1 LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Main constituents of concrete

 Cement
Cement is a binder that is used to compile the different components of
concrete. Cement can be non-hydraulic (does not require the addition of
water to harden) or hydraulic (needs water to harden). There are many
types of cement but the most common one and the one used in this
miniproject is Portland cement.
 Aggregates
Aggregates are used in concrete since they are cheap, inert, hard, and
durable and they are abundant almost everywhere. They improve the
volume stability of the concrete since aggregates do not swell or shrink.
Aggregates can be of natural origin or they can also be manufactured.
The aggregates used in concrete mixes should be clean, hard and sound.
 Water
Water is maybe the most important material needed in the formation of
concrete. Water is needed to allow the hydration of the cement which will
in turn increase the strength of the concrete.
The water used for the concrete mixes should be of drinking water
quality.
 Admixture
Admixture are natural or chemical compounds that are added to enhance
or to minimise the effect of some particular property exhibited by the
concrete. Some admixtures can increase the workability while some can
decrease the water demands of the concrete mix, and there are also many
more types of admixtures which have different effects on the properties
of both fresh and hardened concrete.
 When all these materials are mixed according to predetermined proportions, we
obtain the final product which is concrete.

1.2 Desirable properties of fresh concrete

1.2.1 Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness is the ability of the concrete to resist segregation [ CITATION
AMN \l 1033 ]. Concrete of good quality should be cohesive. This is
achieved by proper compaction.

1.2.2 Uniformity
It is the measure of the homogeneity of the concrete mix. A good
concrete mix should be uniform and homogeneous and this is achieved by
proper compaction.

1.2.3 Consistency
Consistency is the ease which the concrete can be placed and handled i.e.
the ability to flow of the concrete [CITATION 2012 \l 1033 ]. The concrete
should be able to be placed easily. The consistency of high quality
concrete should be as per the demands. For example, in areas of highly
congested reinforcement, flowing concrete will be more appropriate as it
will be able to fill in the spaces easily.

1.2.4 Workability
Workability can be defined as the useful internal work necessary to
produce full compaction[ CITATION AMN \l 1033 ]. Good concrete should
be workable so that it can be poured and placed easily. If needed, the
concrete must be able to lose its workability quickly or retain its
workability for a long time.
1.3 Curing of concrete

Curing is done to accommodate for the loss in moisture of the concrete, which
will prevent the proper hydration of the cement in the concrete.

Curing is an important process as it enables the concrete to achieve its target

strength. It improves durability, resistance to the action of ice and also improves
the volume stability of the concrete (less shrinkage)[ CITATION Wha201 \l 1033 ].

1.3.1 Some methods of curing

 Ponding (immersion curing)
 Fogging
 Curing by wet coverings
 Plastic sheeting
 Formwork curing
 Membrane-forming curing compounds (added after setting of
concrete)
 Internal curing compounds (added during the mix itself)

The methods of curing used for the casting of the cubes in the miniproject are

1. Curing by wet coverings (for the first 2 days)

It involves covering the concrete with wet fabrics (gunny bags/hessian
cloths) to maintain the water content. This method is ideal for vertical
surfaces and a quite efficient method of curing.

Figure 1 Wet coverings for curing

[CITATION htt202 \l 1033 ]

 However, we have to ensure that the fabrics used are clean and the fabrics
should be maintained wet all the time or else the opposite will happen,
and the fabric will leach water from the concrete.

2. Curing in the curing basin (up to 28 days)

It is a form of immersion curing that is mostly used in laboratories. It is a
very efficient method since the cube is completely under the water and
hence the water is in contact with all the surfaces.
1.4 Strength of concrete

1.4.1 Factors affecting the strength of concrete

1.4.1.1 Cement Grade
The cement grade gives the compressive strength achieved by the
cement after 28 days.

For example, Portland cement of grade 42.5 will exhibit a

compressive strength of 42.5 N/mm2 after 28 days after casting.
The Portland cement of grade 32.5 will have strength of 32.5
N/mm2 after 28 days.

1.4.1.2 Water to cement ratio

In 1918, after several test, Duff Abrams arrived to the conclusion
that for a given set of materials (cement, aggregates, etc.), the
strength of the concrete is exclusively dependent on the water to
cement ratio of the concrete mix. This gave rise to Abrams’ Law
which states that the strength of concrete is inversely proportional
to the water to cement ratio of the mix [ CITATION Mur13 \l 1033 ].
Concrete mixes having high water to cement ratio will have a
lower strength as shown in the figure below.
 Figure 2 Variation of
strength with w/c ratio

[CITATION Cem \l 1033 ]

1.4.1.3 Workability
The workability is dependent on the water to cement ratio. Hence,
the same relationship as the above one is obtained when
considering only the water to cement ratio.

