification
settling velocity is not previously
(Chen employed, there is
et al., 2020)
quartz particle of 0.07 mm. If a very narrow grain size classification is not previously employed, there
poor selectivity in the separation. Considering that the
[79]. When the particles are subjected to the normal gravitational force (G-force = 1), like in a jig,acceleration of both particles in a centrifuge is
is poor selectivity in the separation. Considering that the acceleration of both particles in a centrifuge
gold particle60 or more
with times higher
a diameter of 0.02thanmmthe gravitational
falling in wateracceleration,
reaches thethe same difference
terminal in velocity
terminal as velocity
a between
is 60 or more times higher than the gravitational acceleration, the difference in terminal velocity
quartz particle theoftwo
0.07particles
mm. If aincreases,
very narrow therefore
grain sizethe classification
difference between the sizes ofemployed,
is not previously the particles to be separated
there
between the two particles increases, therefore the difference between the sizes of the particles to be
also increases
is poor selectivity proportionally.
in the separation. Considering The that
acceleration of a centrifugal
the acceleration concentrator
of both particles is expressed as “G”,
in a centrifuge
separated also increases proportionally. The acceleration of a centrifugal concentrator is expressed as
is 60 or morei.e., howhigher
times many times
than the the gravitational
centrifugal acceleration
acceleration, acting
the on a particle
difference inisterminal
higher than the gravitational
velocity
“G”, i.e., how many times the centrifugal acceleration acting on a particle is higher than the
between the acceleration.
two particlesThe “G” of therefore
increases, a centrifugal theconcentrator
difference between is expressed as dividing
the sizes the centrifugal
of the particles to be acceleration
gravitational acceleration. The “G” of a centrifugal concentrator is expressed as dividing the
2 r) by the gravitational
separated also (ωincreases proportionally.acceleration
The acceleration (g) (Sampaio and Tavares,
of a centrifugal 2005) [23]:
concentrator is expressed as
centrifugal acceleration (ω2 r) by the gravitational acceleration (g) (Sampaio and Tavares, 2005) [23]:
“G”, i.e., how many times the centrifugal acceleration acting on a particle is higher than the
gravitational acceleration. The “G” of a centrifugal concentrator ω2rr is expressed as dividing the
ω
G=
G = g
centrifugal acceleration (ω2 r) by the gravitational acceleration (g)g (Sampaio and Tavares, 2005) [23]:
where: ωω==angular
where: angularvelocity (rad/s),r r==
velocity(rad/s), ω r
radius ofofthe
radius thecentrifuge, andgg= =gravitational
centrifuge,and gravitationalacceleration
acceleration
G=
g
øø ͷ
G
G= = and g = gravitational acceleration
where: ω = angular velocity (rad/s), r = radius of the centrifuge, 182
182
where:
where: øø==centrifuge
centrifugediameter
diameter(m) andøͷͷ==rotation
(m)and rotationfrequency
frequency(rpm)
(rpm)
G=
A centrifugal concentrator 182
operates when a ground ore pulp
A centrifugal concentrator operates when a ground ore pulp is introduced is introduced at bottom
at the the bottom of
of the
the equipment
equipment
where: ø = centrifuge and particles
and particles
diameter (m) andin ͷthein the slurry
slurry flow
= rotation flow
upward
frequency upward and outward due to the centrifugal
and outward due to the centrifugal force. When
(rpm) force.
When
the the particles
particles are trapped
are trapped in a V-shape
in a V-shape bowlrings
bowl with with of
rings of riffles,
riffles, these these particles
particles can orcan or cannot
cannot find
A centrifugal concentrator operates when a ground ore pulp is introduced at the bottom of the
counter-flow water that fluidizes the bed, expelling the light particles and retaining the heavy ones.
equipment and particles in the slurry flow upward and outward due to the centrifugal force. When
It is important to stress that a centrifugal concentrator works in an exchange process where a light
the particles are trapped in a V-shape bowl with rings of riffles, these particles can or cannot find
trapped particle leaves the bed to open room for a heavy one. In this process, the volume of
counter-flow water that fluidizes the bed, expelling the light particles and retaining the heavy ones.
It is important to stress that a centrifugal concentrator works in an exchange process where a light
trapped particle leaves the bed to open room for a heavy one. In this process, the volume of
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 28 of 49

find counter-flow water that fluidizes the bed, expelling the light particles and retaining the heavy
ones. It is important to stress that a centrifugal concentrator works in an exchange process where a
light trapped particle leaves the bed to open room for a heavy one. In this process, the volume of
concentrate (which is the volume of the space between rings) remains constant. The counter-flow
water pressure helps in this process. The discharge of the trapped concentrate can occur intermittently
or continuously through an automatic diaphragm. More water pressure is needed when the centrifuge
operates with coarse or high specific gravity particles. The centrifuge with fluidizing water was first
patented by McNicol in Australia in 1935 (Sampaio and Tavares, 2005) [23].
As centrifuges operate at high G-Forces, they are less sensitive to gold particle shape than other
gravity concentration equipment and accept larger variations of particle size than other concentrators.
The maximum feed grain size is 6 mm but it is recommended to only feed particles smaller than
2 mm. Some centrifuges can operate with extremely small particles, as fine as 3 µm (Sepro, 2019) [80].
Unliberated particles can also be concentrated depending on the proportion of gold in the gangue
particle. However, centrifugal concentration is sensitive to the proportion of clay minerals in the pulp
as clay minerals lead to an increase in pulp viscosity, thus, decreasing gold recovery (Agorhom and
Owusu, 2020) [81]. Conventional mines typically place centrifuges in closed-loop grinding circuits,
either at the discharge of the mills or the underflow of cyclones to remove coarser gold grains from the
circuit before the ore enters the flotation and/or cyanidation circuits. The percentage of solids in the
feed pulp is usually from 20% to 40% and for fine materials, this ranges from 10% to 20% solids. In a
discontinuous centrifuging system, which is the one used by some artisanal miners, after a certain time
of operation the centrifuge stops and the concentrate is washed out, usually manually, from the rings.
According to Figure 2, large amounts of concentrate (which is obtained when the discharging cycles are
shorter) produce high gold recoveries but low gold grades. The operators must assess the concentrate
discharging cycle for each type of ore. In many cases, the rinse cycle occurs between 20 and 120 min of
operation. The mass of concentrate in a centrifuge is typically much less than 0.1% of the original feed.
It was observed in the field, in an artisanal operation in Ecuador, that by feeding 2 tph of ore with 4 g
Au/t in a centrifuge, in 30 min of operation, 1 kg of concentrate analyzed 3000 gAu/t.
The sizes of commercial centrifugal concentrators vary considerably and can process up to 1000 tph
of ore. There are many different types of centrifugal concentrators in the market. Some are from Chinese,
South African, Brazilian, etc. manufacturers, but the most popular ones are the Knelson, by FLSmidth,
and the Falcon, by Sepro, both developed separately in British Columbia, Canada. They produce the
main centrifuges used in conventional mining operations. The main differences between a Knelson
concentrator and a Sepro centrifuge are the design of the bowls and the “G” (G = 60–150 for Knelson
and G is variable up to 200 for Sepro) (FLSmidth, 2013 [82], Falcon Concentrator, 2019 [83]). The bowl
of a Knelson, from bottom to top, has rings with riffles whereas a Sepro centrifuge has a smooth surface
where the light minerals move up faster than the heavy minerals. At the top of the bowl, the centrifuge
is similar to the Knelson concentrator, with rings and fluidizing water assisting the particles’ exchange
process. These centrifuges are becoming popular in artisanal mining plants.
The lack of fluidization of the rings that retain concentrates, as seen in the old original centrifuges,
resulted in compaction of the riffles and gold losses. Many models of centrifuges without fluidizing
water are still available in the market, such as the Knudsen and GoldKacha (Figure 35). They are
popular in Africa and have been observed in some artisanal gold operations in Colombia, Ecuador,
and Peru. They rotate much slower than the Canadian centrifuges and have a metal scraper that
continuously scratches the bed of concentrate trapped in the rings to allow the particles’ exchange.
To obtain reasonable gold recoveries, the discharge processes must be more frequent than those used by
the Canadian centrifuges. They are less expensive than the Canadian centrifuges, simpler, and provide
reasonable gold concentration, possibly better than jigs.
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 29 of 49
Minerals 2020, 10, x 31 of 51

