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Fostering employee commitment through work engagement: The moderating

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DOI: 10.1080/14330237.2019.1665902

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 Journal of Psychology in Africa

ISSN: 1433-0237 (Print) 1815-5626 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rpia20

Fostering employee commitment through work

engagement: The moderating effect of job
satisfaction in a developing-country setting

Jeremy Mitonga-Monga

To cite this article: Jeremy Mitonga-Monga (2019) Fostering employee commitment through work
engagement: The moderating effect of job satisfaction in a developing-country setting, Journal of
Psychology in Africa, 29:6, 546-555, DOI: 10.1080/14330237.2019.1665902

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Journal of Psychology in Africa, 2019
Vol. 29, No. 6, 546–555, https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2019.1665902
© 2019 Africa Scholarship Development Enterprize

Fostering employee commitment through work engagement: The moderating effect of job
satisfaction in a developing-country setting
Jeremy Mitonga-Monga

Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
Author email: jeremym@uj.ac.za

This study examined the extent to which job satisfaction moderates the relationship between work engagement and
perceptions of organisational commitment . The study sample comprised of 839 employees (women = 38%) from a railway
organisation in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) . The employees completed the Job Satisfaction Questionnaire,
the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, and the Organisational Commitment Scale . Data were analysed by using hierarchical
moderator regression analysis to predict employee commitment towards work engagement together with job satisfaction
by employee demographics . The findings indicate that the job satisfaction dimensions (Pay, Promotion, Supervisor,
Co-workers, and Work-itself) moderated the relationship between work engagement and organisational commitment . Male
employees and senior level employees reported higher work engagement and organisational commitment . Job satisfaction
and a positive work environment would enhance employees’ levels of energy, dedication, loyalty, and psychological
attachment to the organisation .

Keywords: Democratic Republic of Congo, employee commitment, job satisfaction, work engagement

Introduction and economic recovery . The DRC railway industry is a

Thriving organisations have committed employees (Choi,
Cundiff, Kim, & Akhatib, 2018) since they identify
with the organisation’s mission and goals (Bahrami,
Barati, Ghoroghchain, Montazer-alfaraj, & Ezzatabadi,
2016) . Additionally, employees who are committed
to their organisation tend to be engaged in their work
and satisfied with their job (Mitonga-Monga, Flotman,
& Cilliers, 2017) . However, the evidence is not clear
as to the extent to which job satisfaction mediates the
relationship between organisation commitment and work
engagement . Moreover, there is little research evidence in
this regard from developing countries, which have fragile
industrial-infrastructural systems and under-developed
human resource management portfolios (Mitonga-
Monga, Flotman & Cilliers, 2018) . This study explored
how job satisfaction (JS) mediated relationships between
organisational commitment (OC) and work engagement
(WE) among employees of a railway services organisation
in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) . The research
study’s findings will provide evidence of the underlying
process through which WE may relate to OC in a
developing country’s railway organisation context .
Railway service industry in the DRC work context
The DRC, situated in central Africa, has a population of
over 75 million . The country has a lot of economic potential
due to its vast mineral wealth (such as gold, copper, cobalt,
and diamonds) (Mitonga-Monga & Cilliers, 2015) . Over
many years, political and economic conflict has resulted
in corruption, violence, and plundering of the country’s
natural resources (Mitonga-Monga, 2018) . Nonetheless,
the government is trying to speed up economic growth,
fight corruption, improve the national minimum wage, and
improve employees’ well-being (Shah, 2010) . To achieve
these aims, the country needs functional railway services
to move goods and people, which will contribute to social
state-owned enterprise that covers 366 miles of railway
track . This transport industry is characterised by high
levels of mismanagement, poor leadership, an absence of
clear objectives, low level of salaries, poor infrastructure,
deteriorated locomotives, poor rail beds, and unreliable
commuter services (Mitonga-Monga & Cilliers, 2015) .
The railway industry, administered by the Department
of Public Enterprises, employs 13 019 staff, who are
members of the union and who earn 200$ (per month), on
average . This low compensation has led to almost 20%
turnover as a result of involuntary lays-offs (World Bank
Report, 2018) . Employment in the DRC is 10 .95% (World
Bank Report, 2018), and the likelihood of retrenched
employees receiving a payment package in this regard,
is not guaranteed . The country faces multiple challenges
such as poor infrastructure and transportation, political and
economic uncertainty, mismanagement, and corruption
(Mitonga-Monga, 2018) . These factors affect the viability
of public and private sector businesses . This, in turn, likely
negatively influences the performance, satisfaction, and
well-being of the population, at large .
Organisational commitment
OC has developed among scholars and practitioners as a
topic of interest, especially in the field of Industrial and
Organisational Psychology (Bolino, Klotz, Turnley, &
Harvey, 2013) . OC definitions abound, but a common
theme is that committed individuals tend to identify with
organisational goals and desire to stay with or extend their
stay at the employing organisation (Mitonga-Monga &
Cilliers, 2016; Rafiee, Bahrami, & Entezarian, 2015) . OC
is described as a psychological bond with the organisation,
influencing individual employees to act in ways that are
consistent with the organisation’s interests (Mitonga-
Monga & Cilliers, 2016) .