If we consider the use of admixtures to increase the workability,

some of the admixtures may have an effect on the strength of the
concrete.

E.g. the admixture used in the miniproject itself is supposed to

increase the strength of the concrete as mentioned in its
specification sheet.

1.4.1.4 Aggregate properties

The effect of the aggregate properties on the strength of concrete
is rather insignificant compared to the other factors mentioned.

 Porosity and absorption

Concrete with high porosity aggregates will normally have
high permeability, leading to non-durable concrete.
The porosity may also affect the strength of the concrete
since it indirectly affects the paste-aggregate bond
strength.
The absorption of aggregates should have no major effect
on the strength if the absorption of the aggregates has
already been accounted for in the design mix.
 Size and shape
Aggregates with high surface area (flaky and elongated)
will provide a better bond between the concrete
constituents and will hence have a higher compressive
strength.
  Grading
A well-graded set of aggregates will provide a closely
packed arrangement, with little amount of voids in
between them. This will enhance the bond between the
paste and the aggregates, leading to a higher compressive
strength.

1.4.1.5 Degree of compaction

The strength of concrete is also dependent on the amount of
compaction carried. The relationship is shown in the figure below.
Figure 3 Effect of degree of compaction on compressive strength

[CITATION htt205 \l 1033 ]

1.4.1.6 Method of curing used
Curing has a great impact on the development of strength of the
concrete since curing is related to the degree of hydration of
cement, which is related to the strength gain of the concrete.

In the figure below, the differences between moist curing and air
curing can be seen.
 [CITATION htt203 \l 1033 ]

From the diagram, it can be seen that when air curing (no curing)
is carried out, the concrete will never reach the target strength. In
contrast, the strength continues to increase when moist curing is
carried out.

The strength development also varies with the curing temperature

as shown below.

Figure 4 Variation of compressive strength with age, with different

types of curing

Figure 5 Variation of strength with curing

temperature
[CITATION htt203 \l
1033 ]

From the figure above, it can be seen that during early stages of
strength development, a higher curing temperature will account
for a greater early strength whilst when comparing with the curve
for 28 days, we can see that higher temperatures now have the
opposite effect on the strength of the concrete.
1.5 Defects in concrete

1.5.1 Cracks

 Settlement cracks
It is found in pre-hardening stage of concrete. It is caused when
concrete settles under its own weight. This settlement will be
accompanied by a decrease in volume. If there is anything
preventing that decrease in volume such as reinforcement bars, it
will cause the formation of settlement cracks[ CITATION Typ20 \l
1033 ].
 Plastic shrinkage cracks
It occurs when the rate of evaporation becomes greater than the
rate of bleeding. It is the formation of shrinkage cracks in the pre-
hardening stage of concrete[ CITATION Typ20 \l 1033 ].
 Crazing
It is found in hardened stage of concrete. It is the formation of
small random cracks at the surface due to shrinkage.

Figure 6 Crazing
[CITATION htt201 \l 1033 ]
 Drying shrinkage cracks
It is the formation of shrinkage cracks in the hardened stage of
concrete. It occurs when the hardened concrete loses its moisture
content by the hydration of cement or to some extent, by
evaporation[ CITATION Typ20 \l 1033 ].
  Thermal cracks
Thermal cracks occurs when the concrete is subjected to alternate
cycles of wet and dry conditions[ CITATION Typ20 \l 1033 ].

1.5.2 Segregation
It is the separation of the different components of the concrete. There are
2 types of segregation. The first involves the separation of the coarse
aggregates from the paste and the other involves the separation of the mix
water from the paste. Some of the causes of segregation are improper
aggregate grading, over-vibration, inappropriate mix designs,
inappropriate dropping height for the concrete and it may also occur in
areas of over reinforcement.

1.5.3 Honeycombing
It is a defect in concrete whereby there are voids in the concrete caused
by the cement paste not filling the spaces between the aggregates. It is
caused by under-vibration, over reinforcement and other reasons.

