Age at death in cattle: methods, older cattle

and known-age reference material

Gillian G. Jones and Peta Sadler
New work is presented regarding the estimation of age at death in cattle based on the teeth. For
younger cattle, before all the teeth are fully in wear, mandible stages are based on the eruption
events, subdivided using wear on the most recently erupted tooth. For older cattle, a method of
study using the position of the cement-enamel junction and the root arch of the molar teeth is
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presented. These are used to define summary mandible stages for older cattle. In order to
suggest the ages at which the mandible stages occur, studies were made using reference
material of known age at death at the Julius Kühn Museum, Halle, Germany (88 records), and two
smaller collections in the UK (6 records). Further reference data were obtained from study of the
literature (42 data points) (Jones and Sadler 2012). The results are presented using standard
summary methods and the more detailed mandible stages.
Keywords: cattle, age at death, mortality profiles, herd structure, known-age reference material

Introduction some particular problems inherent in current proce-

Evaluating herd structure through mortality profiles
allows insight into husbandry practices and the
economic, and other, uses of domesticated animals.
Both teeth and bone can be used to estimate age at
death, but teeth are the more useful, particularly if
several teeth in a mandible or maxilla are preserved,
as the dentition undergoes identifiable stages of
eruption and wear throughout the life of an animal
which can be aged with varying degrees of accuracy.
Several methods have been developed for assessing
age at death in cattle (Grant 1975; 1982; Halstead
1985; O’Connor 1991; Legge 1992). These have in
common the use of a series of ‘tooth eruption/wear
stages’ for recording wear on individual teeth which
are then used to assign each mandible into sequential
‘mandible wear stages’, MWS (Grant 1982) or ‘age
stages’ e.g. (Halstead 1985). Biological or relative
ages are attributed to the mandible/age stages by
reference to patterns of tooth eruption and wear in
known-age animals. This paper presents some new
methods and reference material for ageing cattle
dentition, with the aim of improving the estimation of
age at death in archaeological material. It addresses
Gillian G. Jones (corresponding author), 3 Church Farm Garth, Shadwell,
Leeds LS17 8HD, UK, e-mail: knowles.shadwell@ntlworld.com; Peta
Sadler, 6 Fairacres, Prestwood, Buckinghamshire HP16 0LD, UK.
! Association for Environmental Archaeology 2012
Published by Maney
Received September 2010; revised manuscript accepted January 2012
DOI 10.1179/1461410312Z.0000000002
dures, namely: variability in the morphology of cattle
third molars; a lack of resolution for older cattle,
where typically very broad age ranges are applied;
and the limited use of the potential for high resolution
ageing in dentition where teeth are erupting (cf. Jones’
2006 system for sheep). A further problem area is the
association of age to mandible and tooth wear stages,
see below and a separate review of published sources
for age estimation in cattle (Jones and Sadler 2012).
The coming into wear of the accessory pillar which
sits between the first and second elements (i.e.
between the protoconid/paraconid and the metaco-
nid/hypoconid) of the lower third molar, is com-
monly used to separate adult from older cattle
(Halstead 1985; O’Connor 1991). It is known that
this pillar is variable in size (Grant 1982; Legge 1992),
and recent work on mandibles from the Iron Age
assemblage at Ferry Fryston has confirmed its
variability (Jones 2007). The position of the cement/
enamel junction and the root arch in relation to the
alveolar border in the molar teeth is presented here as
an alternative method for the study of older cattle, as
it does not rely on the accessory pillar (cf. Legge
1992; Jones 1994; 2002; Sadler and Jones 2007).
Secondly, it will be argued that a larger number of
stages is needed for studying cattle which are fully
adult (the lower third molar at Tooth Wear Stage ‘g’
Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1 11
 Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle

or more, Grant 1975; 1982), than the two or three age from calves to a cow of nearly 19 years, with a
stages generally used (Halstead 1985; O’Connor 1991; spread of ages in between.
Legge 1992). Grant’s original Mandible Wear Stages Cattle from the Julius Kühn Museum, Halle
are much more numerous, but there are methodolo-
The Julius Kühn Museum für Haustierkunde, part
gical problems with these stages, which are discussed
of the Agricultural Science Department of the Mar-
later. A larger number of stages for adult cattle is
tin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg (Halle),
desirable because cattle may live for many years after
houses collections from 1863 onwards, when the
the teeth have come fully into wear. How many years
agricultural institute was established. There is an
of age should be taken as the upper limit of the oldest
extensive skeletal collection (see www.landw.uni-
age stage is a further important aspect, and is
halle.de/lfak/museum), which includes cattle of many
discussed more fully in a separate review of published
different breeds from across Europe, including the
sources for age estimation in cattle (Jones and Sadler
UK. Most were given a breed category by Simon
2012). For younger cattle, the use of more detailed
(1929), consisting of five categories, from early to
age stages would also enable a better understanding
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late maturing. The cattle were kept at the institute

of husbandry methods and in particular of season-
ality in herding and culling strategies (cf. Jones 2006).
Following previous work on live sheep (Jones 2006),
higher resolution mandible stages have been devel-
oped for cattle using the eruption events (Payne 1973;
Halstead 1985), plus wear on the most recently
erupted tooth (Grant 1975; 1982). These new stages,
together with stages for older cattle based on the
cement/enamel junction and root arch position,
provide a way of summarising mandible collections
in a single graph without losing valuable information.
Several of the problems referred to above, and the
development of detailed stages, were studied while
recording the cattle mandibles from Ferry Fryston,
Yorkshire (Brown et al. 2007; Bates et al. 2007; Jones
2007, appendix 11, 618–25, and see additional
information, Jones 2011). The most important of
these is the variability in the height of the accessory
pillar, already referred to. Other aspects are also
relevant to interpreting age at death. For the first and
second molars, differences in both morphology and
size were observed, which may allow loose teeth to be
identified and therefore be more easily used in age
estimates. Detailed recording at Ferry Fryston was
informative regarding the relationship of upper to
lower teeth, indicating that it is possible to deduce
the mandible stage, and thus an age estimate, from
a maxilla or set of upper teeth at all stages of
development until the upper third molar is in wear on
the distal facets. Development of the methodology
was also done during the study of the animal bones
from Stafford Castle (Sadler and Jones 2007; 2011;
and Jones and Sadler 2004; 2006).
The museum collections
Comparative material of known age at death cattle
was studied in the collections of the Julius Kühn
Museum in Halle, Germany (88 records), and two
UK museums (6 records). The Halle cattle ranged in
throughout the year, in stalls fronted by a small yard
area and were stall-fed (green fodder (ryes/legumes)
in spring and summer; lucerne and turnip leaves,
lucerne hay, silage, oilcakes in autumn/winter). This
is not ideal, but given the extreme rarity of collections
where the exact age at death is known, the Halle
material is of great value. The rate of tooth wear is
likely to be fairly constant within the material, but
may not be typical of cattle kept predominantly
on pasture, or prehistoric cattle which may have
browsed partly on tree fodder.
Seventy-nine cattle were recorded from Halle,
where the date of both birth and death was known.
Up to four years of age, numbers of males and
females were equal (22 male, 23 female). Thereafter,
only three were bulls. There were no castrates in the
study. Nine older cattle were recorded, where the date
of purchase and death was known, i.e., they are of
known minimum age. As they were bought for
breeding, they were probably between one and three
years old when purchased.
Museum collections in the UK
Five cattle of known age from the collections of
the Centre for Archaeology, English Heritage,
Portsmouth and one (a 2 year 11 month old castrate)
from the National Museum Cardiff, were studied,
aged from one to 21 years. In addition, 12 older cattle
from these collections were studied during develop-
ment of the methods, but their age at death is not
precisely known.
Recording methods
The standard eruption (Ewbank et al. 1964; Grant
1982, 95), and Tooth Wear Stages (TWS) (Grant
1982, 92) were recorded, with some adjustments (see
below), along with reference numbers, date of birth
(or purchase), date of death and sex. For the cheek
teeth, the left side was recorded. In addition, records