Journal of Psychology in Africa is co-published by NISC (Pty) Ltd and Informa UK Limited (trading as Taylor & Francis Group)
 Employee commitment, work engagement and job satisfaction
As a construct, OC, which was developed by
Meyer and Allen (1997), has been described as an
individual affective attachment to and involvement in
an organisation . Additionally, OC is seen as the relative
strength of employees’ identification with and dedication
to an organisation, and the extent to which they are
willing to work on its behalf, whilst remaining loyal to the
organisation (Mitonga-Monga & Cilliers, 2016; Nguyen,
Felfe, & Fooken, 2014) .
Relationships between variables and related hypotheses
This study examined the influence of OC on the
relationship between work engagement (WE) and job
satisfaction (JS) . WE is “a positive, fulfilling, work-related
state of mind that is characterised by vigour, dedication
and absorption” (Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá &
Bakker, 2002, p . 74) . Vigour, dedication and absorption
are defined as follows:
• Vigour is characterised by high levels of energy,
mental resilience while working, willingness to invest
effort in one’s work, and persistence in the face of
adversity;
• Dedication is characterised by a sense of significance,
enthusiasm, inspiration and pride; and
• Absorption is defined as when one is completely
focused and happily engrossed in one’s work . It
involves employees enjoying their work, experiencing
time passing quickly, and finding it difficult to
disconnect from their work (Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter,
& Taris, 2008) .
Engaged employees tend to show high levels of
energy . They are enthusiastic, inspired, and take pride in
their work (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004) . Employees with
high WE are psychologically, physically, and emotionally
connected to the organisation . This leads to positive work-
related outcomes such as JS, OC, and reduced intention
to leave the organisation (Babakus, Yavas, & Karatepe,
2017) . Babakus and colleagues (2017) postulate that
WE positively influences JS and OC. Furthermore, a
study by Lu, Lu, Gursoy, and Neale (2016) found that
WE negatively predicted employees’ intention to leave
the organisation . In their study, Babakus and colleagues
(2017) found that WE positively relates to employee
loyalty . Employees with high WE tend to be committed,
productive, and are good achievers of organisational goals,
whilst they are loyal to the organisation (Choi et al ., 2018) .
The literature identifies the following three key
components of OC: affective, continuance, and normative
commitment. Each are defined as follows:
• Affective commitment is an individual’s psychological
and emotional bond with the organisation;
• Continuance commitment is a moderating effect of job
satisfaction in respect of an individual’s assessment of
whether the costs of leaving the employer are greater
than the costs of staying, with a concomitant influence
on his or her intention to quit; and
• Normative commitment is the extent to which
employees are obligated to the organisation (Mitonga-
Monga et al ., 2018) .
The interest in OC originated from the benefits that
it offers. The benefits includes enhanced organisational
547
performance, efficiency, retention, dedication, and
loyalty . Furthermore, OC was found to reduce undesirable
employee behaviours and attitudes such as non-attendance
and turnover intention (Al Sahi Al Zaabi, Ahmad, &
Hossan, 2016) .
JS relates to factors that include Pay, Promotion,
Supervisor, Co-workers, and the Work-itself . These factors
are defined below:
• Pay — the extent to which employees perceive fairness
and whether the organisation rewards them adequately
for their efforts;
• Promotion — the extent to which employees perceive
that the organisation affords them opportunities for
personal growth and promotion;
• Supervisor — the extent to which employees
perceive their supervisor as being fair, respectful, and
competent;
• Co-workers — the extent to which employees perceive
supportive and positive working relations with
colleagues; and
• Work-itself — the extent to which employees
perceive good working conditions in the form of work
hours, hygienic working conditions, and clear task
expectations (Mitonga-Monga et al ., 2018) .
Empirical studies support the notion that JS predicts
employees’ OC (Mitonga-Monga, Flotman, & Cilliers,
2018) and organisational citizenship behaviour (Mitonga-
Monga & Flotman, 2016) . Mitonga-Monga (2018) also