Figure 7 Honeycombing
[CITATION Top20 \l 1033 ]

1.5.4 Dusting
Dusting is a possible side-effect of excessive bleeding. When the concrete
bleeds, the bleeding water may carry some fine particles with it. It will
than form a whitish layer on top of the concrete, known as laitance. When
this water evaporates, a layer of dust will be left behind on the surface.

This thin dust layer can then be removed by brushing it off.

1.5.5 Spalling
Spalling involves the peeling off of the top layers of concrete near
reinforcement steel. It is caused by the corrosion of the reinforcement,
insufficient cover, and alkali reactions in the concrete among others
[CITATION Wha20 \l 1033 ].

Figure 8 Spalling

[CITATION htt20 \l 1033 ]

1.5.6 Surface Efflorescence

This occurs due to alkali reaction in the concrete. The salts formed as a
by-product of these reactions are then transported by water up to the
surface of the concrete. The salts then form a white/yellow powder on the
surface of the concrete, known as efflorescence.

Figure 9 Efflorescence

[CITATION htt204 \l 1033 ]

1.6 Admixture use in concrete

Admixtures are chemical compounds that are sometimes added to concrete in

order to control or modify some of the properties exhibited by the concrete.

There exist many types of admixtures that have various effects on both fresh and
hardened concrete. Some of them are listed below.

 Set accelerants
They decrease the setting time of the concrete. The concrete will
lose its workability quickly.
 Set retarders
They increase the setting time of the concrete and the concrete
will retain its workability for a long time.
 Water reducers
They decrease the water demand of concrete for the same
workability.
 Plasticisers and Superplasticisers
They increase the workability of the concrete.
 Corrosion inhibitors
They protect the reinforcement inside the concrete against
corrosion.
 Air-entraining admixtures
Air bubbles are introduced at key positions in the concrete in
order to increase the workability, decrease water content, increase
the resistance to segregation and also to reduce the permeability
of the concrete.

The admixture used in the miniproject acts differently when added in different
amounts to the concrete. The PLASTIMENT 900 R MU acts as a plasticiser
and water reducer, along with set retarding properties when used in higher
quantities. (Refer to the Appendix Section for the full specification sheet)
1.6.1 Effect of water reducers and plasticisers on fresh and hardened
concrete
1.6.1.1 Fresh concrete

 Workability
For a constant water to cement ratio, the use of this type of
admixture will result in an increase in workability
 Slump loss
One of the biggest disadvantages of this type of admixture is that
the rate of slump loss is higher i.e. the concrete will be able to its
enhanced workability for only a short period of time. This effect
can be offset by the use of another admixture or by monitoring the
amount of plasticiser used.
 Air entrainment
Some of the water reducers/plasticisers are also responsible for
about 2% air entrainment in the mix. This is partly responsible for
the increase in workability [CITATION VSR95 \l 1033 ]. This air
entrainment is also beneficial since it will decrease the tendency
of segregation of the concrete when placing and handling.
 Setting time
If the admixture also exhibits set retarding properties such as the
one used in the miniproject, both the initial setting time and the
final setting time should be increased.
 Bleeding
If the water content is being reduced, the rate of bleeding should
usually decrease[CITATION EFF20 \l 1033 ].
 Plastic shrinkage cracking
If the rate of bleeding is decreased, this may increase the risk of
the formation of plastic shrinkage cracks, in case the rate of
evaporation exceeds the rate of bleeding [CITATION EFF20 \l 1033 ].
  Heat of hydration
When water reducers/plasticisers are used, the initial amount of
heat developed is reduced while the amount of heat after 28 days
will generally be greater. If the admixtures also exhibits set
retarding properties, the amount of heat developed should be
approximately the same as when no admixture was used [ CITATION
VSR95 \l 1033 ]. This decrease in the early heat development will
be beneficial in the prevention of cracks at early stages.
 Finishing
The ease of finishing should be increased when using water
reducers with retarding properties since the time frame for the
finishing activities will be greater.