Knelson Concentrator Falcon Concentrator

GoldKacha Concentrator Knudsen Concentrator

Figure
Figure 35. Centrifugal
35.Centrifugal concentrators
concentrators withwith fluidized
fluidized bedtop)
bed (on (on and and without
top)without counter-flow
counter-flow water
water (down). Sources: http://www.flsmidth.com/en-US/About+FLSmidth/Our+History/Our+
(down). Sources: http://www.flsmidth.com/en-
Product+Brands/Knelson, http://www.concentrators.net/ and http://aptprocessing.com/modular-
US/About+FLSmidth/Our+History/Our+Product+Brands/Knelson and
mining-equipment/gravity-concentration/gold-concentrator-goldkacha/.
http://www.concentrators.net/. http://aptprocessing.com/modular-mining-equipment/gravity-
concentration/gold-concentrator-goldkacha/.
Koppalkar (2009) [34] mentioned that it is impractical to mimic the performance of full-scale
centrifuges
Koppalkarin a(2009)
laboratory unit. The author
[34] mentioned that it described the gravity
is impractical to mimic recoverable gold (GRG)
the performance process
of full-scale
developed in
centrifuges by aDr. André Laplante
laboratory unit. The inauthor
the early 1990s asthe
described a useful
gravityway to obtain an
recoverable goldassessment
(GRG) process of the
recoverableby
developed gold
Dr.(liberated or not) using
André Laplante in theaearly
laboratory
1990scentrifuge.
as a usefulThe wayprocedure
to obtainconsists of a sequential
an assessment of the
grinding andgold
recoverable processing of a 30
(liberated or tonot)
150 using
kg sample (depending
a laboratory on the grade)
centrifuge. Theinprocedure
a 3 in laboratory
consists Knelson
of a
centrifuge.grinding
sequential In the first stage,
and the entireofsample
processing a 30 to is ground
150 kg below
sample0.85 mm and concentrated.
(depending on the grade)The in tailings
a 3 in
from the first
laboratory stage centrifuge.
Knelson are then split In and
the typically
first stage, 27the
kg is thensample
entire groundisatground
45 to 50% passing
below 0.85 0.075
mm andmm,
before being processed through the laboratory unit. In the third step, the tailings
concentrated. The tailings from the first stage are then split and typically 27 kg is then ground at 45 from the second
stage
to 50%are ground
passing to 80%
0.075 mm,below
before0.075
beingmm and processed
processed throughagain. Once theunit.
the laboratory adequate
In thesize is obtained,
third step, the
a whole sample of the ore is ground at the adequate size and
tailings from the second stage are ground to 80% below 0.075 mm and processed again. Onceprocessed to confirm the findings
the
(Laplante,size
adequate 2000is [84], Laplante
obtained, and sample
a whole Dunne, of 2002
the[85], Laplante
ore is groundand Clarke,
at the 2006size
adequate [86]).
and processed to
confirmAt the University of British2000
findings (Laplante, Columbia (UBC), aand
[84], Laplante similar
Dunne,GRG2002process
[85],was also applied
Laplante to find
and Clarke, the
2006
adequate
[86]). particle size to grind an ore before concentrating in a centrifuge. A pulp of ore is ground
withAt70%
thesolids for 5 of
University min in a laboratory
British Columbia (UBC), ball mill and submitted
a similar GRG processto centrifugal concentration
was also applied to find inthea
adequate particle size to grind an ore before concentrating in a centrifuge. A pulp of ore is ground
with 70% solids for 5 min in a laboratory ball mill and submitted to centrifugal concentration in a
Minerals 2020, 10, x 32 of 51

laboratory centrifuge. The

Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 tailings from the first concentration step are drained and ground 30 of 49 with 70%
solids for a further 5 min to be concentrated again. The procedure is repeated two or more times. In
the example laboratory
shown in Figure The
centrifuge. 36,tailings
the orefromground for 15 minstep
the first concentration resulted in 92.4%
are drained of gold
and ground with 70% extraction and
solids for a further 5 min to be concentrated again. The procedure is repeated
a grain size analysis revealed a P80 (80% of mass below a certain size) of 0.136 mm. A similar two or more times. In the
example shown in Figure 36, the ore ground for 15 min resulted in 92.4% of gold extraction and a grain
procedure has been described by Zhang et al. (2020) [87]. Re-grinding the tailings, these authors
size analysis revealed a P80 (80% of mass below a certain size) of 0.136 mm. A similar procedure has
determined that
been the studied
described ore yielded
by Zhang a [87].
et al. (2020) goldRe-grinding
recoverythe oftailings,
64.7%these
when 45%determined
authors of the orethat particles were
ground below the200
studied
mesh. ore yielded a gold recovery of 64.7% when 45% of the ore particles were ground below
200 mesh.

(a)

(b)
Figure 36. (a)Figure 36. (a)testing
A simple A simpleprocedure
testing procedure to determine gold
to determine gold recovery
recoveryvs. particle size in asize
vs. particle centrifuge
in a centrifuge(b)
(b) Cumulative gold recovery of three steps of grinding and processing in a laboratory centrifuge.
Cumulative gold recovery of three steps of grinding and processing in a laboratory centrifuge
Sepro developed two types of small centrifuge: the Icon 150 (Figure 37), which can process up to
2 tph of ore, and the Icon 350 with a capacity of 15 tph. These have been used in many countries by
Sepro developed two types of small centrifuge: the Icon 150 (Figure 37), which can
process up
artisanal and small-scale miners. The main characteristics of an Icon 150 are (Sepro, 2020) [80]:
to 2 tph of ore, and the Icon 350 with a capacity of 15 tph. These have been used in many countries
by artisanal and small-scale miners. The main characteristics of an Icon 150 are (Sepro, 2020) [80]:
• Price in Canada <US$ 6000
• Max solids capacity = 2 tph
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 31 of 49

• Price in Canada <US$ 6000

• Max solids capacity = 2 tph
• 2 HP (1.5 kW), 220 V, 50 or 60 h
• Machine weight = 120 kg
Minerals 2020, 10, x 33 of 51
• Max particle size = 2 mm
• Water 10 toConcentrators
Knelson 30 L/min also offers a small version of a centrifuge, the KC-MD 7.5, which is an
• G = 120size
adequate to 150
for (1100
many rpm)
artisanal miners. This centrifuge can process 0.68 tph of ore with a max
• particle size of 6water
Fluidization mm. It(water
uses 0.7 L/min
must be of water
clean) = 5 to 15
and generates
pressure 1 to 1.4 kg of concentrate per batch. It
psi
• hasRinse
a 0.75time
HP motor and uses
= 60 to 90 sec 48 to 68 L/min of clean counter-flow fluidizing water (Knelson, 2020)
[88].
• Generates 0.5 to 1 kg of concentrate/batch

(a) (b) (c)

Figure37.
Figure 37.(a)
(a)Scheme
Scheme of
of an
an Icon
Icon 150
150 Centrifuge,
Centrifuge,(b)
(b)Operation
OperationininBrazil
Braziland (c)(c)
and in in
Colombia.
Colombia.

A singleConcentrators
Knelson pass of ore in also
a batch centrifugal
offers a small concentrator
version of a can provide the
centrifuge, relatively
KC-MD good
7.5,recoveries
which is an
for some ores. While conventional mining companies typically use the centrifuge
adequate size for many artisanal miners. This centrifuge can process 0.68 tph of ore with a max in closed grinding
particle
circuits, AGM operations rarely use this type of configuration. In hard rock AGM
size of 6 mm. It uses 0.7 L/min of water and generates 1 to 1.4 kg of concentrate per batch. operations, miners
It has a
typically
0.75 HP motorgrind andin uses
an open
48 tocircuit and of
68 L/min theclean
concentrator is located
counter-flow at thewater
fluidizing discharge of the2020)
(Knelson, grinding
[88].
equipment. To increase gold recovery, some artisanal miners use two or three centrifuges
A single pass of ore in a batch centrifugal concentrator can provide relatively good recoveries for in series
instead of using a closed circuit. To demonstrate this approach, a laboratory Knelson Concentrator
some ores. While conventional mining companies typically use the centrifuge in closed grinding circuits,
unit was used to concentrate ore from a group of Colombian artisanal miners. After 15 min of
AGM operations rarely use this type of configuration. In hard rock AGM operations, miners typically
grinding in a rod mill, 60.6% gold recovery was achieved with a single pass. When the tailings of the
grind in an open circuit and the concentrator is located at the discharge of the grinding equipment.
first pass were reprocessed in the same centrifuge without grinding, the gold recovery increased to
To increase gold recovery, some artisanal miners use two or three centrifuges in series instead of using
76% and 85% in the second and third passes, respectively (Figure 38). In closed circuits, when the
a closed circuit. To demonstrate this approach, a laboratory Knelson Concentrator unit was used
centrifuge tailings are returned to a ball mill, placing centrifugal concentrators in series is not
topracticed.
concentrateIt isore
hardfrom a groupdata
to compare of Colombian artisanal
from laboratory miners.
centrifuges Aftera 15
testing fewmin of grinding
kilograms of orein a rod
with
mill, 60.6% gold recovery was achieved with a single pass. When the tailings of the
a field centrifuge processing tonnes of ore per hour. Sometimes the results are not compatible. A pilot first pass were
reprocessed in the
test is always same centrifuge
recommended without
to confirm grinding,
whether the gold
scavenger recovery
centrifuges areincreased
justifiable.to 76% and 85% in
the second and third passes, respectively (Figure 38). In closed circuits, when the centrifuge tailings are
returned to a ball mill, placing centrifugal concentrators in series is not practiced. It is hard to compare
data from laboratory centrifuges testing a few kilograms of ore with a field centrifuge processing
tonnes of ore per hour. Sometimes the results are not compatible. A pilot test is always recommended
to confirm whether scavenger centrifuges are justifiable.
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 32 of 49
Minerals 2020, 10, x 34 of 51