suggests that JS influences OC through an ethical work
climate .
Relationship between work engagement and
organisational commitment
Several empirical studies have examined the association
between WE and OC . Robyn and Mitonga-Monga
(2017) suggest that engaged employees show increased
organisational identification and loyalty . This, in turn,
encourage them to be psychologically attached to the
organisation . When employees connect — physically,
cognitively, and emotionally — with their work role, they
are likely to identify with the organisation’s goals and
values and devote their time to accomplishing these goals
(Babakus et al ., 2017) . They are dedicated, feel proud to
be associated with the organisation, develop self-esteem
from the affective bond with the employer, and display
productive behaviours (Choi et al ., 2018) . Engaged
employees tend to feel valued and satisfied with their job,
and are often determined to maintain the employment
relationship (Robyn & Mitonga-Monga, 2017) . Previous
research shows that WE predicts employees’ OC (Babakus
et al ., 2017) . Yalabik, Popaitoon, Chowne and Rayton
(2013) assert that WE mediates the relationship between JS
and employee performance . This implies that employees
who are enthusiastic, proud, dedicated, and happily
immersed in their work tasks will likely reciprocate with
higher OC (Peak, Schuckert, Kim, & Lee, 2015) . Thus,
given that WE can affect OC, we proposed the following
hypothesis:
• H1: WE positively and significantly affects OC .
548 Mitonga-Monga
Relationship between job satisfaction and work
engagement
Previous research indicates that JS relates positively to
WE (Garg, Dar, & Mishra, 2018) . Although some authors
argue that WE is a new construct and similar to JS (see
for example, Lavy & Littman-Ovadia, 2017; Macey &
Schneider, 2008; Saks & Gruman, 2018), many researchers
believe that JS and WE are distinctly different (see for
example Alarcon & Lyons, 2011; Barnes & Colliers, 2013) .
Satisfied employees are likely to experience a pleasurable
emotional state at work (Biswas & Bhatnagar, 2013);
however, JS may not result in productivity (Abraham,
2012) . Saks (2006) indicates that WE is a reliable
predictor of job performance and employee well-being .
These divergences are products of different natures of the
constructs . Whereas JS is a passive and affective state, WE
is an active state of contentment (van Wingerden, Bakker,
& Derks, 2016) . Thus, research indicates that employees
who are satisfied with their working conditions, the
organisation’s rewards system, their working relationships,
and opportunities for promotion, will likely engage in their
work (Havens, Gittel, & Vasey, 2018) . This implies that
JS is an antecedent of WE (Lu et al ., 2016) . Thus, since JS
can influence WE (Havens et al ., 2018), we propose the
following hypothesis:
• H2: JS significantly and positively affects WE .
Relationship between job satisfaction and organisational
commitment
JS affects behaviours such as OC, absenteeism, and
intention to leave the organisation (Babakus et al ., 2017;
Choi et al ., 2018; Havens et al ., 2018; Putra et al ., 2015;
Wengerden et al ., 2016) . Babakus and colleauges (2017)
and Mitonga-Monga and colleagues (2016) report that
JS is related to OC, and that dissatisfied employees are
more likely to leave the organisation . Furthermore, Choi
and colleagues (2018) state that satisfied individuals are
likely to have increased OC, as they believe that they need
to repay the organisation for benefits that they received .
Mitonga-Monga and colleagues (2016) mention that JS
influences productivity — employees choose whether to
give their services to the organisation, depending on how
they feel about work conditions, pay, opportunities for
promotion, and managers and colleagues . Mohammed and
Eleswed (2013) studied the relationship between JS and
OC, and found that the constructs were related . Recently,
Mitonga-Monga (2018) found that both JS and OC were
influenced by an ethical work climate . This implies that
committed employees are likely to devote all their skills
and experience to their organisation, and hence be more
productive . Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:
• H3: JS significantly and positively affects OC .
Moderating effect of job satisfaction
Several arguments support the notion that JS moderates
the relationship between WE and OC. Geldenhuys, Łaba,
and Venter (2014) suggest that JS increases employees’
level of psychological and emotional connection . This, in