1.6.1.2 Hardened concrete

 Compressive strength
The use of plasticisers/water reducers generally will result in an
increase in the compressive strength of the concrete at 28 days.
The compressive strength at other ages will be mostly determined
by the other properties of the admixtures (accelerating or
retarding).
 Abrasion resistance
It can be considered that the abrasion resistance of concrete will
vary together with the compressive strength. Hence the wear
resistance of the concrete should increase when plasticisers/water
reducers are added to the mix[ CITATION VSR95 \l 1033 ].
 Resistance to sulphate attack
The resistance to sulphate attack can be considered to have
increased when this type of admixture is used since the
permeability of the concrete is considered to have
decreased[ CITATION VSR95 \l 1033 ].
  Leaching
The leaching of materials is reduced since the permeability is
considered to be reduced[ CITATION VSR95 \l 1033 ]. This can
reduce the risk of surface efflorescence which ruins the aesthetic
aspect of the concrete member.
 Resistance to freezing and thawing
Concrete becomes more resistant to the action of freeze and thaw
when there is the presence of entrained air in the mix. Water
reducers can be used alongside an air-entraining admixture to
counter the negative effects on the strength caused by the air-
entraining admixture. This will make the concrete stronger and
more durable[ CITATION VSR95 \l 1033 ].

1.6.2 Properties of PLASTIMENT 900 R MU admixture

The full specification sheet of the PLASTIMENT 900 R MU can be

found in the Appendix Section.
1.7 Test performed on the concrete in the miniproject

1.7.1 Slump test

The slump test is a test performed on fresh concrete to determine the

consistency of the fresh concrete. The slump test also give an indication
of the workability of the concrete.

The experiment involves the filling of the slump cone in 3 parts.

Compaction is carried out for each parts. The slump cone is then removed
and the amount by which the concrete height drops is measured. The
shape of the slump formed is also observed[CITATION BSE091 \l 1033 ].

Figure 10 Types of slump

[CITATION htt206 \l 1033 ]

The figure above shows the types of possible slump. The shear and the
collapse slumps are indicative of defects in the concrete while the true
slump will be the ideal slump.
 [CITATION AMN \l 1033 ]

Figure 11 Classification of slumps in terms of degree of workability

The above figure shows different ranges of slump associated with

concretes of different workability. It also indicates the uses of these
different types of concrete.
1.7.2 Vebe test

The Vebe test is a test performed on fresh concrete to determine the

consistency of the fresh concrete, which will also give an idea about the
workability of the concrete.

The experiment involves the filling of the slump cone in 3 parts.

Compaction is carried out for each parts. The slump cone is then removed
and the disc of the apparatus is made to just touch the concrete surface.
The vibrating table is turned on and the time taken for the bleeding water
to reach the top side of the disc is measured[CITATION BSE09 \l 1033 ].

This time interval is called the Vebe time for the concrete and it is
basically the time taken to achieve full compaction. Hence, the
workability which deals with the energy needed for full compaction can
be expressed as the Vebe time.

The figure below shows the different Vebe times associated with their
degree of workability.

Figure 12 Vebe times with corresponding degree of workability

[CITATION htt207 \l 1033 ]

1.7.3 Cube test

The compressive strength of concrete is the measure of the concrete’s

ability to withstand compressive loads. Compressive strength of concrete
is generally specified as the characteristic strength of the concrete after 28
days.

This cube test is important since the compressive strength will generally
give an idea about the overall strength of the concrete.

Also, in the real world of civil engineering, when there is batching of

large amounts of concrete, test cubes are also cast and these are used to
gauge the strength development of that concrete after normally 3, 7, 14
and 28 days. The concrete should normally have attained the target
strength after the 28 days.

There are 2 types of cube test:

 Cube test with uniaxial loading

 Cube test with triaxial loading

The method used in our case is the uniaxial compression cube test and the
dimensions of the cube are 100mm × 100mm × 100mm.

The test essentially consists of placing the test cube between the platens
of the machine. Ideally, these platens must not provide any lateral
restraint to the cube i.e. ideally there should be no friction between the
cube and the platens. The load is gradually increased using the automatic
settings of the machine. The load at which cracking starts to occur is the
maximum compressive load that the test cube is able to withstand.

Some of the possible crack patterns of the cubes are shown in the figure
below.
 Figure 13 Possible crack patterns

[ CITATION Muh18 \l 1033 ]

It can be seen that the test is not valid if there is presence of tensile cracks
on the cubes. The cracks formed should be parallel to the direction of
application of the load for an acceptable result.

The following formula is applied for the determination of the

compressive strength of the concrete after the experiment:

Load at failure
Compressive Strength=
Area in contact

[ CITATION Com20 \l 1033 ]

The test has to be conducted after 7 days and 28 days. After 7 days, the
strength achieved should be about 65% of the target strength while the
strength at 28 days should be about 99% of the target strength [ CITATION
Why20 \l 1033 ].
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