(a)
100 88.98 90.88
85.19
CUMULATIVE AU RECOVERY (%)

76.07
80
60.62
60

40

20

(b)

Figure 38.
Figure 38. (a)
(a) Laboratory
Laboratory tests
tests with
with a Colombian
Colombian ore using five sequential passes in aa Knelson
Knelson
Concentrator. (b)
Concentrator. (b) Results
Results of
of gold
gold recovery
recovery in
in 55 passes
passes without
without re-grinding
re-grinding

Centrifuging—Summary
Centrifuging—Summary
The
The main
main points
points to
to highlight
highlight for
for centrifugal
centrifugal concentrators
concentrators in
in AGM
AGM are:
are:
•• Centrifuges
Centrifuges areare much
much better
better gravity
gravity concentrators
concentrators for for aa feed
feed with
with aa wide
wide particle
particle size
size range
range than
other
other gravity
gravity concentrators
concentrators and and they
they can
can concentrate
concentratevery veryfine
finegold;
gold;
•• Centrifuges
Centrifuges areare less
less sensitive
sensitive to
to gold
goldparticle
particleshapes,
shapes,suchsuchas asflakes;
flakes;
•• Counter-flow fluidizing water
Counter-flow watermust
mustbebeclear.
clear.Often,
Often, operators
operatorsuseuse
muddy
muddy water, which
water, clogs
which the
clogs
centrifuge;
the centrifuge;
•• The counter-flow
The counter-flow pressure
pressure and
and the
the rotating
rotating speed
speed are
are two
two parameters
parameters that
that must
must bebe investigated
investigated
for a better performance of the equipment. Artisanal miners frequently
for a better performance of the equipment. Artisanal miners frequently neglect this; neglect this;
•• High counter-pressure
High counter-pressure waterwater increases
increases the
the grade
grade of of the
the concentrate,
concentrate, eliminating
eliminating more
more gangue
gangue
minerals, but this can reduce the recovery of fine gold
minerals, but this can reduce the recovery of fine gold particles; particles;
•• Centrifugesare
Centrifuges aregenerally
generallybest
bestoperated
operatedinina aclosed
closed circuit
circuit with
with a ball
a ball mill.
mill. TheThe
useuse
of of centrifuges
centrifuges in
in series (scavengers), when grinding in an open circuit may increase gold recovery
series (scavengers), when grinding in an open circuit may increase gold recovery but this involves but this
involves
more more
capital andcapital and operating
operating costs and costs andworthwhile
it is not it is not worthwhile forof
for all types allore.
types of ore.
• Operators must find out the adequate discharge time of concentrates. This requires chemical
analyses of the products (feed and tailings) and this is not often locally available. Visual
assessment by panning the concentrate and tailings can provide useful information; and,
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 33 of 49

• Operators must find out the adequate discharge time of concentrates. This requires chemical
analyses of the products (feed and tailings) and this is not often locally available. Visual assessment
by panning the concentrate and tailings can provide useful information; and,
• Skill is needed to properly operate a centrifuge using fluidizing water. Many AGM operators
prefer non-fluidized bed centrifuges and, unfortunately, in some cases, they add mercury inside
the bowls of the centrifuge, as was observed in Zimbabwe.

3. Extracting Gold from Gravity Concentrates

Once the gold is concentrated into a small mass, the challenge is to extract gold from these
concentrates. Four methods are discussed below:

1. Direct smelting
2. Amalgamation
3. Leaching
4. Coal-oil agglomeration

3.1. Direct Smelting

The concentrates from gravity concentration can be directly melted with borax but this is not a
trivial process since the concentrates must have high grades of gold. Borax (Na2 B4 O7 ·10H2 O) has
been used by conventional and artisanal miners for centuries as a flux to melt concentrates and pour
gold bars. Appel and Na-Oy, (2011) [89] have been publicizing a “new Borax Method” as a panacea to
extract gold from gravity concentrates without the use of mercury or any other leaching processes.
Borax reduces the melting point of metals and silicates in the gravity concentrates. However, to bring
all gold down to the bottom of a crucible, a large amount of gold must be in the concentrate as the gold
particles must coalesce to create enough weight to sink in the molten bath, otherwise, the gold will stay
in the viscous slag. These authors have suggested that gold grades in a concentrate must be higher
than 30,000 g Au/t (or 3% Au) to avoid large losses of gold to the slag. As shown in Figure 2, if miners
wish to obtain by gravity concentration a very rich (yellow) concentrate, the gold recovery, in most
cases, would be poor. The other inconvenience of the direct smelting of concentrates is the presence
of sulfides. In tests with a sulfide-rich concentrate, from a centrifuge, with 3300 g Au/t and 1170 g
Ag/t from Ecuadorian miners, most gold was lost to the slag (Veiga et al., 2014) [9]. When a mixture of
KNO3 , SiO2, and NaHCO3 was used to oxidize the sulfides, gold losses were reduced, but 16% of the
gold still remained in the slag, contained 840 g Au/t. The process is not useful for most concentrates
from primary ores, however, miners working with alluvial ores have been using borax to pour gold
bars from concentrates for many decades. With alluvial ores, the gold is usually liberated, and no
sulfides are normally present. An option for artisanal miners to melt concentrates with gold grades
below 30,000 ppm is to add more gold or silver to the crucible to collect disperse particles of gold
bringing them to the bottom of the melted mixture. This option seems to be hard for the miners to
accept, as they want to sell their gold as soon as possible.

3.2. Amalgamation
As discussed above, the amalgamation of gravity concentrates, as opposed to whole ore
amalgamation, can bring a substantial reduction of mercury use and losses to the tailings. However,
this process cannot amalgamate unliberated gold particles. When amalgamation is conducted in
small ball mills, mercury pulverizes (“flouring”), forming droplets that do not amalgamate the gold
grains. In this process, mercury also oxidizes faster, losing coalescence, i.e., the capacity of the
droplets to agglomerate. This is popularly known as the “mercury sickening” effect. Sulfides also
contribute to sickening mercury (Beard, 1987) [90]. Around the world, artisanal miners use different
reagents to mix with mercury during the amalgamation process to reduce flouring, such as lemon
juice, bicarbonate, quicklime, guava leaves, Coca-Cola, brown sugar, toothpaste, urea, detergents, etc.
 Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 34 of 49