turn, encourages them to show loyalty and to identify with
and become involved in accomplishing the organisation’s
goals . When employees perceive their organisation to
provide good rewards, opportunities for promotion, and
conducive working conditions (indicative of JS), then they
are likely to be enthusiastic, proud, and happily immersed
in their jobs (Zhang, Guo, & Newman, 2017) . They are
dedicated and committed to the employer (Mitonga-
Monga, 2018) . When employees perceive opportunities
for promotion, support from a competent supervisor, and
positive working conditions, they will likely be engaged,
highly active, and proud of and fully engrossed in their
work . Such positive experiences lead to lower turnover
intentions and greater commitment to the organisation (Lu
et al ., 2016) .
Some authors (see foe example Liu & Lo, 2017; Lu et
al . 2016; Yalabik, Rayton, & Rapti, 2017) also suggest that
JS mediates the relationship between WE and intention
to quit . A higher level of satisfaction has been linked to
employees’ emotional connection to the organisation
(Alessandri, Borgoni, & Latham, 2016), improved in-
role performance (Sacks & Gurman, 2018), and reduced
turnover intentions (Babakus et al ., 2017) . Rich and
colleagues (2010) argue that WE and JS mediate the
relationship between perceived organisational support,
and value congruence . Simpson (2009) suggests that JS
predicts WE, overall . The limitations of previous studies
(Mitonga-Manga, Flotman, & Cilliers, 2016) suggest
that research, which deals with the influence of WE on
employee commitment that interacts with JS, is required .
Given the literature on JS as an antecedent of both WE and
OC, this research study proposes that satisfied employees
will likely be enthusiastic, proud, and engrossed in their
work . They will increase the energy that they devote to
their roles, be loyal to the organisation, and continue the
employment relationship . Hence, the following hypothesis:
• H4: JS moderates the relationship between WE and OC .
Effects of gender and seniority
In terms of job satisfaction, Pourghaz, Tamini, and
Karamad (2011) state that females score significantly
higher than males in terms of job satisfaction . Despite
past research, women report significantly higher levels
of satisfaction (Okpara, 2004) . Further, in terms of
job satisfaction and tenure, prior studies have yielded
conflicting evidence about the direction of the relationship
between tenure and job satisfaction, including negative
(Bedeian, Ferris, & Kacmar, 1992), positive (Ng &
Fedman, 2010) and no relationship (Clark, Oswald, &
Warr, 1996) . In respect of organisational commitment,
Affum-Osei, Acquaah, and Acheampong (2015) contend
that males, females and years of service differed
significantly regarding their level of commitment . Coetzee
and De Villiers (2010) found that males and females
differed significantly regarding their level of work
engagement . Bakker (2013) reports that tenure, education
level, and job position groups differed significantly in
terms of their engagement level . Bakker (2013) further
indicates that employees who had worked for less than five
years were more engaged than those who had worked in
the organisation for between eight and ten years . Thus, we
hypothesise the following:
 Employee commitment, work engagement and job satisfaction
• H5: Individuals from various gender and tenure groups
differ significantly regarding their job satisfaction,
organisational commitment, and work engagement .
Goal of the study
The purpose of this study was to examine to what
extent employees’ perceptions of their JS moderates the
relationship between WE and OC . The following research
questions were formulated in this respect:
• How do employees’ levels of JS influence their levels
of WE and OC?
• How do employees’ level of JS, WE, and OC differ in
terms of gender and tenure?
The findings may contribute to human resource
management interventions and retention strategies .
Method
Participants and setting
This study involved a non-probability convenience sample
of 839 permanently employed employees at the railway
organisation in the DRC . The sample comprised 68%
men and 32% women in early to middle adulthood (26‒40
years) . Futhermore, 38% had a university education, and
most (30 .5%) had six to ten years’ tenure .
Measures
The reported revealed their age, gender, educational
level, and tenure . They also completed the Utrecht
Work Engagement Scale (UWES: Schaufeli, Bakker, &
Salanova, 2006), the Organisational Commitment Scale
