Lecture 4(a) Gases in Magmas ‘+ Magmas contain gases. + High pressure keeps the gases in solution in the liquid magma. + When pressure is decreased such as when magma rises to the surface, the gases come out of solution and form a separate gas phase. + Gases give magmas their explosive character because the ‘volume of gases expands as their pressure is reduced. The ‘composition ofthe gases in magma is: + Mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide + Minor amounts of sulphur, chlorine, and fluorine gases. + The types of magmas + Wolcanoes Agenda Gases in Magmas + The amount of gases in a magma is also related to the chemical composition of the magma, . Rhvolitic magmas usually have higher gas contents than basaltic magmas.Types of Magma + Viscosity of Magmas Basaltic magmas tend to be fairly fluid (low viscosity), but their viscosity is still 10,000 0100,0000 times more viscous than water. + Rhyolitic magmas tend to have even higher viscosity, ranging between 1 million and 100 million times more viscous than water. + Viscosity is an important property in determining the cruptive behaviour of magmas. , i | Volcanoes || | Explosive Eruptions Eaplosie upton ae favored by high gu content and high viscosity (andesite to ehyolitic memes) Explosive bursting of bubbles fiagments liquid that cool as they fall through the at. pyroclasts (weaning ~ hot fagaments) hich refer to sand- sized or smaller the magia into clots of These solid particles become sud tephra or voleanic ash, wl fragments % : Voleanoes Formation ofa voleano ‘Wien sock fom the mantle welis, moves tothe surface through te rus, and geleses compressed gases, volcanors up. Why does ths solid rock melt and come tothe surface? Extewely high tempecaruie aad pressure cause die cock to welt and toocome figud rack oc magna, When 2 lmge body of magi has formed, ise through the denser sock layers vovacd zsh’ sures ‘Magina that has senched the surface scale! Lava Volcanoes Explosive Eruptions || locks are angular fragments that were solid when ejected Bombs have an aerodynamic shape indicating they were lial when ejected nubs wt lp that consist wosity of as bubbles (vesicles) real ‘asa low dusty highly vesielae tock Gagmeat called pumice tekVolcanoes Non-explosive Eruptions Non-explosive eruptions occur with low gas content and low viscosity magmas (basaltic to andesitic magmas). Lava flows are produced on the surface and run down slope like liquids. Lava flows produced by eruptions under water are called pillow lavas. If the viscosity is high, but the gas content is low, then the lava will pile up over the vent to produce a lava dome or volcanic dome. Volcanoes Geologists generally group volcanoes into four main kinds: © cinder cones, es = + composite volcanoes, + shield volcanoes, and + lava domes.Agenda ¥ Sub-surface water Lecture 4 : ¥ Geological hazards pedo Factors affecting the permeabilty of a sandstone formation % volume of pore space in a rock Sia PERMEABILITY Capncty ofa ock low the pastage olds > ot vio or bvough hwsod inpavng fo cre a Peres a Consolidation Conte et permesbity (fw trough tae tock rt tng ht pe head oy . cmeniton . Eien abn ‘Siratification within formation Presence of discontinuities Groundwater fow aos usualy ss thank vaio: Panay pores Tate pomoabtty AQUIFER aoa which is sufficiently porous to store water “This is usualy several dor of mogrtude Atormation por ee han Yo ty peraabiy (wecondary permeability) and an Ter permeable enough to allow water to flow trequnay of ascounatas. Tet cy anor a ra through it in economic quantities ting mata! oe poten th conn.tape CONFINED. AQUIFERS UNCONFINED AQUIFERS PERCHED AQUIFERS ‘Aer Pc (1001 eles Grounewater After M. Price, 1991 Introducing groundwater POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE ‘An Imaginary surface defined by the level at which water stands in wells, ‘The height above the aquifer depends (on pressure inthe aquiter CONFINED AQUIFER ‘A buried aquifer enclosed by beds of low permeability UNCONFINED AQUIFER ‘An aquifer exposed at ground levelLandslide Geological hazards Landslides Sink holes Sink hole Po Shan landslide, 1972: Hong Kong Volcanic and earthquake hazardsLoar A volcan dobrs tow Flow spoeds can be 50-60 hv. Can oceur when: Heavy rain washes down unconsolidated ash from earier eruptions Earthquakas cause slope fale in poory consolidated ach and clay Eruption causes crater lake to spl down ses of volcano Eruption causes rapid meting of snow and ie Luthar ean quick thicken downslope Columbia: Nevado del Ruiz, Andes ‘Summit covered by snow and ice ‘Town of Armero built on old tahar deposit. 1985: small eruption of pumice and ash landed on ice cap. S ‘Sudden melting. Melt water swept down Laguniilas valley at ~60 ker. Greated debris flow up to ~30m hi. ~20,000 people killed TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES Plate Boundary aii sical claps Intraplate eRe ean onees estene VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKES Plate boundary foie donated by pice, Intrapate ren ope re COLLAPSE EARTHQUAKES Underground colapse: Caverns and mines (ea Waza fart, Crater La, USA) hades esetos (goog dod) depot EXPLOSION EARTHQUAKES vols backs and aan danoer nen pace Chericel Nuclear RESERVOIR-TRIGGERED EARTHQUAKES:Casualties and damage from seismic disasters are everywhere on the increase. Major factors are: Population growth Shifts in land use Elastic rebound theory of earthquakes (after HF. Reld) SURFACE WAVES Rayleigh waves: Ground particles move in retrograde ellipses in plane normal to surface Love Waves: Ground particles move parallel to ground surface Epicenter BODY WAVES P.waves: Ground particles move parallel to direction of wave travel ‘Swaves: Ground particles rove normal to direction of wave traveleae Sn ten eit tt et en canoer bs Surface waves become dispersed. Long period waves travel faster « speed is governed by rock properties at greater depths below the surface where P-wave and S-wave speedse and rock densities are normally higher. == =Water. Saturated Sediment Luquetecton wwe FELLA is gr are ene Kowa ba ae Effect of soll iquefaction: Niigata Sand bolls: Christchurch, NZ: 2011 Liquefaction susceptibility map: San Francisco region (uses) RICHTER LOCAL MAGNITUDE Logarithm to base 10 of maximum seismic wave amplitude in microns recorded on a seismograph at a distance of 100 km from the epicentre