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Millets: Nutritional composition, some health benefits and processing - A

Review

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Emir. J. Food Agric. 2013. 25 (7): 501-508
doi: 10.9755/ejfa.v25i7.12045
http://www.ejfa.info/

FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION

Millets: Nutritional composition, some health benefits and processing - A

Review
Issoufou Amadou1*, Mahamadou E. Gounga2 and Guo-Wei Le1
1
School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China
2
Department of Science and Technology of Plant Production, Faculty of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences,
University of Maradi, Maradi, BP 465, Niger

Abstract

Millets are a major food source in arid and semi-arid parts of the world. Millets are good sources of energy.
They provide protein, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, dietary fibre and polyphenols. Typical millet protein
contains high quantity of essential amino acids especially the sulphur containing amino acids (methionine and
cysteine). Processing millet by milling removes the bran and germ layers that are rich in fibre and
phytochemicals, causing significant loss. The millets are source of antioxidants, such as phenolic acids and
glycated flavonoids. Millet foods are characterized to be potential prebiotic and can enhance the viability or
functionality of probiotics with significant health benefits. The nutritional significance of millets demands for
an examination of the nutritional characteristics and functional properties of different millet cultivars as well as
developing value added products from millets.

Key words: Millets, Composition, Protein, Health benefits, Processing

Introduction
Millets are one of the cereals asides the major
wheat, rice, and maize. Millets are major food
sources for millions of people, especially those who
live in hot, dry areas of the world. They are grown
mostly in marginal areas under agricultural
conditions in which major cereals fail to give
substantial yields (Adekunle, 2012). Millets are
classified with maize, sorghum, and Coix (Job’s
tears) in the grass sub-family Panicoideae (Yang et
al., 2012). Millets are important foods in many
underdeveloped countries because of their ability to
grow under adverse weather conditions like limited
rainfall. In contrast, millet is the major source of
energy and protein for millions of people in Africa.
It has been reported that millet has many nutritious
and medical functions (Obilana and Manyasa,
2002; Yang et al., 2012). It is a drought resistant
crop and can be stored for a long time without
insect damage (Adekunle, 2012); hence, it can be
Received 25 April 2012; Revised 05 June 2012; Accepted 1
July 2012; Published Online 01 May 2013
*Corresponding Author
Issoufou Amadou
School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University,
Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China
Email: issoufsara@gmail.com
important during famine.
Discrepancies exist concerning classification of
family millet, with some references giving the
family name Gramineae, and others classifying it in
the family Poaceae. There are many varieties of
millets. The four major types are Pearl millet
(Pennisetum glaucum), which comprises 40% of
the world production, Foxtail millet (Setaria
italica) (Yang et al., 2012), Proso millet or white
millet (Panicum miliaceum), and Finger Millet
(Eleusine coracana). Pearl millet produces the
largest seeds and it is the variety most commonly
used for human consumption (Mariac et al., 2006;
ICRISAT, 2007). Minor millets include: Barnyard
millet (Echinochloa spp.), Kodo millet (Paspalum
scrobiculatum), Little millet (Panicum sumatrense),
Guinea millet (Brachiaria deflexa = Urochloa
deflexa), Browntop millet (Urochloa ramosa =
Brachiaria ramosa = Panicum ramosum), Teff
(Eragrostis tef) and fonio (Digitaria exilis) are also
often called millets, as more rarely are sorghum
(Sorghum spp.) and Job’s tears (Coix lacrima-jobi)
(ICRISAT, 2007; FAO, 2009; Adekunle, 2012).
In 2007, global millet production reached about
32 million tonnes with the top producing countries
being: India (10,610,000), Nigeria (7,700,000),
Niger (2,781,928), China (2,101,000), Burkina Faso
(1,104,010), Mali (1,074,440), Sudan (792,000),