(OCS: Meyer & Allen, 1991), and the Job Satisfaction
Questionnaire (JSQ: Locke, 1976) .
The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale
The UWES is a nine-item self-rating measure of
dimensions including: Vigour, Dedication, and Absorption .
Each item is scored on a seven-point Likert-type scale;
ranging from 0 = Never; to 6 = Every day (Schaufeli et
al ., 2002) . Schaufeli, Bakker and Salanova (2006) reported
an internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha coefficients)
ranging from 0 .81 to 0 .85 . The present study obtained
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, ranging from 0 .88 to 0 .94
for scores from the UWES .
The Organisational Commitment Scale
The OCS is a 24-item self-report measure of dimensions
including: Affective, Continuance, and Normative . Items
are scored on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1=
Strongly disagree, to 5 = Strongly agree (Meyer &
Allen, 1997) . Meyer and Allen (1997) reported internal
consistency reliability coefficients, ranging from 0 .76
to 0 .89 . The present study obtained Cronbach’s alpha
coefficients, ranging from 0 .83 to 0 .88 for scores from the
OCS .
The Job Satisfaction Questionnaire
The JSQ is a 20-item self-reporting measure of employees’
satisfaction regarding dimensions, including: Pay,
Promotion, Supervisor, Co-workers, and Work-itself .
The JSQ is scored on a five-point Likert scale, ranging
from 1 = Strongly disagree, to 5 = Strongly agree (Locke,
549
1976) . Vitell and Davis (1990) reported Cronbach’s alpha
coefficients, ranging from 0 .76 to 0 .89 . The present study
obtained Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, ranging from 0 .72
to 0 .92 for scores from the JSQ .
Procedures
The researcher obtained permission to conduct the research
from the Higher Degree Committee at the University
of South Africa (No11/40-AO22/SD-Form/2013) and
from the DRC railway service organisation . Participants
provided written informed consent to participate in the
study . Each participant received a package consisting of
the following: (i) an approval letter from management; (ii)
an invitation letter, indicating the purpose and objectives
of the research; (iii) a letter explaining the individual’s
consent and voluntary participation in the research project,
confirmation of the safekeeping, and confidentiality of the
responses; (iv) instructions to complete the questionnaires;
and (v) the questionnaires .
Data analysis
The data were analysed by using the Statistical Package
for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 25 for Windows
(Arbuckle, 2018) . First, descriptive statistics were
computed to determine means and standard deviations .
Second, hierarchical regression analysis was conducted
to determine if the JSQ variables acted as moderator in
the association between the UWES and OCS variables .
Prior to conducting the regression analysis, collinearity
diagnosis was performed to ensure that the zero-order
correlations were below the threshold level of concern (r
≥ 0.80), that the variance inflation factors did not exceed
ten, and that the tolerance values were close to one (Cohen,
Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2013) . The sequence of simple
slope tests for the regression model was followed, and
the rescaled mean-centred values (Chen et al ., 2003) were
used for the regression analysis . In order to counter the
probability of Type 1 errors, the significance value was
set at the 95% confidence interval level (p ≤ 0.05). For
the purpose of this study, the practical significance of
the R2 values was determined by calculating effect sizes
(f²) (Cohen, 1992) . Third, an independent sample t-test
was used for the gender variable, while an ANOVA was
used to test for significant differences between the tenure
groups. A cut-off point of ≤ 0.05 was set to determine the
significance of the findings .
Results
Descriptive statistics and correlations
Table 1 presents the mean, standard deviations, Cronbach’s
alpha coefficients, and correlations of the variables .
WE (using the UWES) obtained the highest mean score
(M = 4 .49; SD = 0 .88), while OC (OCS) obtained a mean
score of M = 4 .09; SD = 0 .54 .
Regarding the JS variables, Co-workers obtained the
highest mean score (M = 4 .15; SD = 0 .61), followed by
work-itself (M = 4 .02; SD = 0 .67), promotion (M = 4 .01;
SD = 0 .61), supervisor (M = 4 .00; SD = 074) and, pay
(M = 3.95; SD = 0.73). All five components indicated a
relatively high level of OC in the sample .
550 Mitonga-Monga