12 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1


Figure 1 Halle calf H1287 (2 months 14 days) showing the
gum line very clearly
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were made of: the cement/enamel junction and root
arch position (see below); detailed wear patterns (cf.
Payne 1973, for sheep) and sketches; a count of left
plus right deciduous/permanent incisors; and any
anomalies (e.g. hypoconulid variation, pathology,
absence of accessory pillars). A number of measure-
ments were taken to give information, for example,
on M1/M2 differences in anterior width, V-ness of
wear, crown height, accessory pillar height, cervical
length, and mandible size; these will be presented
elsewhere. Due to time constraints and variable
condition (e.g., glued teeth), not all was recorded in
every case. See Tables 1–3 for abbreviations used for
teeth.
The eruption stage ‘K’, defined as ‘half up, about
halfway between bone and full height’, was used
where it was judged that the tooth would certainly
have cut the gum and be visible in the live animal, so
that it is linked as closely as possible to published
tooth eruption information, see Legge’s work (1992,
20), and Figs 1 and 2.
The eruption stages were recorded as 1C, 2V, 3E,
4H(5K) and 5U, so that the series sorts in order
easily, and avoids upper and lower case letters with
two meanings, e.g., ‘E’ (erupting, after Ewbank et al.
1964; Grant 1982) and ‘e’ (wear stage ‘e’, after Grant
1982). ‘5U’ (up but unworn) was rarely observed,
except with P2. By the time a tooth was at occlusal
height there was usually already enamel wear (TWS
‘a’). ‘0p’ (order in the TWS series 0, ‘p’ present) can
be used for unerupted teeth before stage ‘1C’, i.e.
‘perforation in crypt visible’. (To avoid ambiguity in
using ‘U’, a loose unworn tooth with no eruption
information can be recorded as ‘Un’; the abbrevia-
tion, ‘S’, ‘socket’, for ‘tooth missing, alveolus present’
is useful; Legge 1992.) All cases of, e.g., ‘M1’, refer to
the lower tooth, unless otherwise stated.
Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle
Figure 2 English Heritage cow CfA1622 (2 years 5 months)
showing the gum line
Some small amendments to Grant’s TWS were
used. For dp4s, sketches were made to show the
number of cusps in wear and the number of dentine
joins. For the molar teeth, TWS ‘b’ (dentine wear on
the anterior facets only with no wear on the mid-
tooth valley) was divided into ‘b1’: ‘one or two of the
anterior cusps in wear, no mesial dentine join; and
‘b2’: ‘anterior cusps in wear, dentine joined mesially’.
TWS ‘e3’ was used for M3 where the hypoconulid
was in wear but the mid-tooth dentine joins were
incomplete. TWS ‘e1’ was used where there was one
mid-tooth dentine join; and ‘e2’ where there was
more than one mid-tooth dentine join and the joins
were still incomplete.
Developments in method
The cement/enamel junction (CEJ) and root arch position
In cattle, the molar teeth are deeply set in the jaw and
the cement/enamel junction (CEJ), which separates
the crown from the roots of the tooth (Hillson 1986,
9), is within the mandibular bone for much of the
tooth’s functional use. As the animal ages and the
crown wears, the mandibular tooth continually
moves upwards, until the CEJ reaches a position
where it is level with the alveolar border, and then
above it. Eventually, the arch between the roots of
the tooth is above the alveolar border. Especially on
the lingual side of the mandible, there is new growth
of bone at the alveolar crest below the root arch,
giving the tooth additional support. Four stages were
defined to categorise this process and were given
letter codes for data entry (‘q’, ‘x’, ‘y, ‘z’) (these letters
were chosen so as to avoid those used as TWSs and
other common abbreviations, see Table 1 and Fig. 3).
The molar teeth were recorded in a single new field in
the recording database, as, for example, ‘qqn’ to
show the CEJ for M1, M2 and M3 respectively in
cattle of increasing age (sorted alphabetically).
Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1 13
 Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle

Figure 3 Examples of the CEJ position, defined on Table 1.

(a) ‘q’, CEJ below; (b) ‘y’, CEJ above; (c) ‘z’, root
arch above

Where there are many calves or in a research

situation it may also be worth recording the CEJ of
dp4, which is visible early in the animal’s life, and
after which crown height may be easily measured
(Orton 2004, Bates et al. 2007). Lesbre (Cornevin and
Lesbre 1894) noted that the neck is visible (in the live
animal) at 8 to 10 months.
In old mandibles, teeth are often missing post
mortem because by then they are loosely set in the
jaw, but the shape of the alveolus may reveal clearly
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that the root arch was above the alveolar border

(Legge 1992).
Jones/Sadler mandible stages: definitions
Since Grant’s Tooth Wear Stages were published
(1975; 1982), there has been nearly universal agree-
ment about the usefulness of the TWS diagrams, used
along with the early eruption stages defined by
Ewbank et al. (1964). There has been less consensus
with the grouping of mandibles into Mandible Wear
Stages for the presentation of summary results. Grant
(1982) combined the tooth wear stages of the three
molar teeth to create a numerical mandible stage, but
other researchers have used different approaches,
generally providing broader age categories based on
the eruption events in the younger cattle (see e.g.,
Halstead 1985, ‘Age stage’ ‘C’), with varied methods
for identifying older cattle, including the degree
of wear on the accessory pillar, as outlined above.
Given the variability of the accessory pillar, other
characteristics of older cattle have been suggested on

Table 1 Definitions of the cement/enamel junction (CEJ)

and root arch position
q The CEJ is below the alveolar border buccally and
lingually (cheek and tongue side), and see Notes.
x The CEJ is level or within 1 mm at any point of the
alveolar border buccally or lingually, for any of the tooth
elements (pillars); and see Notes.
y The CEJ is above the alveolar border, buccally or
lingually; and the root arch is still below; and see Notes.
z The root arch is visible above the alveolar border,
lingually and/or buccally.
n no data (e.g. CEJ not formed yet; area of jaw missing;
used as a placeholder)
Notes.
1. The appearance of the CEJ on the mesial or distal edges of
the tooth, where it rises steeply, is disregarded (see Jones 2007,
fig. 249).
2. Care needs to be taken to distinguish the CEJ from cementum
and calculus deposits.
3. Examine both sides of the jaw. x and y is often reached first on
the buccal side.
4. z occurs earlier and much more clearly on the lingual, than the
buccal side.

14 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1

 Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle

which to base the later (i.e. older) stages, viz., the
gradual change from a V-shaped cuspal profile to a
flat one (Bourdillon and Coy 1980), the eruption of
the premolars and the position of the root arch in M1
and M2 (Legge 1992), and the position of the cement/
enamel junction and the root arch in M3 (Jones 1994;
2002).
For sheep, Jones (2006) has demonstrated, through
a study of eruption and wear in 1324 known-age
individuals, that eruption events are reliable indica-
tors of age. Eruption events provide secure beginning
and end points to the age categories which depend on
eruption, i.e., Payne’s (1973) age stages A, B, C, D
and the beginning of E. Jones (2006) subdivided each
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roughly normal distribution, which contrasts with the
flat-topped distributions of the broad age categories,
A, B, C, D, etc. The distribution often has a tail to the
right, i.e., a few cases quite late in the stage.
Applying the same general principle to cattle up to
the point where M3 is at TWS ‘g’, gives the stages
shown in Table 2. These use a slightly modified
version of the age stages as defined by Halstead
(1985, after Payne 1973) (hereafter referred to as
Jones/Sadler mandibles stages), with subdivisions
using the tooth wear stage (after Grant 1982) of the
most recently erupted tooth until the next tooth in the
molar row reaches ‘half up’ (‘4H’) in an archae-
ological specimen, which is equivalent to visible in the

of Payne’s age stages according to the wear stage of
the most recently-erupted tooth. These subdivisions
were shown to have similar variability to the eruption
events, so that an estimate of age at death can be
made to a known accuracy for most sheep up to three
years of age. The Jones (2006) subdivisions present a
live animal. Jones/Sadler mandible stages A to the
beginning of G are identical to the age stages defined
by Halstead (1985) (see Table 2); Jones/Sadler
mandible stage H begins when the cement/enamel
junction of M2 is level with the alveolar border; J
begins when the CEJ of M3 is level; and K begins