501
Issoufou Amadou et al.

Uganda (732,000), Chad (550,000) and Ethiopia Nutritional composition of millet grains
(500,000) (FAO, 2009). According to FAO (2005), Millets are unique among the cereals because
pearl millet production attained approximately 54% of their richness in calcium, dietary fibre,
of the global production in 2004. polyphenols and protein (Devi et al., 2011). Table
Millets represent a unique biodiversity 1 represent amino acids content in different types of
component in the agriculture and food security millets. Millets generally contain significant
systems of millions of poor farmers in regions such amounts of essential amino acids particularly the
as Sub-Saharan Africa. Pearl millet is an important sulphur containing amino acids (methionine and
food across the Sahel, although, India is the largest cysteine); they are also higher in fat content than
producer of pearl millet (Bhattacharjee et al., 2007). maize, rice, and sorghum (Obilana and Manyasa,
Millets are often ground into flour, rolled into large 2002). In general, cereal proteins including millets
balls, parboiled, and then consumed as porridge are limited in lysine and tryptophan content and
with milk; sometimes millets are prepared as vary with cultivar. However, most cereals contain
beverages. Roti, made from pearl millet has been the essential amino acids as well as vitamins and
the primary food of farmers in Gujarat India (FAO, minerals (Devi et al., 2011; FAO, 2009).
2009). There is an emerging need for the world to Plant nutrients are largely used in the food
feed its growing population, therefore, it is industry, and cereal grains constitute a major source
important to explore plants such as millets that are of dietary nutrients worldwide (Amadou et al.,
grown locally and consumed by low income 2011a; Izadi et al., 2012).
households in places like India and the Sahel zone Modification of a protein is usually realized by
(Obiana, 2003). Cereals, in particular, millet based physical, chemical, biological such as fermentation
foods and beverages are known worldwide and are or an enzymatic treatment, which changes its
still part of the major diet in most African countries structure and consequently its physicochemical and
(Obilana and Manyasa, 2002; Amadou et al., 2011). functional properties (Lestienne et al., 2007;
The present review summarizes the nutritional Amadou et al., 2011b). Table 2 represent the
composition of millets some health benefits, and content of different varieties of millet, foxtail,
the use of millets in the food industry. fonio, proso, pearl and finger millets.

Table 1. Amino acid profiles of different millet grains variety (Foxtail, Proso, Pearl and Finger millet).
Foxtail millet (defatted Proso millet (Dehulled Pearl millet Finger millet (native
Amino acids (g/100g ) flour) (a) Grain) (b,c) (true prolamine) (c) grain) (d)

Essential Amino Acid

Isoleucine 4.59 4.1 5.1 4.3
Leucine 13.60 12.2 14.1 10.8
Lysine 1.59 1.5 0.5 2.2
Methionine 3.06 2.2 1.0 2.9
Phenylalanine 6.27 5.5 7.6 6.0
Threonine 3.68 3.0 3.3 4.3
Valine 5.81 5.4 4.2 6.3
Histidine 2.11 2.1 1.7 2.3
Tryptophan NA 0.8 1.2 NA
Nonessential Amino Acid
Alanine 9.30 10.9 8.1 6.1
Arginine 3.00 3.2 0.9 3.4
Aspartic acid 7.71 6.2 6.2 5.7
Cystine 0.45 NA 0.8 NA
Glutamic Acid 22.00 21.3 22.8 23.2
Glycine 2.91 2.1 0.7 3.3
Serine 4.56 6.3 5.4 5.3
Tyrosine 2.44 4.0 2.7 3.6
Proline 5.54 7.3 8.2 9.9
*PER(b) 0.80 1.10 1.60 2.00
*Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER). NA: not available. References: (a) Kamara, et al. (2009); (b) Bagdi et al., 2011; (c) Saldivar (2003); (d) Devi et al. (2011).