Table 1. Correlational analysis

Variables Mean SD Αlpha 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

WE 4 .49 0 .88 0 .94 1 68*** 54*** 43** 65*** 51*** 59***
OC 4 .09 0 .54 0 .94 1 66*** 57*** 69*** 49** 60***
PAY 3 .95 0 .73 0 .86 1 57*** 61*** 41** 55***
PROM 4 .01 0 .61 0 .74 1 52*** 44** 53***
SUP 4 .00 0 .74 0 .84 1 45** 61***
CO-W 4 .15 0 .55 0 .72 1 53***
WITSELF 4 .02 0 .67 0 .80 1
Note . N = 839; WE = Work engagement; OC = Organisational commitment; PROM = Promotion; SUP = supervisor; CO-W = Co-workers; WITSELF
= Work-itself

5. the 5.affective, continuance and normative OC variables

Low Low
Sat.Pay (r ≥ 0.41, medium practical effect size, to r ≥Sat.Super
0.69, large
4. 4.
practical effect size) . These results show that
Highthe zero-
High
Sat.Pay order correlations coefficients were below the threshold
Sat.Super

OC
3.
OC

3.
level of concern (r ≥ 0.80) in terms of multi-collinearity.
2.
OC 2.variables associated positively and significantly with
the JS variables; namely pay, promotion, supervisor, co-
1. workers
1. and work-itself (p ≤ 0.05).
Low WE High WE Low WE High WE

Note . WE = Work engagement; OC = Organisational Note . WE = Work engagement; OC = Organisational

commitment commitment
Figure 1. Interacting effect between Pay, WE, and OC Figure 4. Interacting effect between Supervisor, WE, and OC

5. 5.
Low Low Sat.W-
Sat.Prom Itself
4. 4.
High High Sat.W-
Sat.Prom Itself
OC

3.
OC

3.

2. 2.

1. 1.
Low WE High WE Low WE High WE
Note WE = Work engagement; OC = Organisational Note . WE = Work engagement; OC = Organisational
commitment commitment
Figure 2. Interacting effect between Promotion, WE, and OC Figure 5. Interacting effect between Work-itself, WE, and OC

Job satisfaction as a moderator of the relationship

5.
Low Sat.Co- between work engagement and organisational
4.
work commitment
High Sat.Co- The most significant finding of the slope test analysis
work was that the JS variables (pay, promotion, supervisor,
OC

3.
co-workers and work-itself) consistently moderated the
2. association between WE and OC . The results indicate
that respondents’ association between WE and OC was
1.
Low WE High WE stronger for those with a high level of satisfaction with
pay, promotion, supervisor, co-workers, and work-itself .
Note . WE = Work engagement; OC = Organisational
commitment Figures 1 to 5 depict the interacting effect of the JS
variables on the relationship between WE and OC .
Figure 3. Interacting effect between Co-worker, WE, and OC
Effects on organisational commitment
Table 2 indicates the interactions between pay and
Relating work engagement, organisational commitment, WE (β = -17; p ≤ 0.01). The R2 change was significant
and job satisfaction (R2 = 0 .62; f2 ≥ 1.5; small practical effect; p ≤ 0.01) in each
Table 1 shows the significant relationships between the of the regression models . Higher satisfaction on JS’s pay
UWES, JSQ, and OCS variables . The results show that dimension predicted higher WE and OC .
the JS variables pay, promotion, supervisor, co-workers, Furthermore, Table 2 shows the interactions between
and work-itself related significantly and positively to promotion and WE (β = −23; p ≤ 0.01). The R2 change
 Employee commitment, work engagement and job satisfaction 551