Table 2 Definitions of Jones/Sadler mandible stages

Main Mandible stage Stage JS Halstead O’Connor

stage JS JS (Jones/Sadler) Number Description 1985 1991

A dp4 unworn A Neonatal

A03 1 dp4 0p to 3E
At (terminal) 2 dp4 at 4H (half up) to a (enamel wear only)
B dp4 in wear, M1 not yet in wear B Juvenile
Bbc, Bdz 3, 4 subdivided according to wear on dp4, and M1 not yet 4H
Bt (terminal) 5 over-rides dp4 wear: M1 at 4H to a
C M1 in wear, M2 not yet in wear C Immature
Cb, Ccd, Ce, Cfz 6, 7, 8, 9 subdivided according to wear on M1, and M2 not yet 4H
Ct (terminal) 10 over-rides M1 wear: M2 4H to a
D M2 in wear, M3 not yet in wear D Subadult 1, 2
Db, Dcd, De, Dfz 11–14 subdivided according to wear on M2, and M3 not yet 4H
Dt (terminal) 15 over-rides M2 wear: M3 4H to a.
E Eb, Ecd, 16, 17, M3 in wear, at b; c/d; E Adult 1, 2
Ee 18 M3 at e (and hypoconulid not yet in wear)
F F 19 M3 in wear on hypoconulid, not yet at g F Adult 3
G M3 at g or more, M2 and M3 CEJs at q yG yAdult 3
Ggh 20 M3 gz, M2 q, M3 q, M2 TWS g or h
Gj 21 M3 gz, M2 q, M3 q, M2 TWS j
Gkz 22 M3 gz, M2 q, M3 q, M2 TWS k or more
H M2 CEJ at x, y or z, and M3 CEJ still at q yH yElderly:
Hx 23 M2 CEJ at x, M3 CEJ at q
Hy 24 M2 CEJ at y, M3 CEJ at q
Hz 25 M2 CEJ at z, M3 CEJ at q
J M3 CEJ at x, y or z, M3 before TWS m yI ‘‘
Jx 26 M3 CEJ at x
Jy 27 M3 CEJ at y
Jz 28 M3 CEJ at z, and M3 before TWS m
K M3 CEJ at z, and M3 at TWS m or more yI ‘‘
Km 29 M3 CEJ at z, and M3 at TWS m
Knz 30 M3 CEJ at z, and M3 at TWS n or more
The main stages Jones/Sadler A to the beginning of G are the same as those defined by Halstead (1985); Stage JS H begins when the
cement/enamel junction of M2 is level with the alveolar border; J begins when the CEJ of M3 is level; and K begins when the infundibula
of M3 are nearly worn to their base. The nearest equivalent stages of O’Connor and Halstead are given, based on the Halle results. The
two stages G and H are not identical to Halstead’s G and H. Hypoconulid–the M3 third (distal) element.

Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1 15

 Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle

when the infundibula of M3 are nearly worn to their
base. The nearest equivalent stages of O’Connor and
Halstead are given in Table 2, based on the Halle
results. The Jones/Sadler subdivisions are applied as
follows using Jones/Sadler mandible stages ‘C’ as an
example: Jones/Sadler mandible stages ‘C’ (M1 in
wear, M2 not yet in wear) is subdivided using the
TWS of M1 into ‘Cb’ (M1 at TWS ‘b’), ‘Ccd’ (M1 at
‘c’ or ‘d’), ‘Ce’ (M1 at ‘e’), Cfz’ (M1 at ‘f’ or more
and M2 not yet at ‘4H’) and ‘Ct’. The ‘terminal’
subdivision, ‘Ct’, is defined by M2 being at ‘4H’ to
‘a’, and overrides M1 wear. The terminal stages, Bt,
Ct and Dt show, respectively, M1, M2 and M3 at
‘half up’ to ‘enamel wear-only’, and are the ones
which can be related most closely to published
information about tooth eruption.
Note that the terminal stages begin later than the
similar stages quoted by Grigson (1982, 13) or
O’Connor’s stage ‘Sub adult 2’, ‘M3 erupting from
bone to occlusal plane’ (1991), because they begin

Table 3 Tooth eruption and wear, CEJ position and mandible stage in the Halle cattle up to four years of age.

Ref. 1 Ref. 2 Sex Age (d)P2,P3 (d)P4 Molars CEJs StJS Hal. O’C Grant Legge Yrs
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H267 B shh 6 f 0y 0m 1d (2V 3E) (4H) 1C nnn At A Neo 1 1 0?00

H858 B jrs 9 f 0y 0m 2d (3E b) (5U) 1C nnn At A Neo 1 1 0?01
H704 B sim 3 x m 0y 0m 4d (3E 4H) (5U) 2V nnn At A Neo 2 1 0?01
H465 B shh 8 m 0y 0m 4d (3E 4H) (b) 1C nnn Bbc B Juv 1 1 0?01
H1308 B pd stp 30 x m 0y 1m 0d (4H a) (b) 3E nnn Bbc B Juv 3 2 0?08
H1287 B pd stp 22 x m 0y 2m 14d (a w) (g) 3E - nnn Bdz B Juv 3 2 0?21
H1488 B ofr sb 1 x f 0y 5m 28d (a w) (g) b2 1C qnn Cb C Imm 8 4 0?49
H1266 B pd stp 17 x f 0y 8m (5U w) (j) b1 1C nnn Cb C Imm 8 4 0?65
H856 B mrhf 2 f 0y 8m (a w) (g) b1 2V nnn Cb C Imm 9 4 0?65
H1238 B pd stp 9 x f 0y 9m (w w) (j) d 1C nnn Ccd C Imm 10 4 0?71
H1071 B frb 5 f 0y 9m (a w) (h) e1 3E nnn Ce C Imm 13 4 0?75
H1490 B ofr sb 10 f 0y 9m (w w) (j) e1 3E nnn Ce C Imm 13 4 0?76
H1260 B pd stp 16 x m 0y 10m (a w) (j) d 2V qnn Ccd C Imm 11 4 0?81
H731 B shh 69 m 1y 0m (w w) (j) f 3E qnn Cfz C Imm 14 4 0?99
H1103 B pzg 3 f 1y 0m (z z)1C (j)1C g 2V qnn Cfz C Imm 14 4 1?00
H1022 B wstw 6 m 1y 1m (z z)1C (j)1C f 3E qnn Cfz C Imm 14 4 1?08
H261 B lgh 2 f 1y 1m (a w) (j) - f 4H nnn Ct C Imm 15 4 1?12
H1283 B pd stp 21 x f 1y 3m (w w) (j) f 5U 1C qnn Ct C Imm 17 4 1?25
H1013 B shh 79 f 1y 3m (a w) (j) g 4H 1C qnn Ct C Imm 17 4 1?25
H1275 B pd stp 19 x m 1y 6m (a w) (k) ? h a 1C qnn Ct C Imm 20 4 1?48
H1276 B pd stp 20 x f 1y 6m (a w) (j) j b2 2V qqn Db D Sub1 23 5 1?48
H1037 B ofr rb 3 m 1y 6m (a w)2V (j)1C g c 3E qqn Dcd D Sub2 24 5 1?51
H1239 B pd stp 10 x m 1y 8m (S w) (j) - j f 3E qqn Dfz D Sub2 28 5 1?68
H684 B shh 66 f 1y 9m (w w) (j)1C h f 3E qqn Dfz D Sub2 27 5 1?76
H1017 B wstf rb 2 m 1y 10m 2V (z)2V (j)1C g f 3E qqn Dfz D Sub2 26 5 1?82
H148 B dv 3 m 1y 10m (z z)1C (k) j g 3E qqn Dfz D Sub2 29 5 1?82
H1035 B sl rtv 3 m 1y 11m (w w)2V (j)1C jga qqq Dt D Sub2 32 6 1?88
H263 B grs 2 m 2y 4m 5U a (k)3E k g b2 zqq Eb E Ad1 34 6 2?35
H262 B arsh 3 m 2y 4m 4H 4H (n)2V j f b1 qqq Eb E Ad1 32 6 2?35
H497 B lgh 4 m 2y 4m 3E 4H (j)3E k h b2 qqq Eb E Ad1 35 6 2?37
H1041 B htw 2 m 2y 5m 5U a (k)3E j g b1 qqq Eb E Ad1 33 6 2?41
H1033 B nrh sb 2 f 2y 5m 4H a (k)3E j f b1 qqq Eb E Ad1 32 6 2?44
H1029 B nrh rb 2 f 2y 6m 5U a (l)4H j g b1 qqq Eb E Ad1 33 6 2?52
H1195 B vgtl 1 x f 2y 6m 4H a (m)3E j g b2 qqq Eb E Ad1 33 6 2?53
H1030 B ol wsma 2 f 2y 7m aw b jgd qqq Ecd E Ad2 35 6 2?62
H1108 B brtb 4 f 2y 8m a 5U (j)3E k f b2 qqq Eb E Ad1 33 6 2?64
H1211 B sim 5 x f 2y 8m 3E - 3E khd xqq Ecd E Ad2 37 6 2?65
H119 B shh 1 x f 3y 0m zw b jhd qqq Ecd E Ad2 36 6 2?98
H764 B shh 73 x f 3y 2m Sa b j h e3 qqq Fef F Ad3 37 7 3?13
H1104 B sim 21 m 3y 5m aw c kgg zqq Ggh G Ad3 39 8 3?46
H1459 B jrs 10 m 3y 6m ww e jgg yqq Ggh G Ad3 38 8 3?50
H1020 B nrh rb 1 f 3y 10m aw c khg zqq Ggh G Ad3 40 8 3?85
H961 B frb 4 m 3y 10m Sb b kjg zqq Gj G Ad3 41 8 3?87
H1144 B ofr rb 2 m 3y 11m aw b jjg zqq Gj G Ad3 40 8 3?93
H891 B nrm 2 m 3y 11m ww c kgg yqq Ggh G Ad3 39 8 3?95
H965 B sim 20 f 4y 0m aw c -jf zqq Fef* F Ad3 8 4?00
Ref. 2 shows the breed, see Table 5; the suffix x in Ref. 2 denotes a cross-breed (with other European domestic cattle breeds, breed of
the dam shown); age over 6 months given to the nearest month; eruption and Tooth Wear Stages as Ewbank et al. 1964 and Grant
1975; 1982 (b1, b2, e1, e3, see text); deciduous teeth in brackets; z – present; abs – absent ante mortem; bkn – broken; S – socket
present; w – in wear; z – root arch above; CEJ as Table 1 for M1, M2 and M3 respectively; StJS – Stage JS (Jones/Sadler), see Table 2;
* - pathological. Other stages: Halstead 1985, O’Connor 1991, Grant 1975, 1982, Legge 1992.