The actual effect of these reagents on increasing mercury coalescence is not well understood, but the
miners, anecdotally, confirm that they are useful to improve gold amalgamation and avoid droplets
formation. Amalgamation must be a gentle process of mixing metallic mercury with the ore to contact
Minerals 2020, 10, x 36 of 51
it with free gold particles. This can be done in a pan or a mixing barrel without grinding media.
Pantoja and Alvarez (2000) [91] developed an electrolytic process to avoid mercury flouring by
Pantoja and Alvarez (2000) [91] developed an electrolytic process to avoid mercury flouring by
forming sodium-amalgam that has better gold amalgamation properties. This simple process consists
forming sodium-amalgam that has better gold amalgamation properties. This simple process consists
of making a solution of 10% of NaCl (a tablespoon of salt in a glass of water) and then contacting
of making a solution of 10% of NaCl (a tablespoon of salt in a glass of water) and then contacting the
the metallic mercury at the bottom of the glass to the negative pole of a 12 V motorbike battery or a
metallic mercury at the bottom of the glass to the negative pole of a 12 V motorbike battery or a radio
radio battery. A rod of graphite (extracted from the core of a radio battery) is connected to the positive
battery. A rod of graphite (extracted from the core of a radio battery) is connected to the positive pole
pole of the battery and stays in the solution for 15 min (Figure 39). In this process, sodium ions are
of the battery and stays in the solution for 15 min (Figure 39). In this process, sodium ions are attracted
attracted to the cathode (negative pole) forming a sodium-amalgam that has better gold amalgamation
to the cathode (negative pole) forming a sodium-amalgam that has better gold amalgamation
properties than pure mercury. The sodium retained by the mercury slowly reacts with water and forms
properties than pure mercury. The sodium retained by the mercury slowly reacts with water and
soluble NaOH. However, the activated mercury (sodium-amalgam) does not last long, likely less than
forms soluble NaOH. However, the activated mercury (sodium-amalgam) does not last long, likely
2 h. Chloride ions are attracted to the anode and form hypochlorite anions. Using potassium chloride
less than 2 h. Chloride ions are attracted to the anode and form hypochlorite anions. Using potassium
to activate the mercury, a potassium-amalgam is formed—interestingly this can also amalgamate
chloride to activate the mercury, a potassium-amalgam is formed—interestingly this can also
platinum, as observed at a placer mining operation in Colombia. The sodium-mercury is brighter,
amalgamate platinum, as observed at a placer mining operation in Colombia. The sodium-mercury
has better coalescence, and amalgamates gold faster than pure mercury.
is brighter, has better coalescence, and amalgamates gold faster than pure mercury.

+ Battery
12 V
-
wire

Graphite rod
Water with NaCl
(or KCl) (10%)
Mercury

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 39. Pantoja’s method being used in Brazil and Mozambique to activate mercury before
amalgamation.
Figure (a) Scheme
39. Pantoja’s methodofbeing
the mercury
used inactivation process;
Brazil and (b) Pantoja’s
Mozambique methodmercury
to activate in use generating
before
hypochlorite gas in the anode; (c) Use of a radio battery to activate the mercury.
amalgamation. (a) Scheme of the mercury activation process; (b)Pantoja’s method in use generating
hypochlorite gas in the anode;(c) Use of a radio battery to activate the mercury.
Once the amalgamation process ends, the heavy mass of the amalgam with excess mercury can
easily
Oncebe the
separated from theprocess
amalgamation rest of the
ends,heavy minerals,
the heavy massbyofpanning
the amalgam or using
witha spiral
excessor an elutriator.
mercury can
The excess mercury is separated from the solid (paste) gold-silver-amalgam
easily be separated from the rest of the heavy minerals, by panning or using a spiral or an elutriator. by filtration which is
normally
The excess conducted
mercury isby manual squeezing
separated with a(paste)
from the solid piece of fabric or by using a by
gold-silver-amalgam centrifuge
filtration aswhich
described
is
above in session 2.3.4 (Veiga et al., 2006) [39]. The final method to separate
normally conducted by manual squeezing with a piece of fabric or by using a centrifuge as described mercury from the gold-silver
alloyin
above is session
a chemical 2.3.4decomposition
(Veiga et al., 2006)of the[39].
amalgam thatmethod
The final can be done by leaching
to separate mercury thefrom
mercury with a
the gold-
nitricalloy
acid is solution v/v) or by heating
(30% decomposition ◦
silver a chemical of the
the amalgam
amalgamatthat temperatures
can be done above 400 C. As
by leaching theobserved
mercuryin
Bolivia and Guyana, the dissolved mercury, when HNO 3 is used, can
with a nitric acid solution (30% v/v) or by heating the amalgam at temperatures above 400 °C. As be recovered by cementation
with a bar
observed of aluminum.
in Bolivia and Guyana,Frequently, miners do
the dissolved not want
mercury, to recover
when HNO3 is mercury andbedump
used, can the acidic
recovered by
solution into a river. When decomposing thermally the amalgam,
cementation with a bar of aluminum. Frequently, miners do not want to recover mercury and dump unfortunately, not all artisanal
miners
the acidicuse retortsinto
solution to condense the mercury
a river. When fumes. They
decomposing often the
thermally prefer to burn amalgams
amalgam, unfortunately, in opennot pans
all
artisanal miners use retorts to condense the mercury fumes. They often prefer to burn amalgams into
or a shovel, even if simple solutions, such as home-made retorts, have already been demonstrated
thempans
open (Veiga or et
a al., 2014b)
shovel, [39].if The
even finalsolutions,
simple product issuch
a gold asdoré with 2% to
home-made 5% mercury,
retorts, depending
have already beenon
the temperature of the evaporation process (Veiga and Hinton, 2002
demonstrated to them (Veiga et al., 2014b) [39]. The final product is a gold doré with 2% to 5% [56]). If the heating temperatures
are low or
mercury, the heating
depending ontime is insufficientoftothe
the temperature evaporate all mercury,
evaporation processfor example
(Veiga and when
Hinton,it is2002
conducted
[56]). Ifin
a bonfire, the final doré can have as much as 20% mercury (Veiga et al.,
the heating temperatures are low or the heating time is insufficient to evaporate all mercury, for 2006) [39]. Even a well-burned
example when it is conducted in a bonfire, the final doré can have as much as 20% mercury (Veiga et
al., 2006) [39]. Even a well-burned amalgam still carries 2% to 5% of mercury, which is then usually
evaporated in gold shops when the doré is melted, contaminating the operators and neighbors
(Moody et al., 2020) [92].
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 35 of 49

amalgam still carries 2% to 5% of mercury, which is then usually evaporated in gold shops when the
doré is melted, contaminating the operators and neighbors (Moody et al., 2020) [92].

3.3. Leaching
Minerals 2020, 10, x 37 of 51
Most conventional gold mining companies use cyanide to extract gold from concentrates or
3.3. Leaching
whole ore. Cyanide has been used and misused by artisanal mining in many countries. Since the
implementation Most conventional
of processing goldcenters
mining in companies
the early use1990s,
cyanide to operators
the extract goldof from
theconcentrates
centers have or offered
whole ore.
amalgamation forCyanide has been
their clients, theused
miners,and and
misused
thenby artisanal
kept mining in many countries.
the mercury-contaminated Since to
tailings theleach the
implementation of processing centers in the early 1990s, the operators of the centers have offered
residual gold with cyanide. This, as mentioned above, can cause significant environmental problems
amalgamation for their clients, the miners, and then kept the mercury-contaminated tailings to leach
due to the formation of mercury-cyanide complexes and poor management of the cyanidation tailings.
the residual gold with cyanide. This, as mentioned above, can cause significant environmental
Artisanal
problems cyanidation operations
due to the formation use vat leaching,
of mercury-cyanide usuallyand
complexes for poor
gravity concentration
management of the tailings,
or agitated tankstailings.
cyanidation for concentrates or tailings as well. To remove gold from the cyanide solution,
some miners Artisanal cyanidation
use activated operations
carbon, but ause vat majority
large leaching, usually for gravity
precipitate goldconcentration
with zinc intailings, or
an adaptation of
agitated tanksprocess.
the Merrill-Crowe for concentrates or tailings
These plants leachas ores,
well. To remove goldor
concentrates, from the cyanide solution,
amalgamation tailingssome
for 8 to 12 h,
miners use activated carbon, but a large majority precipitate gold with zinc in an adaptation of the
then stop the agitation and wait for about 3 to 6 h for the material to settle. Then, the gold-rich solution
Merrill-Crowe process. These plants leach ores, concentrates, or amalgamation tailings for 8 to 12 h,
is siphoned to athe
then stop series of 10
agitation cm-diameter
and wait for aboutPVC 3 to 6columns filled with
h for the material zinc
to settle. shavings
Then, where
the gold-rich the gold (and
solution
eventual part of the
is siphoned to amercury)
series of 10is precipitated,
cm-diameter PVCand the solution
columns filled withiszinc
recirculated to the
shavings where theagitation
gold (and tanks to
be leached again.
eventual partThis
of thecycle lastsis 4precipitated,
mercury) to 6 days. andAfter
the precipitation, the gold-loaded
solution is recirculated zinc
to the agitation shavings
tanks to are
be leached
transferred again.
to a gas This cycle
furnace and lasts
then4the to 6zinc
days.isAfter precipitation,
evaporated the gold-loaded
in a metallic bucketzinc shavings are above
at temperatures
950 ◦ C,transferred
contaminating to a gas furnace and then the zinc is evaporated in a metallic bucket at temperatures above
with vapors of zinc, and other associated metals, operators and neighbors of the
950 °C, contaminating with vapors of zinc, and other associated metals, operators and neighbors of
facilitythe
(Figure 40). Condensers or filters when evaporating shavings are rarely used.
facility (Figure 40). Condensers or filters when evaporating shavings are rarely used.