was significant (R2 = 0 .61; f2 ≥ 1.6; small practical effect; Tenure

p ≤ 0.01) in each of the regression models. Higher
satisfaction on JS’s promotion dimension predicted higher
WE and OC .
Similarly, there was a significant effect of co-workers
on WE (β = -22; p ≤ 0.01). The R2 change was significant
(R2 = 0 .54; f2 ≥ 1.5; small practical effect; p ≤ 0.01) in each
of the regression models . Thus, a higher score on JS’s co-
workers dimension predicted higher WE and OC .
Additionally, Table 2 indicates the effect of supervisor
on WE (β = −19; p ≤ 0.01). The R2 change was significant
(R2 = 0 .60; f2 ≥ 1.6; small practical effect; p ≤ 0.01) in each
of the regression models . This implies that a higher score
on JS’s supervisor dimension predicted higher WE and
OC .
Lastly, Table 2 shows the effect of work-itself on
WE (β = -27; p ≤ 0.01). The R2 change was significant
(R2 = 0 .59; f2 ≥ 1.4; small practical effect; p ≤ 0.01) in each
of the regression models, indicating that a higher score on
JS’s work-itself dimension predicted higher WE and OC .
Significant differences between gender and seniority
Gender
As shown in Table 3, no statistically significant
differences were observed in terms of the dedication, total
job satisfaction, satisfaction with pay, and satisfaction
with work-itself in respect of gender . Furthermore, no
statistically significant differences could be observed with
other variables . Table 3 indicates that the male participants
scored significantly higher than their female counterparts
did on dedication (M = 13 .54; SD = 2 .75), total job
satisfaction (M = 81 .11; SD = 10 .29), satisfaction with pay
(M = 15 .99; SD = 2 .88) and satisfaction with work-itself
(M = 16 .21; SD = 2 .66) .
Table 2. Moderated regression analysis examining the interaction effects between the pay, promotion, supervisor, co-worker and
work-itself (JSQ) and WE (UWES) on organisational commitment OCS
A one-way between-groups Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) was conducted to explore the effect of tenure
on organisational commitment, work engagement, and job
satisfaction . Participants were divided into seven groups,
according to their job tenure . Group 1: below 1 year (M =
90 .12; SD = 13 .55); Group 2: 1–2 years (M = 97 .29; SD
= 13 .54); Group 3: 3–5 years (M = 99 .21; SD = 12 .30);
Group 4: 6–10 years (M = 99 .23; SD = 13 .09) ; Group 5:
11–15 years (M = 99 .87; SD = 11 .78) ; Group 6: 16–20
years (M = 97 .08; SD = 14 .02); and Group 7: above 21
year(M = 95 .57; SD = 10 .94) .
As shown in Table 4, there was a statistically
significant difference among three groups in total: OC
[F(6,837) = 6 .06, p = 0 .001] . However, there was no
significant difference among those with tenure of below
1 year, 16–20 years, and above 21 years groups . Scheffe’s
Post Hoc Test of multiple comparisons indicates that the
mean scores of total OC in participants who had below 1
year, and 16–20 years, and above 21 years job tenure were
lower than the mean scores of other groups .
As shown in Table 4, there was a statistically
significant difference among three groups in total: WE
[F(6; 832) = 3 .748, p < 0 .000] . Nevertheless, there was
no significant difference between below 1 year and 16–20
years, and above 21 years groups . As shown in Table 5,
there was a statistically significant difference among
three groups . In total, JS [F(6;831) = 5 .844, p < 0 .000],
pay [F(6,832) = 4 .128, p < 0 .000], promotion [F(6;831)
= 3 .141, p < 0 .000], co-worker [F(6;832) = 2 .973,
p < 0 .000], supervisor [F(6;832) = 4 .239, p < 0 .000], and
work-itself [F(6;832) = 5 .691, p < 0 .000] . However, there
was no significant difference between the employee groups
with service periods below 1 year, 16–20 years and above
21 years groups .