16 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1


when the tooth is judged to be visible in the live
animal. In the Halle collection, several specimens
bore a clear line where the gingivae met the teeth, and
typical examples are shown on Figs 1 and 2.
For older cattle, it is suggested that the main stages
are based on the CEJ position for M2, and then M3,
followed by the late Tooth Wear Stages of M3
(Table 2). This gives four main stages for adult cattle,
G, H, J and K, and when subdivided, eleven stages.
For the subdivisions, the second molar is of the
greatest importance, as G is subdivided using the
Tooth Wear Stages of M2, and H is subdivided using
the CEJ position of M2. Mandible stage J is
subdivided using the M3 CEJ position. For the final
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology
stage, K, the Grant M3 TWSs ‘m’ and ‘n or beyond’
are used. By this stage, the accessory pillar is no
longer the main variable in the TWS definition, as the
infundibula are wearing to the base.
A numerical equivalent is given for each stage, as
this is required in some analytical programs. The
terminal stages, Bt, Ct and Dt are at 5, 10 and 15,
Ggh is at 20, and there are ten further stages for adult
to very old cattle. The letter ‘I’ is not used, as in many
fonts it is easily confused with the numeral ‘1’ or the
letter ‘l’. Stages G and H are not identical with
Halstead’s G and H.
Results from the known-age reference material
The results from Halle
The individual results from Halle are shown on
Tables 3 and 4, with the mandible stages following
Jones/Sadler, Halstead (1985), O’Connor (1991),
Grant (1975; 1982) and Legge (1992) shown. The
results in general are discussed later, but some points
particular to the Halle collection are given here.
Four calves of one to four days old were seen. In
these, the deciduous premolars were at full height
(H858, H465, see Fig. 4, and H704), or nearly so
(H267). The alveolus for M1 was already present (10–
16 mm in anterior/posterior length).
In eight cases, M3 was in initial wear, at TWS ‘b’.
The collection included the skulls with their mand-
ible, and it could be confirmed that initial wear on
the lower third molar was the result of wear against
the distal part of the upper second molar and that the
upper third molar was not yet in wear.
One of the mandibles at stage F (H965, aged 48
months) was pathological. The left P4 was of
abnormal shape, and the occlusal line was very
uneven, with M1 very high and the upper M1 very
worn. The records were taken from the more normal
right side, so the specimen was not omitted, but it can
be taken as an abnormal case.
Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle
Because of the relatively low numbers of cattle at
each age, breed differences were difficult to study. A
plot of age against stage for each breed group, using
Simon’s categories (Table 5) suggested no obvious
differences.
In many of the specimens, the gum-line was very
clear, and shows how much of the tooth would have
been visible in the live animal (Figs 1 and 2). The
upper edge of the alveolus and the gum-line are
uneven and cannot be measured very exactly. For
M1, the height between alveolus and gum-line was
usually 4–6 mm; for M2 it was 5–8 mm; and for M3
(the first element) it was 8–10 mm (measured on 17
specimens).
P2 was absent in one case (aged 5 y 7 m), absent or
shed ante mortem in two (aged 15 y 10 m, and .12 y
10 m), and present in 60 cases. For M3, the
hypoconulid (third element) was present in all cases
(N58), but two were of unusual shape. In both, the
hypoconulid was separate for the upper part of the
tooth. The dentine was continuous at the distal part
of the second element, but not continuous with the
hypoconulid (10 J using Payne’s (1987) recording
method). They were recorded as TWS ‘g’.
Results from the museum collections in the UK
The results from the UK collections are shown on
Table 6. Note that all the English Heritage cattle
were from small breeds. The Dexter cow aged 2 years
5 months (CfA 1622, Fig. 2) is a good example
showing the relationship between premolar and third
molar eruption. P3 is erupting but is below the
gumline, dp4 is still in position, and M3 is in early
wear. The English Heritage collection included the
oldest individual observed, at 21 years. In this
mandible, the root arch was above the alveolar
border in all three molars, but the TWS of M3 was
at ‘k’, that is, it was not worn to the base. The
remaining crown height (measured from the occlusal
surface to the root arch) was 16 mm. It is a reminder
of the possibility that this cow could have continued
to live for many more years, see the section on
longevity (Jones and Sadler 2012). Both the second
and fourth premolars had been lost ante mortem, the
alveolus for P2 being partially filled with new bone,
and that for P4 fully filled.
Cattle from birth to 48 months
The combined results from the museum collections
are integrated with data obtained from a review of
published veterinary and agricultural sources on
eruption and wear in 19th century AD and modern
cattle (Jones and Sadler 2012), and are shown on
Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1 17
 Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle

Figs 5 and 6. For younger cattle up to 48 months, the

fit with age is good, and it is particularly useful to see
how well the published data collated by Jones and
Sadler (2012) fit with the Halle and UK museum
mandibles. It was expected, from the work on sheep
(Jones 2006), that the variation for the subdivided
stages (e.g., Cb, Ccd, Ce and Cfz) would be similar to
that for ‘eruption’, i.e., the ‘terminal’ stages Bt, Ct and
Dt, and this does seem to be the case. It is also to be
expected that the variation of age with stage would be
quite small in the first few weeks, increasing continuously
with age. It appears that up to the early TWSs of M3, an
estimate of age at death can be made which is accurate to Figure 4 Halle calf H465, four days old
a few months. The discussion below focuses on general
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology

points, and provides an age estimate for just the terminal There were four calves of one to four days old from
stages (At, Bt, Ct, Dt). Estimates for the main stages, A, Halle. As with sheep (Jones 2006), at birth the
B, C, etc., are given later. deciduous premolars are close to, or just, in occlusion,