502
Emir. J. Food Agric. 2013. 25 (7): 501-508
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Table 2. Proximate composition of millet grain varieties.
Component Foxtail millet Fonio
(g/100g, dry basis) flour whole grain
Protein 11.50 9–11
Ash 0.47 1–1.1
Fat 2.38 3.3–3.8
Total CHO* 75.2 84–86
Crude fiber NA NA
References Kamara et al. (2009) Vodouhe et al.
(2003)
*Carbohydrate (CHO). NA: not available.
Badau et al. (2005) reported that the phytic acid
content of the unmalted pearl millet grain ranged
from 2.91% to 3.30%. The total dietary fibre
(22.0%) of finger millet grain were reported
relatively higher than that of many other cereal
grains (e.g. 12.6%, 4.6% and 12.8% respectively
for wheat, rice, maize and sorghum (Shobana and
Malleshi, 2007; Siwela et al., 2010). However, the
dietary fibre content in pearl millet ranges between
8 to 9% (Taylor, 2004).
Bagdi et al. (2011) analyzed the composition of
free and bound lipids in proso millet (Panicum
miliaceum) flours and brans. In the free lipids,
hydrocarbons, sterol esters, triacylglycerols,
diacylglycerols, and free fatty acids were present
(Bagdi et al., 2011). The predominant fatty acids in
the free lipids were linoleic, oleic, and palmitic
acids, though, in the bound lipids, monogalactosyl
diacylglycerols, digalactosyl diacylglycerols,
phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidyl serine, and
phosphatidyl choline were tentatively identified
(Bagdi et al., 2011). Saldivar (2003) studied the
content of total lipids, lipid classes and fatty acids
composition in small millets, such as foxtail millet
(Setaria italica), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum),
and finger millet (Eleusine coracana). They
reported the total lipid content in the foxtail, proso,
and finger millets ranged from 5.2 to 11.0% (dry
basis), while it ranges from 5.1 to 8.3% in the little,
kodo, and barnyard millets (Saldivar, 2003). In
addition, examination of some millet cultivars from
Tunisia and Mauritania by Ibrahima et al. (2004)
showed that the fatty acid profile of the millet lipid
is mainly characterized by the presence of high
levels of linoleic, oleic and palmitic acid. However,
palmitoleic acid (C16: 1), stearic acid (C18: 0) and
linolenic acid (C18: 3) were less represented. Other
fatty acids are identified in trace amounts (arachidic
acid C20: 0, behenic acid C22: 0, erucic acid C22:
1). The work of Liang et al. (2010) presented the
general properties of foxtail millet oil and its fatty
acid profile. It is apparent that millet oil could be a
good source of natural oil rich in linoleic acid and
503
Proso millet Pearl millet Finger millet
dehulled grain whole grain native grain
11.58 14.8 8.2
NA 1.64 2.7
4.9 4.86 1.8
80.1 59.8 83.3
0.7 12.19 3.5
Bagdi et al. Taylor et al. Devi et al. (2011)
(2011) (2010)
tocopherols (Liang et al., 2010; Amadou et al.,
2011c). The main polyphenols in cereals are
phenolic acids and tannins, whilst flavonoids are
present in small quantities; they act as antioxidant
and play many roles in the body immune system
defence (Chandrasekara and Shahidi, 2010; Devi et
al., 2011). Whole cereal grains are considered a rich
source of fibre. However, foods from grains have
marked differences in the amount and type of
dietary fibre (Shukla and Srivastava, 2011). The
dietary fibre content in cereal-based food varies
greatly, depending on the extent of milling. Finger
millet shows relatively higher than other cereals
carbohydrate (72%) comprises of starch as the main
constituent and the non-starchy polysaccharides
which amounts to 15–20% of the seed matter as an
unavailable carbohydrate dietary fibre content and
complements which are the health benefits of the
millet (Devi et al., 2011). The main function of
dietary carbohydrate is to supply energy (Devi et
al., 2011). Millets are good sources of magnesium
and phosphorus. Magnesium has the ability to help
reduce the effects of migraine and heart attacks,
while, phosphorus is an essential component of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) a precursor to energy
in the body (Badau et al., 2005; Liang et al., 2010;
Devi et al., 2011).
Millet in probiotic and prebiotics foods
Probiotics aid the existing flora, or help
repopulate the colon when bacteria levels are
reduced by antibiotics, chemotherapy or disease.
FAO/WHO stated that probiotics are “lives
microorganisms which when administered in
adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the
host” though, this should also specify genus,
species and strain level, as well as a safety
assessment. Most of probiotic foods generate fatty
acids, vitamins and other vital nutrients that
improve the body's resistance against pathogens
microorganisms (FAO/WHO, 2001; Abd El-Salam
et al., 2012). Fermented foods are thus, important to