Figure 40. The decanted gold-loaded cyanide solution passed a column of polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
40. The
Figure tubes decanted gold-loaded cyanide solution passed a column of polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
with zinc shavings to precipitate the gold. The zinc is later recklessly evaporated to leave behind
tubes with
gold. zinc shavings to precipitate the gold. The zinc is later recklessly evaporated to leave
behind gold.
The precipitation of gold with zinc (see equations below) should be conducted in a vacuum to
The precipitation
avoid of goldofwith
the re-dissolution gold.zinc (see equations
However, below)
miners typically should
run be conducted
the gold-rich solutionsin a vacuum
through PVC to avoid
columns at atmosphere
the re-dissolution and lose around
of gold. However, miners6% of the gold
typically runinthe
thegold-rich
dischargedsolutions
solution (Velasquez et al.,columns
through PVC
2011) [93].and lose around 6% of the gold in the discharged solution (Velasquez et al., 2011) [93].
at atmosphere
4Au + 8CN- + O2 + 2H2O = 4Au CN 2 + 4OH‾ (gold leaching with cyanide)
4Au + 8CN− + O2 + 2H2 O = 4Au(CN)− −
2 + 4OH (gold leaching with cyanide)
2-
2Au CN 2 + Zn = Zn CN 4 + Au (gold precipitation with zinc)
Hedley and(CN
2Au )−2 + Zn(1968)
Tabachnick = Zn (CN
[94] )2−
listed + Auof(gold
4 some precipitation
the factors affecting with zinc) such as:
cyanidation,
dissolved oxygen, pH, the stability of the cyanide solution, cyanide concentration, gold particle size
Hedley and Tabachnick (1968) [94] listed some of the factors affecting cyanidation, such as:
and shape, accessibility of cyanide to gold (exposure), temperature, presence of minerals consuming
dissolved oxygen, pH,ofthe
oxygen, presence stabilityetc.
cyanicides, ofAs
the
allcyanide solution,
these factors cyanide
also increase concentration,
the cyanide goldAGM
consumption, particle size
and shape, accessibility
operations typically of
usecyanide to gold
uncontrollable, and(exposure),
in many casestemperature,
unnecessary, presence of minerals
levels of cyanide consuming
in solution,
oxygen,2 to 6 g NaCN/L,
presence to leach tailings.
of cyanicides, etc.Cyanidation
As all theseis quite slow also
factors for relatively
increase coarse
the gold particles.
cyanide In
consumption,
laboratory tests,
AGM operations it was
typically useobserved that a 0.150
uncontrollable, andmm (100 mesh)
in many cases particle of purelevels
unnecessary, gold of needs
cyanide in
approximately 44 h to be dissolved in normal cyanidation conditions. This is a reason why most
solution, 2 to 6 g NaCN/L, to leach tailings. Cyanidation is quite slow for relatively coarse gold
companies remove the coarse gold specks from the ores with gravity concentration before
particles. In laboratory
cyanidation tests,
(Hedley and it was observed
Tabachnick, that a 0.150
1968 [94], Marsden mm 2006
and House, (100[11],
mesh)
Eganparticle
et al., 2016of[95],
pure gold
needs approximately 44
Chen et al., 2020 [79]).h to be dissolved in normal cyanidation conditions. This is a reason why
most companies remove the coarse gold specks from the ores with gravity concentration before
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 36 of 49

cyanidation (Hedley and Tabachnick, 1968 [94], Marsden and House, 2006 [11], Egan et al., 2016 [95],
Chen et al., 2020 [79]).
Cyanide is usually supplied as sodium cyanide (NaCN) or potassium cyanide (KCN). In water,
these salts dissociate forming free cyanide and Na+ or K+ . Free cyanide is a term that refers to CN− or
HCN (aq), in which the predominance of each one of these species depends on the pH of the solution.
Cyanidation is normally conducted at pH 10.5–11 using, in most cases, Ca(OH)2 to adjust the pH.
Lower pH levels favor the formation of HCN (aq), which reduces the cyanidation kinetics, and it is
unstable, generating toxic gaseous HCN. Higher pH levels decrease the gold leaching reaction kinetics.
The main variable to increase the gold dissolution reaction speed is the oxidant that in most cases is
oxygen from the air. Excessive oxygen can oxidize the free cyanides and this is not desirable (Marsden
and House, 2006 [11]). The level of dissolved oxygen increases when the temperature of the water
decreases. For example, at 25 ◦ C, the theoretical concentration of dissolved oxygen in water is 8.6 mg/L
whereas at 5 ◦ C is 12.8 mg/L (Higgins, 2013 [96]).
Recently some commercial intensive cyanidation processes have been used by conventional
mining companies to leach coarse gold particles using high levels of oxygen in the process. However,
when too much oxygen is added, the cyanidation reaction is accelerated but cyanide in solution is
also oxidized to cyanate (CNO− ). Then, more NaCN must be added to balance the losses. Cyanide
concentrations in these processes are usually around 5 to 20 g/L of NaCN. Veiga et al. (2009) [68]
proposed a method to extract gold from gravity concentrates by adding an oxidizing agent into small
ball mills, using the same mills used for whole ore amalgamation. Oxidizing agents such as hydrogen
peroxide, or Vanish or Oxiclean, common cloth detergents that have around 16–21% of H2 O2 in
50–66% of sodium percarbonate, are suitable to be used in AGM. After about 12 h of leaching gravity
concentrates with 5–10 g NaCN/L, the balls are removed and a perforated PVC tube with a porous
nylon bag filled with activated charcoal is introduced into the mill for gold adsorption. In tests in
Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Indonesia AGM sites, this mill-leaching process extracted more than
92% of gold from concentrates in less than 24 h (Sousa et al., 2010 [97], Veiga et al., 2014) [9].
A test was conducted in Portovelo, Ecuador, to convince the local miners that this technique is
better than amalgamation to produce more gold. A 240 kg of a gravity concentrate with 17.3 g/t of
gold obtained from a Chilean mill and sluice box was split into two subsamples. A 160 kg portion
was given to the miners to conduct amalgamation as they used to do manually in a batea. A smaller
80 kg portion was used for the mill-leaching technique with the conditions described above. After 8 h
of amalgamation, miners burned the amalgam and obtained a small gold bar with a calculated gold
recovery of 26%. The mill-leaching process of the concentrates with 6 g NaCN/L after 8 h achieved a
calculated gold recovery of 95%. The gold was eluted from the activated charcoal using a hot alkaline
solution with alcohol and then smelted with borax. Miners could see that the mill-leaching process
produced a heavier gold bar from less concentrate processed.
Several other alternatives to cyanidation have been used to leach gold from gravity concentrates,
such as the use of sodium hypochlorite and hydrochloric acid developed by MINTEK, in South
Africa. The gold in solution is then precipitated with sodium metabisulphate (Mahlatsi and Guest,
2003) [98]. The iGoli process was demonstrated in South Africa, Tanzania, Mozambique, and Peru
to artisanal miners, but after training the miners, this mercury-free method was never widely used.
Styles et al. (2010) [99] classified the process as technically complicated and expensive. An additional
problem is the storage of liquid and unstable solutions of sodium hypochlorite in hot climates
(Veiga et al., 2014) [9]. Many methods have been described to leach gold replacing mercury and
cyanide (Hilson and Monhemius, 2006 [100], Gökelma et al., 2016 [101]). One example is the American
Haber method using undisclosed reagents (Grayson, 2007) [22]. Another example is the patented
iodide process promoted by the Canadian company EnviroLeach (2020) [102], which has been used to
leach gold from e-waste and concentrates from small gold mines. The sophistication and proprietary
characteristics of these technologies are some of the hurdles for the dissemination of these processes in
AGM. The use of cyanogenic plants, such as cassava, is also an interesting solution for leaching gold
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 37 of 49

from concentrates. On a laboratory scale, this has been studied at the University of British Columbia.
In preliminary tests with a Brazilian bitter cassava extract, which generated 300 mg/L of free CN when
hydrolyzed, 50% of gold was recovered from an artisanal mining ore with 48 g/t of gold in less than
24 h (Torkaman et al., 2020) [103].
However, any clean and responsible leaching process recommended for AGM should consider
higher capital and operating costs as well as the need for skilled operators.

