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 lecture  3c  –  Drag  

In  the  previous  lecture  I  discussed  the  lift  force.  This  lecture  will  be  about  the  drag.  

I  hope  you  remember  the  formula  for  the  Lift  force.  This  force  is  equal  to  the  product  of  a  
number   of   parameters.   These   parameters   are:   the   lift   coefficient,   the   air   density,   the   air  
speed  and  the  wing  surface  area.  We  also  have  seen  that  the  lift  coefficient  is  dimensionless.    

For   the   drag   we   have   a   similar   formula.   The   only   differences   are   that   the   Lift   force   L   is  
replaced  by  the  drag  force  D  and  that  the  lift  coefficient  is  replaced  by  the  drag  coefficient.  
The  structure  of  the  formula  is  the  same.  Also  this  coefficient  is  dimensionless,  and  the  other  
variables  have  the  same  meaning  as  in  the  equation  for  the  Lift.  

The   drag   is   composed   of   several   contributions.   One   way   to   split   the   drag   is   to   look   at   the  
profile  drag  and  the  parasitic  drag.  The  profile  drag  is  related  to  the  wing  surfaces  and  the  
parasitic   drag   to   other   sections   of   the   aircraft   like   the   fuselage,   undercarriage   when  
applicable,  etc.    

In  the  second  way  the  profile  drag  can  be  further  split  into  pressure  drag  and  friction  drag.  
The  pressure  drag  is  the  resultant  force  when  we  take  the  integral  of  the  pressure  over  the  
wing   profile.   The   friction   drag   arises   when   the   air   has   contact   with   the   skin   surface   of   the  
wing.    

In  this  slide  you  can  see  different  types  of  drag:  

First  we  have  the  skin  friction,  when  the  air  glides  over  the  wing  surface.  

Secondly  we  have  the  pressure  drag,  creating  pressure  differences  and  inducing  a  turbulent  
flow  and  vortices.  

Then   there   is   the   wave   drag,   which   is   the   drag   induced   by   the   shock   waves   of   an   aircraft.  
Look  at  the  shock  waves  for  this  fighter  jet,  which  become  visible  due  to  condensation  of  air.  
This  type  of  drag  is  specific  for  transonic  and  supersonic  flights.    

Finally  we  have  the  parasitic  drag  of  all  components  not  contributing  to  the  lift  force  

Often,  the  drag  coefficient  is  split  into  a  component,  which  depends  on  the  lift  coefficient,  
the  so-­‐called  induced  drag,  and  a  component  independent  from  the  lift  coefficient,  the  CD  
zero.  

To  explain  the  difference  between  the  friction  drag  and  the  pressure  drag  I  ask  you  to  look  at  
the  following  pictures.  From  left  to  right  you  see  an  increase  in  pressure  drag  and  a  decrease  
in   friction   drag.   Pressure   drag   is   the   drag,   which   acts   perpendicularly   to   the   surface   of   an  
airfoil.  The  friction  drag  acts  in  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  airfoil.  

So  far,  we  looked  at  two-­‐dimensional  images  of  wings  or  cross-­‐sections  of  wings.  Implicitly  
we   assumed   that   the   wings   had   an   infinite   length.   In   reality   though   the   wings   have   a   limited  
size  and  there  is  an  added  effect  if  we  look  at    a  three  dimensional  wing.    
Over  the  wing  the  air  pressure  is  reduced,  under  the  wing  the  pressure  is  slightly  increased.    
At   the   wing   tip   the   high   pressure   from   the   lower   surface   may   curl   around   the   wingtip   to  
match   the   low   pressure   at   the   upper   skin   of   the   wing.   This   generates   vortices,   which   also  
may  cause  significant  drag  forces.    

In  order  to  reduce  the  size  of  these  vortices,  nowadays  winglets  are  installed  at  the  wingtips.  
These   winglets   may   reduce   the   drag   of   an   aircraft   by   3-­‐6%   and   result   in   a   significant  
reduction   in   fuel   consumption.   This   reduction   might   be   used   to   increase   the   range   of   the  
aircraft.    

When  we  bring  the  lift  curve  and  a  similar  drag  curve  in  one  plot  we  see  the  lift-­‐curve,  which  
is  nearly  linear  up  to  its  maximum.  The  drag  curve  is  an  exponential  curve,  since  the  induced  
drag  is  proportional  to  the  lift  coefficient  squared.  Note  that  each  curve  has  its  own  vertical  
axis  and  that  the  lift  coefficient  is  roughly  5  times  larger  than  the  drag  coefficient.  

If   we   use   the   CL   and   CD-­‐   curves   we   can   construct   a   so-­‐called   lift   drag   polar.   In   this   curve   the  
lift   coefficient   is   plotted   as   function   of   the   drag   coefficient.     From   such   plot   the   most  
efficient  flying  condition  can  be  retrieved,  that  is  the  point  with  the  highest  CL/CD  ratio.  This  
ratio  can  be  found  by  drawing  the  tangent  to  curve.    

So  the  maximum  CL/CD  ratio  is  called  the  glide  ratio.  Why  is  this  value  important?  

This   ratio   is   interesting   for   the   design   of   an   aircraft.   For   optimum   flight   one   would   like   to  
stay  as  close  as  possible  to  this  ratio.  Because  at  that  point  the  drag  is  minimum  for  a  given  
lift.  So  the  fuel  consumption  is  the  lowest  in  that  case.    

To  give  you  an  idea  about  the  glide  ratios  of  some  aircraft  and  some  birds,  look  at  this  list.  
Sail  planes  and  aircraft  with  slender  wings  like  the  U2  reconnaissance  aircraft  have  very  high  
glide  ratios.  Also  the  glide  ratio  for  a  Boeing  747  is  still  high.  On  the  other  hand  the  Space  
shuttle  flies  like  a  brick,  it  has  a  very  low  glide  ratio.    

Note  also  the  glide  ratios  for  the  birds,  in  particular  the  albatross,  which  is  a  superb  glider.  
This   bird   also   has   a   low   weight,   which   gives   the   bird   excellent   flying   properties   over   long  
periods  of  time.    

To  conclude,  in  this  lecture  we  looked  at  the  drag  forces  acting  on  an  aircraft.  These  should  
be  as  small  as  possible.  The  drag  comes  from  many  sources,  some  of  them  like  tip  vortices  
can  be  reduced.  

In  the  last  lecture  about  forces  on  aircraft  we  will  look  at  the  weight  and  the  thrust  forces