human beings all over the world with between 20 to
Issoufou Amadou et al.
40% of food supply being from fermented foods
(Anukam and Reid, 2009; Rivera-Espinoza and
Gallardo-Navarro, 2010; Amadou et al., 2011a).
Lei and Michaelsen (2006) reported an interesting
intervention study in Northern Ghana using
spontaneously fermented millet product as a natural
probiotic treatment for diarrhea in young children.
Millet koko is an African spontaneously fermented
millet porridge and drink, characterized by Lei and
Jacobsen (2004) as a potential probiotic product as
well as Mangisi, Kunu-zaki and Uji a thin, lactic
acid-fermented porridge (Amadou et al., 2011a).
Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients
that beneficially affect the host by selectively
stimulating the growth and/or activity of one, or a
limited number of bacteria in the colon (Laminu et
al., 2011; Abd El-Salam et al., 2012). Food
ingredients classified as prebiotics must not be
hydrolyzed or absorbed in the upper gastrointestinal
tract, need to be a selective substrate for one, or a
limited number of colonic bacteria, must alter the
microbiota in the colon to a healthier composition
and should induce luminal, or systematic effects
that are beneficial to the host health (Lei and
Jacobsen, 2004). Cereals, in particular millet-based
fermented foods and beverages, have been
extensively studied and form a major part of the
diet in most African countries (Rivera-Espinoza
and Gallardo-Navarro, 2010). Malting induces
important beneficial biochemical changes in the
millet grain. Jandh is just like Koko produced by
steeping pearl millet overnight, discarding the steep
water, wet-milling the millet grains together with
spices such as ginger and chili pepper, water is
added to the milled materials to make thick slurry.
Fura is dough made from millet flour, it is hand
molded into balls, placed inside a cooking pan
containing boiling water, and cooked for 30 min at
atmospheric pressure then the balls are kneaded
again while still hot until a smooth, slightly elastic
mass is obtained. Mangisi is a sweet-sour beverage
made from naturally fermented millet mash.
Moreover, unfermented millets foods and
beverages such as Dambu a steamed granulated
dumpling; Masvusvu a sweet beverage traditionally
made from unfermented malted finger millet and
Ragi roti, known as finger millet roti is an
unleavened flatbread (Amadou et al., 2011a;
Rivera-Espinoza and Gallardo-Navarro, 2010).
Some potential health benefits of millets
Millet is more than just an interesting alternative
to the more common grains. The grain is also rich in
phytochemicals, including phytic acid, which is
believed to lower cholesterol, and phytate, which is
504
associated with reduced cancer risk (Coulibaly et al.,
2011). These health benefits have been partly
attributed to the wide variety of potential
chemopreventive substances, called phytochemicals,
including antioxidants present in high amounts in
foods such as millets (Izadi et al., 2012).
Millet is gluten-free, therefore an excellent
option for people suffering from celiac diseases
often irritated by the gluten content of wheat and
other more common cereal grains. It is also useful
for people who are suffering from atherosclerosis
and diabetic heart disease (Gélinas et al., 2008).
Choi et al. (2005) and Park et al. (2008) reported
that protein concentrate of Korean foxtail millet and
proso millet significantly elevated plasma
adiponectin and HDL cholesterol levels and caused
major decreases in insulin levels relative to a casein
diet in type 2 diabetic mice. Furthermore, proso
millet also improved glycemic responses and
plasma levels (Park et al., 2008). In addition, proso
millet protein concentrate has protective effects
against D-galactosamin-induced liver injury in rats
(Ito et al., 2008). Choi et al. (2005) and Park et al.
(2008) concluded that proso millet protein could be
a potential therapeutic intervention in type 2
diabetes. Devi et al. (2011) review the nature of
polyphenols and dietary fiber of finger millet and
their role with respect to the health benefits
associated with millet.
Chandrasekara and Shahidi (2010) reported in
their studies on free-radical quenching activity of
finger millet (Eleusine coracana), that non-
processed brown finger millet had the highest
radical quenching activity than the processed one
and postulated that tannins and phytic acid were
responsible for the activity (Devi et al., 2011;
Quesada et al., 2011; Kamara et al., 2012). Millets
extract from the seed coat where reported to have
shown high antibacterial and antifungal activity
compared to whole flour extract due to high
polyphenols content in seed coat (Viswanath et al.,
2009; Xu et al., 2011). Free radical quenching
potential of different millets kodo millet, finger