3.4. Coal-Oil Agglomeration

The coal-gold agglomeration (CGA) process has its merits for very fine liberated gold particles
(below 25 µm) (Sen et al., 2010) [104], as commonly found in alluvial ores. A comparative study in
South Africa using synthetic gold ore, where gold particles were mixed with silicates, concluded that
the gold recoveries with the CGA process are compatible with amalgamation (Koltze and Petersen,
2000) [105]. This study also mentioned that the presence of sulfides reduces the oleophilicity of gold,
thereby reducing its recovery.
The CGA process was tested 26 years ago to replace amalgamation in Brazil by Marciano et al.
(1994) [106]. Using a synthetic ore with pure gold particles added and a concentrate from an artisanal
mine, the authors tested different types of oil and types of coal. The results showed that diesel oil
produced better agglomerates than vegetable oils and kerosene. Like other authors (Mehrotra et al.,
1983 [107]; Calvez et al., 1998) [108], this Brazilian study suggested that gold recovery increases with
more oil in the coal agglomeration process and that the quality of the coal (e.g., metallurgical coal) has
an influence on the quality of the agglomerates.
This technique, being recently brought to the artisanal miners’ attention as an environmentally
friendly solution to replace mercury and cyanide, seems to be less efficient in recovering gold
from concentrates when the quality of the coal is low, the concentrate has high amount of sulfides,
the concentrate has clay minerals, and/or the pulp is viscous. The technique works well to recover fine,
liberated gold particles (Hilson and Monhemius, 2006 [100]; Otsuki and Yue, 2017 [109]). However, it is
important to keep in mind that alluvial deposits have low gold grades and high amounts of ore must
be daily processed to pay back the investment in equipment. Other technical and operating difficulties
to prepare the coal agglomerates and extract them from the pulp are also hurdles for the broad use of
this process. These limitations, in addition to the capital cost required to acquire pelletizers to make
the agglomerates and flotation cells, reduce drastically, like the direct smelting process, the number of
cases in which this method is applicable in artisanal gold mines.

3.5. Extracting Gold from Concentrates—Summary

The main points to highlight are:

• Direct smelting of gold concentrates with borax is not a definitive solution for all types of ore,
as the gold grade of the concentrate must be very high (>30,000 g/t Au), otherwise high amounts
of gold stay in the slag, leading to a substantial reduction of gold recovered. Direct smelting
can be useful for alluvial ores or for recovering free gold from a primary ore before cyanidation;
however, sulfides in a concentrate must be previously oxidized before smelting;
• The amalgamation of the concentrates is the quickest, easiest, and cheapest method for artisanal
miners to extract gold from concentrates. However, this works only for free gold particles.
Oxidation contributes to the reduction of mercury coalescence leading to the formation of fine
droplets that lowers the effectiveness of amalgamation. Methods to activate mercury or reduce its
surface tension can improve amalgamation, but they will not be useful in trapping unliberated
gold particles. Amalgamation is an ancient poisonous process banned by all conventional gold
mining companies and it must be also avoided in AGM operations;
• Leaching processes can dissolve unliberated but exposed gold particles. Cyanide is widely used
by conventional and artisanal gold miners. The cyanidation of mercury-contaminated tailings
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 38 of 49

exacerbates the pollution producing toxic mercury-cyanide complexes that can be bioaccumulated.
Although alternative lixiviants exist to replace cyanide, they are not easily available or affordable
at most AGM sites;
• The coal-oil agglomeration process is limited to fine, liberated gold particles and the feed
concentrate must have low sulfides and clays.
Minerals 2020, 10, x 40 of 51
• In many cases, the best option for artisanal miners is to sell their concentrates (or even their ores)
•
to companies
In many with legal
cases, and
the best responsible
option for artisanalsystems ofsell
miners is to cyanidation. The
their concentrates (orbuyers should
even their ores) pay the
to companies
miners based with legal
on the gold and responsible
content systems of cyanidation.
in the concentrates (Veiga andThe buyers2020)
Fadina, should[110].
pay the
miners based on the gold content in the concentrates (Veiga and Fadina, 2020) [110].
4. Comparing Gravity Concentration Equipment
4. Comparing Gravity Concentration Equipment
New pieces Newof gravity
pieces concentration
of gravity concentration equipment regularly
equipment regularly come come frequently
frequently to the marketto and
thearemarket and
are promotedpromoted
to gold to gold miners and
miners and organizations
organizations working with AGM.
working withMost
AGM. manufacturers of the new
Most manufacturers of the
equipment claim that they provide better gold recoveries than any other equipment. However, gold
new equipment claim that they provide better gold recoveries than any other equipment. However,
recovery is not the only variable to be observed. There are other important parameters to be
gold recovery is not
compared, theas:only
such gradevariable to be observed.
of the concentrate, enrichment There are other
factor (grade importantdivided
of the concentrate parameters
by to be
compared,the such
grade as: grade
of the feed),ofprices,
the concentrate, enrichment
local availability of spare parts,factor
energy(grade of thewater
consumption, concentrate
use (qualitydivided by
the grade ofandthe
quantity),
feed), the durability
prices, localofavailability
the equipment, ofenvironmental
spare parts,impacts,
energyetc.consumption, water use (quality
To illustrate the challenge, the following example describes how to evaluate new types of
and quantity), the durability of the equipment, environmental impacts, etc.
equipment. A type of hypothetical equipment is tested, using the same ore, and compared with some
To illustrate the challenge,
of the traditional concentrators thediscussed
followingabove: example
sluice withdescribes howwith
carpets, sluice to riffles,
evaluatebatea,new
dry types of
equipment. A type
sluice, of hypothetical
jig, shaking equipment
table, and centrifuge. Only is based
tested,onusing
the goldthe same of
recovery ore,
97%and compared
(Figure 41), therewith
is some of
an impression
the traditional concentratorsthat the new equipment
discussed had the
above: best performance.
sluice with carpets, However,
sluiceifwith
the enrichment factordry sluice,
riffles, batea,
is used for evaluation, it becomes clear that the new equipment produces concentrates with low
jig, shaking table, and centrifuge. Only based on the gold recovery of 97% (Figure 41), there is an
grades and a large mass.
impression that the new
Gravity equipment
concentration hadcan
processes thealso
best beperformance.
compared through However,
a graph ofifgold
therecovery
enrichmentand factor is
used for evaluation,
gold grade. Usingit becomes
data fromclear that theexample,
the previous new equipment produces
it is clear that concentrates
the best gravity equipment with
is thelow grades
centrifuge,
and a large mass. which generated both high gold recovery and a high gold grade in the concentrate (Figure
42).

100
90
Gold Recovery (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

(a)

300
Enrichement Factor

250
200
150
100
50
0

(b)

Figure 41. Comparison of performance of gravity concentration equipment with a hypothetical type of
new equipment. (a) Gold recovery using different hypothetical pieces of equipment (b) Enrichment
factors using the same pieces of equipment.
Minerals 2020, 10,2020,
Minerals x 10, 1026 39 of 49 41 of 51

Minerals 2020, 10, x 41 of 51

Figure 41. Comparison of performance of gravity concentration equipment with a hypothetical type
Gravity concentration processes can also be compared through a graph of gold recovery and gold
of new equipment.
Figure
grade. Using data(a)
41. ComparisonGold
from of recovery
the using
performance
previous different
of gravity
example, hypothetical
concentration
it is clear pieces equipment
equipment
that the best gravity ofwith
equipment
is the(b) Enrichment
a hypothetical type
centrifuge,
factors
of using
new the same
equipment. pieces
(a) Gold of equipment.
recovery using different hypothetical pieces of equipment
which generated both high gold recovery and a high gold grade in the concentrate (Figure 42).(b) Enrichment
factors using the same pieces of equipment.
120
120
100 New
100
Gold Recovery (%)