Table 4 Results for the Halle cattle over four years of age

Ref. 1 Ref. 2 Sex Age P2,P3 P4 Molars CEJs StJS Hal. O’C Grant Legge Yrs

H1422 B jrs 14 f 4y 3m ww e kgg xqq Ggh G Ad3 39 7 4?26

H760 B shh 71 f 4y 6m ab b jjg zyq Hy G Ad3 40 9 4?50
H1019 B nrh sb 1 f 4y 8m ww e kjg xqq Gj G Ad3 41 7 4?64
H268 B glw 2 f 4y 8m zw f jjg xqq Gj G Ad3 40 7 4?67
H1018 B sl rtv 2 f 5y 3m ww e kjg zxq Hx G Ad3 41 8 5?26
H669 B shh 64 f 5y 5m Sw e jgg xqq Ggh G Ad3 38 7 5?40
H1127 B nrh sb 4 f 5y 7m zw e kjg zqq Gj G Ad3 41 8 5?57
H725 B lgh 5 f 5y 7m abs bkn f kjg zqq Gj G Ad3 41 8 5?62
H509 B ags 2 f 5y 10m zw g kkg yqq Gk G Ad3 42 8 5?85
H1016 B wstfrb 1 f 5y 11m zw f kjh yxq Hx H Eld 42 8 5?93
H769 B agl 5 f 6y 1m ww f kjg zxq Hx G Ad3 41 8 6?09
H820 B shh 14 m 6y 2m wg g lkk zxq Hx I Eld 46 8 6?16
H279 B prtg 2 f 6y 10m zw h lkk zxq Hx I Eld 46 8 6?80
H794 B shh 13 f 6y 10m aw f kkj zzq Hz H Eld 44 8 6?82
H734 B hld 17 m 6y 10m ww f kjj zxq Hx H Eld 43 8 6?88
H964 B ofr sb 8 f 7y 1m zw f kkj zxq Hx H Eld 44 9 7?08
H724 B shh 12 f 7y 3m wg g kkj zyy Jy H Eld 44 8 7?25
H1423 B jrs 11 f 7y 3m wg f kjg zqq Gj G Ad3 41 8 7?28
H1052 B alg 3 f 7y 8m af g lkk zyq Hy I Eld 46 9 7?65
H1034 B l shh 15 f 7y 9m zw f jjj zzq Hz H Eld 42 9 7?74
H1424 B jrs 12 f 8y 3m ww f kkj zyq Hy H Eld 44 9 8?27
H1125 B nrh sb 3 f 8y 9m zw g kjj zxq Hx H Eld 43 8 8?75
H941 B kks 2 f 9y 1m zw f kkg zqq Gk G Ad3 46 8 9?13
H1356 B ans-tr 1 f 9y 5m Sw g lkk zzx Jx I Eld 46 9 9?46
H1132 B vgtl 2 f 9y 8m zw h kjj zzq Hz H Eld 43 9 9?64
H728 B jrs 7 f 10y 4m zw f kkj zxq Hx H Eld 44 8 10?34
H1107 B agl 7 f 10y 5m Sw f lkj zzx Jx H Eld 45 9 10?47
H556 B ndthma 2 f 11y 11m zw h mkk zzz Jz I Eld 47 9 11?92
H894 B gl (dn) 3 f 12y 4m SS f mlk zzx Jx I Eld 48 9 12?35
H726 B glw 3 f 13y 3m zw f lkk zzx Jx I Eld 46 9 13?26
H364 B kry 3 f 15y 10m abs w h mmm zzz Km I Eld 51 9 15?82
H1 Betty f 18y 10m zw .j oon zzz Knz I Eld 51 10 18?88
H1031 B htw 1 f .6y 6m ww f kkj zxq Hx H Eld 44 8 .6?50
H950 B hrz 7 f .8y 10m SS f llj zzy Jy H Eld 46 9 .8?83
H7 B frt 1 f .8y 11m ww g mkk xxx Jx I Eld 47 8 .8?93
H563 B frk 1 f .9y 3m ww h mkk zzz Jz I Eld 47 9 .9?28
H255 B hrfd 1 f .9y 6m ww h mkk zxq Hx I Eld 47 8 .9?54
H19 B hrz 5 f .9y 7m zw f mlk zzy Jy I Eld 48 9 .9?61
H174 B hld 20 f .9y 10m ww g mlk zzy Jy I Eld 48 9 .9?88
H388 B swyz 4 f .12y 10m abs w j omm zzz Km I Eld 53 10 .12?83
H1083 B pd stp 2 m .13y 1m SS g nmm zzz Km I Eld 52 9 .13?12
Abbreviations: see Table 3. abs - absent. The final group are cattle which were bought in, and only their minimum age is known.

18 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1

 Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle

and are therefore at mandible stage ‘A terminal’. (Serjeantson, pers. comm.) it was found that there was
Mandibles at At can be described as neonatal. Cases of enamel wear on dp4 in all seven cases of newborns,
mandible stage A0-3 are likely to be foetal. Cornevin and all eight cases aged one to six days, indicating that
and Lesbre (1894) found that dp3 and dp4 erupted into the teeth were in occlusion.
the mouth cavity in the eighth month of gestation The premolars come into wear quickly, dentine
(Jones and Sadler 2012). In a collection of 26 calves wear being visible on dp3 in a Halle calf of two days
old, and on dp4 in one of four days old (Fig. 4). Since
Table 5 The breeds of the Halle cattle, and their breed group
there is dentine wear on one cusp of dp4, it is already at
(after Simon 1929) mandible stage Bbc (Table 3, H465). In Serjeantson’s
collection, one of three cases aged one week showed
Abbreviation Breed name Breed Group* No. seen
dentine wear on two cusps (the other two cases show-
agl Angler 2 2 ing enamel wear only); in three cases aged 10 to 14
ags Angus 1 1
alg Allgauer 3 1 days, two to four of the six cusps were in wear; and in
ans-tr Ansbach-Triesdorfer 1 five aged two to three weeks, all six cusps were in wear
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology

arsh Ayrshire 2 1 and all showed some dentine joins.

brtb Breitenburger 1 1
dv Devon 1 1 The range of ages from all the sources for the
frb Freiburger 1 2 terminal stage of B, Bt (M1 at ‘4H’ to ‘a’) was
frk Franken 1
frt Frutiger 1 3 months 21 days to 5 months (Fig. 6, Table 3; Jones
gl (dn) Glaner 2 1 and Sadler (2012), tables 2, 3, 4 and 6). Note that this
glw Galloway 1 2 is earlier than is given in some texts, but that it is well
grs Guernsey 2 1
hld Hollander 2 1, 1x supported by the evidence from primary sources. No
hrfd Hereford 1 overlap was found between Bt and Cb, but this is
hrz Harzer 2
htw Hinterwäld 4 2
likely to be due to the small number of records, i.e.,
jrs Jersey 2 6 if more had been seen, all the stages would be
kks Kaukasisches 4 1 overlapping, as they are in the sheep work. It is
kry Kerry 4 1
l shh Land-Shorthorn 1 1 thought appropriate that a range of 4 to 6 months
lgh Longhorn 1 3 be used as an age estimate for stage Bt, with an
mrhf Mariahofer Rind 2 1
ndthma Norderdithermarsches 1 1
estimated average of 5 months.
nrh Niederrhein 1 6 The stage Ct (M2 at ‘4H’ to ‘a’) was found at 13 to
nrm Normannisches 1 1 18 months, with seven of 13 data points at 15 or
ofr Ostfriesisches 2 5
ol wsma Oldenburger Wes 1 1 16 months (Fig. 6, Table 3, Jones and Sadler (2012),
pd stp Podolisches Steppenrind 4 1, 9x tables 2, 4 and 7). The median value is at 15 months,
prtg Prätigauer 2 1
and this could be taken as the estimated average. As
pzg Pinzgauer 2 1
shh Shorthorn 1 9, 3x expected, the spread is greater than for M1, but with
sim Simmentaler 1 2, 2x many in the central part of the range.
sl rtv Schlesisches Ro 3 2
swyz Schwyzer 1 For stage Dt (M3 at ‘4H’ to ‘a’), there were fewer
vgtl Vogtländer 3 1, 1x records, only seven (two at 24 months), five of them
wstf rb Westfälisches rotb? 2 2
from the observations of Cornevin and Lesbre (1894),
wstw Westerwälder 3 1
see Jones and Sadler (2012), tables 2 and 5. At this
*Simon’s (1929) breed groups: 1 most early-maturing; 2 less
early-maturing; 3 central maturing; 4 less late-maturing; 5 late-
point a comparison between species for variation
maturing. ‘x’ – cross-bred. between the three molars is of interest. In the sheep