millet, little millet, foxtail millet, barnyard millet
(kudiraivali), great millet (jowar) and their white
varieties were revealed to have significant
antioxidant activity by 1, 1, Diphenyl -2-
picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method (Devi et al., 2011;
Quesada et al., 2011; Kamara et al., 2012).
Moreover, Kamara et al. (2012) reported different
radical scavenging activities of fractionated foxtail
millet protein hydrolysate.
Emir. J. Food Agric. 2013. 25 (7): 501-508
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Millet in the industry
Millets have good grain qualities suitable for
processing. Processing of the grain for many end
uses involves primary (wetting, dehulling and
milling) and secondary (fermentation, malting,
extrusion, glaking, popping and roasting)
operations. Being a staple and consumed at
household levels, processing must be considered at
both traditional and industrial levels, involving
small, medium and large-scale entrepreneurs
(Obilana and Manyasa, 2002; Hamad, 2012).
Dehulling is not favorable to millets due to their
small grains sizes. In addition, dehulling causes
nutrients loss. All the Millets can be milled by hand
grinding (household level) or machine milling
(cottage, small-to-medium scale service and large
scale industrial). Millet and sorghum malt
production is a traditional practice in Africa, where
malt is used in lactic acid- and alcoholic-fermented
beverages and infant food production (Adekunle,
2012). Traditional malting processes in many
developing countries involve three main operations:
soaking, germination, and drying. The duration and
conditions of each operation are highly variable,
resulting in highly variable malt and derived
product quality (Vidya et al., 2012). Burukutu and
Pito are traditional African beers differ from
Western beer types in several ways: they are often
sour less carbonated and have no hops; these beer
are products of both at traditional and industrial
level (Anukam and Reid, 2009; Amadou et al.,
2011a). The emerging principal uses of millets as
an industrial raw material include production of
biscuits and confectionery, beverages, weaning
foods and beer (Laminu et al., 2011; Anukam and
Reid, 2009). Grits, flour, and meals from cereals
such as millet, sorghum, and corn are now common
items in the market. Soft biscuits and cookies are
being made using sorghum, maize and wheat
composites, while cakes and non-wheat breads have
become a subject of increasing scientific and
technological enquiry, showing encouraging results
(Akeredolu et al., 2005; Hama et al., 2011; Laminu
et al., 2011; Vidya et al., 2012).
In the infant weaning food sector, in spite of
unlimited potential, progress has been slow, as the
installed capacity for industrial malting is limited.
Many brands of beer in the underdeveloped
countries market have substantial content of local
cereal such as millet to reduce the cost of imported
barley. The industries are confronted with a number
of problems which tend to diminish product
qualities and affect overall utilization. For instance,
in the nonalcoholic beverage and weaning food
505
sectors, storage quality of the grain, nutritional
losses after processing, high cost of imported
equipment and variation among cultivars are some
of the problems militating against improved
utilization of millet in the developing countries
(Akeredolu et al., 2005; Laminu et al., 2011;
Adekunle, 2012). In a weaning process there is
always the need to introduce soft, easily swallowed
foods to supplement the infant’s feeding early in
life. A process weaning diet from pearl millet-
conophor nut flour was found to promote growth in
a clinical experiment (Akeredolu et al., 2005);
whereas, weaning food blends prepared from
fermented pearl millet/roasted cowpea in 70:30 and
60:40 ratios were reported to have resulted in lower
levels of phytic acid and higher in vitro protein
digestibility of the weaning food blends (Laminu et
al., 2011).
Conclusion
Millets are still the staple food for millions of
poor people in Africa and Asia. Like many other
cereals, millets are high carbohydrate energy
content and nutritious, making them useful
components of dietary and nutritional balance in
foods. Combination of millets with other sources of
protein would compensate the deficiency of certain
amino acids such as lysine. Successful
improvement of these attributes would be a crucial
key to expand the spectrum of applications of millet
grains. Future trends should focus on the millet
consumption in the developed countries that could
help its industrial revolution.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the sponsorship from
the Cooperation between the Governments of the
Republic of Niger and the People’s Republic of
China.
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