New Centrifuge
equipment
Gold Recovery (%)

equipment Centrifuge
8080
Sluice
SluiceRiffles
Riffles
6060 SluiceCarpet
Sluice Carpet
Shaking
Shaking
Table
Table Batea
Batea
4040
Jig
Jig
2020
Drysluice
Dry sluice
00
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Gold Grade (ppm)
Gold Grade (ppm)
Figure 42. Gold recovery versus gold grade for different types of equipment.
FigureFigure 42. Gold
42. Gold recovery
recovery versusgold
versus gold grade
gradefor different
for types
different of equipment.
types of equipment.
5. Economic Assessment
5. Economic Assessment
5. Economic Assessment
The The evolution
evolution of AGM
of AGM is is onlypossible
only possible with
with technical
technicalcapacity (and
capacity (andtechnical assistance)
technical for the
assistance) for the
artisanal
The evolution
artisanal miners
miners of and
AGM
and more investment.
moreisinvestment.
only possible The type
Thewith of gravity
typetechnical concentration
of gravitycapacity technology
(and technical
concentration technologyavailable to for
assistance)
available to the
artisanal
artisanal miners
miners depends
depends on on
thethe technical
technical knowledge
knowledge of
of the
theoperators and
operators andcapital. An
capital. exercise
An was
exercise was
artisanal miners and more investment. The type of gravity concentration technology available to
conducted to find out the costs of a complete plant with gravity concentration + flotation (for the fine
conducted
artisanal miners to find out theon
depends costs
theoftechnical
a complete plant withof
knowledge gravity concentration
the operators and +capital.
flotationAn(forexercise
the fine was
gold) + cyanidation of concentrates as depicted in Figures 43 and 44.
gold) + cyanidation
conducted of concentrates
to find out the as depicted
costs of a complete in Figures
plant 43 and concentration
with gravity 44. + flotation (for the fine
gold) + cyanidation of concentrates as depicted in Figures 43 and 44.

Figure
Figure 43.43. Exampleofofaaflowsheet
Example flowsheet of
of aa small
smallplant
planttoto
concentrate gold.
concentrate gold.

Figure 43. Example of a flowsheet of a small plant to concentrate gold.

Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 40 of 49
Minerals 2020, 10, x 42 of 51

Figure 44. Example of theofsteps

Figure 44. Example totoleach
the steps flotation
leach flotation concentrates
concentrates with cyanide.
with cyanide.

This exercise evaluated all pieces of equipment to process from 2 to 200 tpd (tonnes per day) of
This exercise evaluated all pieces of equipment to process from 2 to 200 tpd (tonnes per day)
ore. It also considered all ancillary equipment, as well as water and power distribution systems,
of ore. It also considered
tailing all ancillary
dams, infrastructure, equipment,
labor, reagents, etc., as well
using asprice
actual water and power
quotations distribution
from suppliers in systems,
Colombia. Based on these data, it was possible to obtain the CAPEX (capital cost) and OPEX
tailing dams, infrastructure, labor, reagents, etc., using actual price quotations
(operating expenses) (Table 2 and Figure 45). The CAPEX and OPEX per tonne of material being
from suppliers in
Colombia. Based on these
processed and data, it was(tonnes
the US$/tpa possible to obtain
per annum) thebecomes
revenue CAPEXmore (capital cost) and
advantageous with OPEX
a (operating
expenses) (Tableproduction rate above
2 and Figure 50 tpd.
45). TheA CAPEX
200 tpd plant
andoperating
OPEXonly perwith centrifuge
tonne + cyanidation
of material will cost
being processed and the
around US$ 3.5 million with an operating cost of 64 US$/tpa, considering 300 days per year of
US$/tpa (tonnesoperation.
per annum) revenue becomes more advantageous with a production
If flotation is introduced to recover gold from the gravity circuit tailings, the investment rate above 50 tpd.
A 200 tpd plantrequired
operating
rises toonly with
close to US$ 4centrifuge
million with an+operating
cyanidation
cost of 66will costThe
US$/tpa. around US$ costs
highest capital 3.5 million with an
are related to comminution equipment. The capital cost can be drastically reduced using second hand
operating cost of 64 locally
and/or US$/tpa,made considering
equipment. 300 days per year of operation. If flotation is introduced to
recover gold from the gravity circuit tailings, the investment required rises to close to US$ 4 million
Table 2. CAPEX (capital cost) and OPEX (operating expenses) for small gold processing plants.
with an operating cost of 66 US$/tpa. The highest capital costs are related to comminution equipment.
Production Rate (tpd) CAPEX, US$ OPEX, US$/a CAPEX (US$/tpa) OPEX (US$/tpa)
The capital cost can be drastically
200
reduced
3,946,266
using855,091
second hand and/or 66
locally 14made equipment.
100 2,603,565 564,150 87 19
Table 2. CAPEX (capital
50 cost) and OPEX (operating
1,717,712 372,200 expenses)
115for small gold25
processing plants.
25 1,133,267 245,560 151 33
Production Rate 10(tpd) CAPEX, 653,986
US$ 141,708
OPEX, US$/a CAPEX 218(US$/tpa) 47 (US$/tpa)
OPEX
5 431,470 93,492 288 62
200 3,946,266 855,091 66 14
2 248,993 53,953 415 90
100 2,603,565 564,150 87 19
50 Note: tpa = tonnes per annum
1,717,712 372,200of 300 days of operation.
115 25
25 1,133,267 245,560 151 33
The10other economic factor that must be 141,708
653,986 taken into consideration 218 is the minimum ore 47grade
required5to operate these plants and
431,470 to pay back the investment,
93,492 i.e., to provide
288 a positive net present
62
value (NPV).
2 The break-even point characterizes
248,993 the minimum ore415
53,953 gold grade required to 90avoid
economic losses. For example, according to Figure 46, a processing plant operating with a production
rate of 5 tpd and Note:
80% gold = tonnesshould
tparecovery per annum
processof 300with
ores daysnoofless operation.
than 5.21 g/t of gold to be
Minerals 2020, 10, x
profitable. 43 of 51

100 600
90
OPEX/tpa CAPEX/tpa 500
80
CAPEX (US$/tpa)
OPEX (US$/tpa)

70
400
60
50 300
40
200
30
20
100
10
0 0
2 5 10 25 50 100 200

Production rate (tpd)

Figure 45. CAPEX and OPEX per tpa of complete small-scale gold plants.
Figure 45. CAPEX and OPEX per tpa of complete small-scale gold plants.

The other economic factor that must be taken into consideration is the minimum ore grade required
to operate these plants and to pay back the investment, i.e., to provide a positive net present value
 20
100
10
0 0
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 2 5 10 25 50 100 200 41 of 49

Production rate (tpd)

(NPV). The break-even point characterizes the minimum ore gold grade required to avoid economic
losses. For example, according to Figure 46, a processing plant operating with a production rate of
5 tpd and 80% gold recovery should process ores with no less than 5.21 g/t of gold to be profitable.
Figure 45. CAPEX and OPEX per tpa of complete small-scale gold plants.

Figure
Figure 46.
46. Gold
Goldgrades
gradesthat
that provide
provide break-even
break-even point
point (80%
(80% Au
Au recovery).
recovery).

For
For micro-miners
micro-miners producing
producing and
and processing
processing lessless than
than 22 tpd
tpd of
of ore,
ore, the
the economic
economic assessment
assessment ofof
homemade pieces of
homemade pieces ofequipment
equipmentisismore
more favorable
favorable thanthan what
what is offered
is offered byprocessing
by the the processing centers
centers using
using amalgamation.
amalgamation. The CAPEX
The CAPEX and OPEX
and OPEX in Table
in Table 3 indicate
3 indicate different
different levels
levels of production
of production using
using the
the chain mills and shaking tables developed by the CICAN project as described
chain mills and shaking tables developed by the CICAN project as described above, with a 5-year above, with a 5-year
operation.
operation. The
The OPEX
OPEX does
does not
not contemplate
contemplate salaries
salaries for
for employees—all
employees—all miners
miners work
work in
in partnership
partnership
splitting
splitting equally the results. The CAPEX calculation assumes that miners will not build their
equally the results. The CAPEX calculation assumes that miners will not build their own
own
equipment
equipment butbut will
will acquire
acquire them
them from
from aa local
local metal
metal shop.
shop. The
The same
same occurs
occurs for
for other
other accessories
accessories such
such
as
as pumps,
pumps, bins,
bins, screens,
screens, etc.
etc. Based
Basedononthese
theseassumptions,
assumptions,ififthetheplant
planthas
hasgold
goldrecoveries
recoveriesabove
above50%,
50%,
they
they are more profitable at any level of gold grade and production rate than the amalgamation of the
are more profitable at any level of gold grade and production rate than the amalgamation of the
whole
whole ore
ore in
in processing
processing centers
centers recovering
recovering 30% 30% of
of the
the gold.
gold. However,
However, ifif they
they do
do not
not have
have skills
skills or
or
funds to set up a simple cyanidation plant to extract the gold from the concentrates, they must sell the
concentrates at a price above 60% of the gold content, which is the break-even point to pay back the
CAPEX and OPEX at any ore grade. If their gold recovery increases to 85%, with a production rate of
1 tpd, the miners can make more money than using processing centers if they sell concentrates for
more than 35% of the gold content (Veiga et al., 2018) [37].