Table 6 Results for the cattle from English Heritage and the National Museum Cardiff

Ref. 1 Breed Sex Age P2,P3 (d)P4 Molars CEJs StJS Hal. O’C Grant Legge Yrs

CfA2802 Dexter ? 1y 4m (a f) (j) f 4H qnn Ct C Imm 15 4 1?33

CfA1622 Dexter F 2y 5m 2V 3E (j) gfb qqn Eb E Sub2 30 6 2?40
CfA2803 Dexter ? 3y 0m 5U c (S)3E jgd qqq Ecd E Ad2 35 6 3?00
CfA2410 Kerry F 12y 4m zf g lkk zyq Hy I Eld 46 9 12?34
CfA2817 Dexter F 21y Sh S lmk zzz Jz I Eld 51 9 21?00
NMC1386 C 2y11m zw (k)3E h f b2 xqq Eb E Ad1 31 6 2?92
Abbreviations: Table 3; CfA – Centre for Archaeology, English Heritage; NMC – National Museum Cardiff; 2nd Ref No. for NMC1386 -
Z1988.112.002.32; C – castrate.

Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1 19

 Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology
Figure 5 Results from the Halle, UK and published sources, 0 to 21 years, using Jones/Sadler mandible stages
study (Jones 2006), the interquartile range for Bt was
less than one month, for Ct it was 1?5 months, and
for Dt it was 3?0 months (information from the
primary records). For cattle, it is interesting that the
comparable three figures are 0?5, 1?3 and 3?0 months,
which is very similar to the sheep, though sample
sizes for cattle are rather small. For the cattle there is
also internal evidence for an expected greater range
for M3 from the spread of the adjacent stages Dfz
and Eb. An estimate of 22 to 29 months for Dt is
suggested. The median value is at 25 months.
At Halle there were eight cases of cattle with M3 in
initial wear, at TWS ‘b’. They were all between
2 years 4 months and 2 years 8 months, which is a
usefully limited age range.
There were only five records from cattle aged
between 32 and 42 months, but it appears likely from
the pattern seen on Fig. 6 that the increase of age
with stage continues to be regular. There were no
cases at stage Ee, but it may be that this would be the
commonest stage for cattle at 36 months, in that 36
months is at the upper end of stage Ecd and the lower
end of stage F. Only three mandibles were at stage F,
aged 36, 38 and 48 months, the last of which was
pathological (see above), and can be taken as an
outlying result.
On the figures, there are some data points with the
same coordinates, as follows: two each at At/0.01
years, Cb/0?65, Ct/1?25, Dfz/1?82, Eb/2?35 years.
Older cattle and the results for the CEJ position
After four years, the plot of age against stage (Fig. 5),
is much more scattered than for the younger cattle.
20 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO
There is a general pattern of increasing stage with
age, but the range of ages found at each stage
increases to several years. The later stages all depend
on the gradual wearing of the teeth, which is much
more variable than tooth eruption. At the point
where M3 has recently reached TWS ‘g’, about
45 mm of crown height remains (Jones 2007, table
132), and an animal at this stage may live for another
16 years or more. (In the text, ages are rounded as
follows: e.g., six years, rounded to the nearest year;
2?5 years to the nearest half year; 6?00 years, to 0?01
years; ‘6 years 1 month’ to the nearest month).
The results for CEJ position for the three molar
teeth (Figs 7 to 9 and Tables 3, 4 and 6) suggest that
the recorded changes occur at about 2?5 years to six
years for M1, 5 to 10 years for M2, and 9 to 13 years
for M3. At 2?5 to 3?5 years, there is more reliable age
evidence obtainable from eruption of M3 and the
premolars, and at four to six years it was found that
the wear stages of M2 gave a better fit with age than
M1 CEJ. So the use of M1 CEJ as a mandible stage
marker is not suggested. However, it may be useful
for estimating age in incomplete mandibles, and for
studying rate-of-wear, by comparing with the TWS
and CEJ of M3. The CEJ position of M2 and M3
define the mandible stages H and J.
The records at stage G (numerical equivalents 20
to 22 on Fig. 5) include most of the cattle aged
nearly four to six years. Those at stage Ggh, the
earliest subdivision of G, were mostly within six
months of 4?00 years old. The second G subdivi-
sion, Gj, overlaps but continues up to six years,
with one outlying record. Only two were at Gkz.
1

Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology
Figure 6 Results from the Halle, UK and published sources, up to 48 months, using Jones/Sadler mandible stages
There were two unusually late examples at G where
the M2 CEJ was still below the alveolar border at 7
and 9 years.
At mandible stage H (23 to 25 on Fig. 5), there is an
overlap with late cases of G and early cases of J, but at
six to nine years of age, most cattle were at H. There
were eleven results at the first of the H stages, Hx,
ranging from 5 years 3 months to 10 years 4 months,
Figure 7 CEJ position by age in the museum cattle for M1
Figure 8 CEJ position for M2
Figure 9 CEJ position for M3
Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle
plus there was a case of Hy at 4 years 6 months.
Although this is a wide spread, seven of the 11 results
were between 5 years 11 months and 7 years 1 month,
with most nearer 7?00 than 6?00 years old. Two bulls,
of 6 years 1 month and 6 years 10 months, were both at
Hx, which is the same as most of the cows of this age.
The results for Hy are very spread, with the central
three at 7 to 8 years. Stage Hz was seen at 7 to 10 years.
Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1 21
 Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle

The records at mandible stage J (26 to 28 on Fig. 5)
were, with two exceptions, at 9 to 13 years. Results
for Jx and Jy are not as expected, with two at Jy
younger than any at Jx. There were three records at
Jz, at nine and nearly twelve years old, plus the
Dexter at 21 years. The sample size was quite small
(12), and several are from Halle cattle which were
bought in; their minimum age is shown, but their
actual age is perhaps one to three years older.
Records at stage K are even fewer, but successfully
separate out the teenagers, with the exception of the
21-year-old Dexter.
Comparing results for ‘x’ and ‘y’, it can be seen
that the two are not well separated. Further work
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology
Estimates have thus been made for the Jones/Sadler
mandible stages and for Halstead’s stages, by study-
ing the range, interquartile range and median of each
stage, consideration of whether to exclude outliers,
and comparison with adjacent stages, see Tables 7
and 8. They remain estimates, of course, and others
may interpret the results differently.
For the stages up to F, the detailed stages allow a
more precise age to be estimated than the main stages.
Although an estimate could be given for all the stages,
for the sake of brevity and clarity, a limited number
have been presented, see Table 8. For Bt, Ct, Dt, and
Ggh, which have been discussed above, variation is of
a few weeks or months. For the later stages, variation