Table 3. CAPEX and OPEX for homemade processing plants. (Source: Veiga et al., 2018 [37])

Production Rate (tpd) CAPEX, US$ OPEX, US$/a OPEX/tpa

0.2 2600 4500 75
0.5 4500 6259 42
1 5500 8032 27
2 10,500 10,309 17

6. Conclusions
Gravity separation equipment can concentrate liberated and unliberated gold particles. However,
it has been observed that the main losses of gold in AGM occur in the coarse grain size fractions,
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 42 of 49

as small gold grains are trapped inside the gangue minerals, and in the fine fractions. Fine gold
particles (below 200 mesh = 0.074 mm), when liberated, are not concentrated by most typical types
of gravity equipment seen at AGM operations. Efficient closed-circuit grinding, size classification,
and flotation can increase the gold recoveries to above 80%, for the large majority of AGM operations.
Many manuals have been published, and are widely available, on how artisanal miners can
improve their methods and gold recovery. The pioneers of this educational approach were Priester et al.
(1993) [73] with their excellent review of the pros and cons of equipment and techniques used in AGM.
Another example is the guide produced by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP,
2012) [111] in conjunction with the Artisanal Gold Council. Other manuals have been published by
UNIDO (Veiga et al., 2006) [39] and the COMUNICA Project, a Canadian project to demonstrate to
artisanal miners cleaner techniques to concentrate gold (Veiga and Correa, 2019) [77]. Despite the merit
of bringing simple solutions to eliminate mercury and improve gold recovery, the effectiveness of
these toolkits, pamphlets, guides, and manuals, is questionable since miners need permanent technical
assistance and capital to sustain the changes in their techniques and behaviors. This is discussed well by
Jønsson et al. (2009) [112] and Shandro et al. (2009) [113] when they assess, after some years, the efforts
to implement simple retorts to remove mercury safely from amalgams. Rarely did artisanal miners
continue using the techniques they learned. The solutions to improve the efficiency and reduce the
pollution from AGM operation are not solely related to technology, but also require better participation
from governments to simplify laws and mining companies to provide a range of assistance to the
miners (Veiga and Marshall, 2019) [7].
There is a common perception from those implementing solutions in AGM that one technique to
concentrate and extract gold from concentrates fits all, however, not all ores have the same mineralogical
characteristics. This is the most usual mistake observed in the field. It is common to observe agencies
looking for “the technical solution” for AGM pollution, focusing on identifying a specific type of
equipment to do so. As a result, no sustainable solution has been implemented as miners sooner or later,
without technical assistance, return to their rudimentary practices. The idea of demonstrating gold
concentration equipment to miners overlooks the following key aspects: (1) the lack of mineralogical
information about the ores, (2) the lack of permanent technical assistance, (3) the lack of understanding
of the level of miners’ skills, (4) the lack of consultation with the miners, (5) the lack of understanding
the miners’ motivations to change procedures, and, (6) the lack of miners’ financial resources to
implement and sustain the suggested solutions. This is not an exhaustive list of problems, but just the
tip of an iceberg of problems to change the behavior of artisanal miners.
A complete small gravity + flotation (for fine particles) + cyanidation, including all ancillaries
and infrastructure as well as tailing dams, can involve a capital cost (CAPEX) from US$ 60/tpa (tonnes
per annum) for a 200 tpd (tonnes per day) plant, to US$ 415/tpa for a 2 tpd. The operating costs (OPEX)
are approximately 14 of the CAPEX, varying from US$ 14/tpa to US$ 90/tpa respectively. Homemade
solutions can be useful for micro-miners processing less than 2 tonnes of primary ore per day (tpd).
The cost for this small plant can be approximately US$ 11,000 including chain impact mills, gravity
concentration, flotation equipment, and cyanidation in small ball mills (Veiga et al., 2018) [37].
From the technical viewpoint, some simple measures can be brought to the attention of the miners
to improve their operations. Sluice boxes in a zigzag arrangement operating with good carpets can be
very efficient in trapping coarse and fine gold particles. Classifying feed into narrow size fractions
would improve substantially the gold recovery with any concentrator, but rarely do miners understand
the importance of size classification. Artisanal miners frequently are keen to invest in increasing their
production by increasing the mass of ore mined with excavators and trucks instead of improving gold
recovery. This increases environmental pollution, as tailing dams are rarely properly designed and
managed by artisanal miners. Artisanal gold miners who achieve initial success often later become
bankrupted by over-investing in expensive mining equipment, such as excavators and big trucks,
rather than investing in improving the efficiency of their concentration plants.
Minerals 2020, 10, 1026 43 of 49

In the large majority of AGM operations, gold from gravity concentrates or high-grade ores is
amalgamated. In the past, many researchers and international agencies promoted the amalgamation
of only gravity concentrates, instead of whole ore amalgamation, as the best way to reduce mercury
losses. Even without success of reducing mercury use, nowadays all efforts from projects aim at the
complete elimination of mercury in AGM by using only gravity concentration; however, this is not
practical for the miners if they do not have an affordable and simple method to extract gold from the
concentrates. Amalgamating gravity concentrations can reduce drastically the use and loss of mercury,
but mercury use cannot be eliminated unless an alternative, such as a leaching process, is used to
extract gold from concentrates. The direct smelting of concentrates is typically only practical for some
alluvial ores where the gold is mostly liberated from the gangue minerals, allowing the generation of a
rich concentrate. If direct smelting is used on low-grade gold concentrates, most gold will end up in
the slag. However, if the low-grade concentrate is further concentrated to produce a high gold grade
to be directly smelted, a large portion of gold will be lost during the upgrading process. This paradox
cannot be easily resolved. Gravity concentration followed by the cyanidation of the concentrates
involves capital and skilled operators. It seems that the best practical solution for the AGM operations
is to sell their ores for a fair price instead of using processing centers which often exploit the miners,
allowing them to only extract the free gold by amalgamation while the centers retain the tailings for
processing with cyanide (Veiga and Fadina, 2020) [110].
Artisanal miners frequently use sluice boxes, shaking tables, and jigs for gold concentration, and a
few plants are now using centrifuges. Unfortunately, many miners do not have the financial resources
to acquire more capital-intensive equipment or do not have the skills to operate more sophisticated
equipment efficiently. Without technical assistance, most operators abandon new pieces of equipment
when they become frustrated with the additional complexity of the operation, then returning to their
previous methods.
Worldwide, the presence of tens of millions of micro-miners panning gold from sediments on
the river margins is a problem of poverty and subsistence in rural communities. Micro-miners
typically use very small pieces of equipment for gold concentration, such as pans or small sluice boxes,
followed by the amalgamation of the concentrate. Bringing more efficient methods to concentrate
gold to micro-gold miners will help them produce more gold and temporarily alleviate their poverty
problem, but it will not reduce drastically the mercury pollution from this sector. Processing centers
recklessly processing tens or hundreds of tonnes of ore daily using mercury and cyanide are the main
villains in this scenario of chemical and physical pollution. Therefore, the efforts of governments,
NGOs, academics, and international sponsoring agencies must focus on the larger artisanal processing
operations, increasing enforcement, educating, and facilitating financial support for the transformation
of these polluters into responsible and formalized small gold producers.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology and writing the original draft were conducted as a team
work by M.M.V. and A.J.G. based on their experiences in working with mineral processing and artisanal mining in
over 35 countries. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The financial supports from Global Affairs Canada and the Canadian Embassy in Bogotá, as well as the
NSERC Discovery Grant, are acknowledged.
Acknowledgments: The authors also recognize the support of the economist Gabriel Jimenez in the economic
assessment of this article and the collaboration of the manuscript reviewers to improve the quality of this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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