may suggest that they should be combined.
Age estimates for the mandible stages
It is not straightforward to suggest age estimates for
the ‘main stages’, i.e. A, B, C etc., or for the detailed
‘sub-’ stages, e.g., Db. There are a number of
difficulties in the data, for example, the low number
and uneven spread of specimens at each age and
stage, the fact that the stages are not continuous
variables and are not of equal duration, the
significance to be placed on outlying results, and
the interpretation involved in using published age
estimations for cattle eruption and wear (Jones and
Sadler 2012). Nevertheless, some suggestions can be
made, based on the Jones (2006) similar work on
sheep: for example, variation for the subdivided
stages up to stage F is similar to that for eruption
(stages Bt, Ct and Dt), and is roughly normally
distributed but often with a tail to the right; variation
increases with age especially after stage G is reached;
stages inevitably overlap; and not too much impor-
tance should be attached to outlying results.
is of several years. The estimated averages for Ggh,
Hx, Jx and Km are 4?0 years, 7 years, 10 years and 16
years. The variation needs to be borne in mind, but it is
useful to be able to give at least some idea of the likely
age of older cattle.
Discussion
The new method for recording cattle tooth wear and
assessing age at death in cattle presented above can
be compared with several established methods for
cattle ageing.
The most widely used summary method is that of
Halstead (1985), which followed the familiar work of
Payne (1973) for sheep/goat in using the eruption
events for stages A to F. Stage F is a short stage,
during which 2–3 mm of crown height is lost, and it is
the only one where no subdivision was appropriate.
When summarising older sheep, for stage H (where
M3 is at the long-lasting stage 11G, equivalent to
TWS ‘g’) Payne used wear on the second molar. The
same principle was applied for the Jones/Sadler

Table 7 Age estimates for Jones/Sadler mandible stages and revised estimates for Halstead’s stages

Ranges, median and sample size, Halstead’s

Stage Definition Age estimates from the Halle, UK and published data estimates

A dp4 unworn foetal to a few days 1 day–1 m; 4 days; N5 0–1 m

B dp4 wr, M1 Un 0–6 months 4 days–5 m; 4 m; N8 1–8 m
C M1 wr, M2 Un 5–18 m 5 m 23 days–18 m; 12 m; N29 8–18 m
D M2 wr, M3 Un 16–28 m 15–28 m; 20 m; N22 18–30 m
E M3 wr, 3rd element Un 26–36 m 27–36 m; 30 m; N19 30–36 m
F M3 3rd el. in wear, ,g 34–43 m 36–38 m (48 m)1; 37 m; N2(3) young adult
G M3 gz, M2&3 q 40 m – 6?5 years 41 m–6y 1m (7y3m, 9y1m); 4y 8m; N15
H M2 xyz, M3 q 5–10 y (4y 6m) 5 y 3 m–10 y 4 m (12y 4m); 7 y 0 m; N18
J M3 xyz, ,m 8–16 y (7y 3m) 8 y 10 m–13 y 3 m (21y); 9 y 9 m; N12
K M3 z, mz 14–20z y 12 y 10 m2–18 y 10 m; 14 y 5 m3; N4
GHal M3 at g 40 m – 6?5 years 41 m–6 y 1 m (7y3m, 9y1m); 4 y 8 m; N18 adult
HHal M3 at h or j 6–11 y 5 y 11 m–10 y 5 m; 7 y 9 m; N13 old adult
I M3 .j 7–20z y 6 y 2 m–21 y; 10 y 11 m; N18 senile
Jones/Sadler stages are given first, with Halstead’s stages where these are differently defined, below. Unusually early or late results at
a stage are shown in brackets; median – the half way value; 1 – pathological, see text; 2 – a bought-in one, i.e., 12y 10m is the minimum
age; 3 – only four cases, two of them bought-in ones; the mean excluding bought-in ones is 17y 4m.

22 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1


Table 8 Age estimates for the subdivisions of Jones/Sadler mandible stages
Age estimates: range for most,
Stage Definition and estimated average
At dp4 4H to a a few days, 0 m
Bt M1 4H to a 4–6 m, 5 m
Ct M2 4H to a 13–18 m, 15 m
Dt M3 4H to a 23–28 m, 25 m
Ggh M3 gz, M2&3 q, M2 g-h 3?5–5?5 y, 4?0 y
Hx M2 x, M3 q 5–10 y, 7 y
Jx M3 x 8–13 y, 10 y
Km M3 z, m 14–19 y, 16 y
The range, median and sample size from the observations are given for these stages. The age estimates are based also the spread of
ages, interpretation of outliers, and the adjacent stages. The estimated averages are used in Fig.14.
mandible stages, with Jones/Sadler mandible stage G
using the TWS of M2, and H using the CEJ position
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology
for M2. Payne’s stage I, when the infundibula of M3
are wearing away, is equivalent to Jones/Sadler
mandible stage K.
Results for Halstead’s stages from the reference
study are shown on Table 7 and Fig. 10. The new age
estimates for younger cattle are similar to those given
by Halstead, but are generally a little earlier. This is
particularly the case for the beginning of stage C,
which takes place at 5 months, not 8 months. It is
worth noting that Halstead includes within stage H
M3 at TWS ‘h’, enamel wear on the accessory pillar.
Enamel wear on the pillar has been observed where
the pillar is well below occlusal height, but for there
to be any wear, the pillar must have been erupted
and above the gumline. Once in wear, at TWS ‘j’,
M3 has on average 29 mm of crown height remain-
ing, if the Ferry Fryston cattle are typical (Jones
2007, table 132).
Once more data with the CEJ position recorded is
available, a detailed comparison of the Jones/Sadler
mandible stages with other methods can be made, which
will make comparison with already-recorded collections
more reliable. Meanwhile, Jones/Sadler mandible stages
G and H are fairly close to Halstead’s G and H
(Table 7). Halstead’s stage G could be subdivided in
the same way as suggested here using M2 wear, as
Ggh, Gj and Gkz. Halstead’s stage H could be
subdivided using M3 wear stages, as Hh and Hj. And
stage I could be subdivided into Ik, Il, Km and Knz,
the final two being equivalent to Jones/Sadler mand-
ible stages Km and Knz.
Results using O’Connor’s stages are shown in
Fig. 11. They are broadly similar to Halstead’s, but
use descriptive terms, ‘neonatal’, ‘juvenile’, etc.,
which carry more immediate meaning to the general
reader. They show greater detail than Halstead’s by
subdividing the equivalents of stage D into Subadult
1 and 2, and E into Adult 1 and 2. The Jones/Sadler
Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle
Range, median and sample size,
from the Halle, UK and published data
1 day–1 m, 4 days, N5
3 m21 d–5 m, 4 m, N5
13–8, 15 m, N13
23–8, 25 m, N7
3 y 5 m–5 y 5 m, 3 y 11 m, N6
5 y 3 m–10 y 4 m, 6 y 10 m, N11
.8 y 11 m–13 y 3 m, 10 y 5 m, N5
.12 y 10 m–15 y 10 m, .13 y 1 m, N3
mandible stages follow the same principle of subdivision,
with differences in detail. O’Connor’s ‘Adult 3’ was
found at 3 to 7 years, and the ‘Elderly’ stage at 6 years
plus.
Halstead’s description of stage I as ‘senile’, and
O’Connor’s final stage ‘Elderly’, both suggest greater
age than was found in the study cattle, where
O’Connor’s ‘Elderly’ was found commonly at 6 and
7 years onwards, and Halstead’s stage I was found
occasionally at 6 to 8 years, and commonly at 9 to 12
years, which is better described as older adult than
senile.
Results using Legge’s (1992) stages are shown on
Fig. 12. Legge’s Stage 3, M1 at ‘4H’ to ‘5U’ is the
same as ‘B terminal’, and we follow the same
principle in defining ‘C terminal’ and ‘D terminal’.
The age estimates suggested by Legge for stages 1 to 3
are very close to that found in the reference cattle,
e.g., the stage 3’s, estimated by Legge as 3–6 months,
are all between 3 months 21 days and 5 months.
Stages 4 and 5 are less detailed, and are equivalent to
stages C and D. Stages 6 to 8 raise some interesting
points, although the stages are quite difficult to use as
in many cases some aspects fall in one stage while
others fall in the adjacent one. The use of premolar
eruption is important, but probably more in estimat-
ing stage in incomplete mandibles, than in stage
definition. Stage 7 is defined by the visibility of the
M1 root fork, and stage 8 by the visibility of the M2
root fork. This aspect has been taken up in this study
and applied to M1, M2 and M3, with the addition of
the cement/enamel junction position. It is thought
that at ‘x’, the root fork is not yet visible, but that at
‘y’ and, of course, ‘z’, it is visible. So stage 9 is closely
equivalent to Jones/Sadler mandible stage Hy plus
Hz. Note that on Fig. 12, stage 9 usefully separates
out cases over 7 years (excluding one very early case).
Stage 10 separates out two over 12 years. But there
are many cases at both 8 and 9, so methods which
create subdivisions here look worthwhile.
Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1 23
 Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology

Figure 10 Age by Halstead’s (1985) stages

Figure 11 Age by O’Connor’s (1991) stages

Figure 12 Age by Legge’s (1992) stages

24 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1


In the work on Grimes Graves, Legge (1992)
studied cementum banding, and results were found to
agree well with Simonds’ tooth eruption ages (Legge,
pers. comm.). Some estimations of the age at which
the root forks would become visible were made from
six Spanish fighting bulls of just under five years old.
Legge suggested about six years for the M1 root fork.
At Halle z was the normal position at six years,
though some were at y or z by four years. The M2
root fork was estimated by Legge to be visible at
about 9 years. At Halle almost all were at z by 9
years, and several were at y or z at 7 years.
In the reports from Fishergate, Norwich (Jones
1994) and Shrewsbury Abbey (Jones 2002), the final
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology
mandible stage 6 (‘M3 CEJ above’) is equivalent to
Jones/Sadler mandible stages Jy to Knz.
The final comparison is with Grant’s original
summary Mandible Wear Stages (1975; 1982), shown
on Fig. 13. Increase of MWS with age is regular until
three years. Above three years, as with the Jones/
Sadler mandible stages, variation increases but the
pattern of increasing stage with age continues. Stage
46 is very spread, but mandibles at MWS 47–48
were 8 to 12 years old. The teenagers were mostly
above 50. There are disadvantages in the MWS as a
summary method, in that the eruption events are not
visible, and three stages of unequal duration are
combined. Up to two years of age there are 30 stages,
which is an unnecessarily large number, and even
with this number, the dividing line between stages A
and B (dp4 unworn/in wear) is not shown. However,
the idea of looking at all three teeth is useful. If, in a
particular case, an age estimate is sought, it will
always be worth looking at the age evidence available
for each tooth.
Figure 13 Age by Grant’s (1982) Mandible Wear Stages
Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle
The two study samples, Halle and Ferry Fryston,
are shown as survivorship curves and histograms on
Figs 14 and 15, and use the age estimates from
Tables 7 and 8. Both figures clearly show the same
general pattern, that the Halle research cattle were
slaughtered at fairly evenly spread ages, and that the
majority of the Ferry Fryston cattle were slaughtered
at stages D and E. For small sites, a histogram using
the Jones/Sadler main mandible stages may be the
most appropriate, providing that the individual TWS
and CEJ position are available elsewhere in the report.
The more detailed Fig. 14 allows much greater
possibilities for study. For example, the gap between
‘Bbc’ and ‘Cb’, where there were no Halle cases
between the ages of 2?5 months and nearly 6 months, is
visible. At Ferry Fryston, it can be seen that all the
cases at stage C were late within the stage, and all
probably more than a year old. In an archaeological
sample, it would be possible to give a fairly close
estimate of the age at which 50% (or 25% or 75%) have
died.
Where mandibles are incomplete, the likely stage
for missing teeth may be estimated from Tables 3 and
4, but much better information should become
available for this task, once more individual tooth
wear results are available from digital archives.
Premolar eruption is useful for judging M3 eruption
where the latter is missing. And P4 may be useful
later, although wear here appears to be variable.
Where a mandible is so old that the teeth have
become loosely set in the jaw, and then lost post
mortem, CEJ stage z can often be identified from the
shape of the tooth sockets.
Sometimes an incomplete mandible, or even a loose
tooth, can be given an exact stage, for example, any
Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1 25
 Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology
Figure 14 The Halle and Ferry Fryston mandibles, presented as a survivorship curve and histogram, using the Jones/
Sadler mandible stages
of dp4, M1, M2 or M3 at TWS ‘a’ to ‘d’, or an M3 at
‘f’, or the M3 present and at ‘x’ or beyond. Often a
mandible can be given a stage to within two (or three)
stages, and in this case, the specimen can be
apportioned 0?5 (or 0?33) to each relevant stage.
Where more stages are involved, it is a matter of
judgement how best to apportion; four stages can be
apportioned in the same way, but it may be sensible
to apportion five stages to the three stages in the
centre of the range. It is better to include all
mandibles, as incomplete ones contribute useful
information to questions such as, ‘What proportion
died before reaching maturity?’.
Figure 15 The Halle and Ferry Fryston mandibles, presented as a survivorship curve and histogram, using the Jones/
Sadler mandible stages
26 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO
It is recommended that the individual tooth
records should be made available in reports or digital
archives. When larger datasets of individual mand-
ibles become available, it will be possible to study
relative wear (cf. Jones 2006, Fig. 15), which will be
helpful for studying wear-rate and for estimating, in
incomplete mandibles.
The current work will allow more detailed studies,
for example, of dairying or vellum production where
there are many calves; of whether, in the urban
situation, one can identify old dairy cows; or
whether, in the very common situation where many
cattle were slaughtered as adults, differences between
1

areas and periods can be revealed reflecting the
demand for cattle as draught animals and for the
supply of beef.
Conclusion
Several aspects of dental studies have been discussed,
presenting the CEJ position, the Jones/Sadler mand-
ible stages and reference material; and using pub-
lished sources regarding age estimation, longevity
and variability (Jones and Sadler 2012). The relation-
ship between mandible stage and age has been
refined, and it is considered that the results present
a reliable basis for estimating age at death in cattle
from archaeological sites. The research indicates that
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology
for cattle up to four years old, age at death can be
estimated to a known level of accuracy. For cattle of
four to 20-plus years old, the variability is much
greater, but the method allows more reliable and
detailed estimates of mortality than was previously
the case, allowing herd structures to be interpreted in
greater detail.
Acknowledgements
Many colleagues have contributed to the work done,
in both this paper and the published sources paper
(Jones and Sadler 2012). Roughly in the order in
which the work was done, we would like to thank
Polydora Baker at English Heritage, and Peter
Howlett at the National Museum Cardiff; Terry
O’Connor and James Barrett at York University for
preliminary studies of the Grobust collection; Terry
O’Connor and David Orton at York University and
Andrew Bates of Oxford Archaeology North for the
opportunity to study the Ferry Fryston cattle;
Umberto Albarella for information and help with
planning the Halle visit; Joachim Wussow of the
Julius Kühn Museum, Halle, for his help during and
after our visit, and the Council for British
Archaeology who provided a grant for the costs of
the visit. Several people have kindly helped us with
references: Tony Legge, Terry O’Connor, John Cox,
Dale Serjeantson and the librarian at the Royal
Veterinary College; and Jessica Grimm and Wietske
Prummel have helped with German texts. Fay
Worley checked a specimen at English Heritage.
James Rackham gave information about the plough
animals at Butser Ancient Farm. Comments on the
text by Terry O’Connor, Dale Serjeantson and Tony
Legge have been very helpful. We would like to
thank Ingrid Mainland and the Association for
Environmental Archaeology for hosting a poster on
an earlier version of the method at Bradford in 2004
(Jones and Sadler 2004; 2006), Jean-Denis Vigne and
Jones and Sadler Age at death in cattle
the International Conference of Archaeozoology for
hosting a poster summarising the paper at Paris in
2010, and Sarah Whitcher Kansa for hosting the
poster, and the Ferry Fryston Appendix, on the
BoneCommons website. We would like to thank
Louisa Gidney for information about older Dexter
cattle; Shelley Rogerson, Yvonne Froehlich, Lawrence
Alderson and Clifford Freeman for information about
rare breed cattle; and the two anonymous referees and
Ingrid Mainland for their very helpful contributions.
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