Model Predictor variable ẞ b SE ΔR2 Total R2 f2

1 .
OC (constant) Pay 0 .38*** 0 .70 0 .08
WE 0 .41** 0 .28 0 .01 0 .62** 0 .62***
Pay × WE −0.17* −0.09 0 .01 ΔF:439.09 F:426 .85 1 .6
2 .
OC (constant) Promotion 0 .31*** 0 .07 0 .01
WE 0 .0 .41 0 .03 0 .00 0 .61** 0 .61**
Promotion × WE −0.23* −0.0.12 −0.01 ΔF:426.85 F:3 .89 1 .6
3 .
OC (constant) Co-worker 0 .16*** 0 .04 0 .01
WE 0 .56*** 0 .04 0 .00 0 .54 0 .54***
Co-worker × WE −0.22*** −0.11 0 .01 ΔF:325.73 F:325 .73 1 .6
4 .
OC (constant) Supervisor 0 .33*** 0 .06 0 .01
WE 0 .39*** 0 .03 0 .00 0 .60*** 0 .60***
Supervisor x WE −0.19*** −0.10 0 .01 ΔF:416.08 F:416 .08 1 .5
OC
Work-itself 0 .20*** 0 .04 0 .01
(constant) 0 .57 0 .59
WE 0 .45*** 0 .03 0 .00 ΔF:387.62 F:387 .62 1 .4
Work-itself x WE −0.27*** −0.15 0 .01
Note . N = 839; *** p ≤ 0.001; **p ≤ 0.01; *p ≤ 0.05. Δ = delta; β = standardised regression coefficient; b = unstandardised regression coefficient;
SE = standard error; f2 = effect size estimate for the interaction term; OC = Organisational commitment; beta values are mean centred: all statistics are
from the final (second) step .
552 Mitonga-Monga

Table 3. T-test for significance difference between work engagement and job satisfaction (N = 839)

Variables Mean Standard deviation

WE
Male 13 .54 2 .75
Dedication
Female 13 .08 2 .79
JS
Male 15 .99 2 .88
Pay
Female 15 .41 2 .95
Male 16 .21 2 .66
Work-itself
Female 15 .79 2 .70
Levene’s test for equality of variance T-test for equality of means
F p T df p
Gender
WE
Dedication 0 .06 0 .81 2 .24 837 0 .03*
JS
JS 2 .31 0 .13 2 .31 836 0 .02**
Pay 1 .07 0 .30 2 .74 837 0 .01***
Work-itself 0 .07 0 .79 2 .14 837 0 .03*
Note . N = 839;***p < 0 .001, **p < 0 .01, *p < 0 .05; JS = Job satisfaction; WE = Work engagement

Discussion employee’s score on JS was high, his/her self-reported

The objective of this study was to determine whether
WE relates to JS and OC . The broader purpose was to
investigate whether JS (with reference to satisfaction with
pay, promotion, co-workers, supervisor, and work-itself)
moderated the relationship between WE and OC .
Overall, the results show that there is a significant
positive relationship between WE and OC . JS moderated
the relationship between WE and OC so that when an
WE and OC were also high. These findings correlate with
those of previous studies that reported that employees’
JS is important for their psychological attachment to the
organisation and, ultimately, organisational performance
(Babakus et al., 2017). The findings are likely to be
expounded by the fact that employees who perceive
fairness in terms of the reward system, opportunities for
promotion, a positive and friendly working environment,

Table 4. One Way ANOVA on organisational commitment, work engagement and job satisfaction regarding seniority (N = 839)

Variables Source of variations Sum of squares df Mean square F p

Total OC Between groups 5895 .43 6 982 .57 6 .06 < 0 .000***
Within groups 134818 .81 831 162 .24
Total 140714 .24 837
Total WE Between groups 1390 .37 6 231 .73 3 .748 0 .001***
Within groups 51441 .62 832 61 .83
Total 52831 .99 838
Total JS Between groups 3723 .90 6 620 .65 5 .844 < 0 .000***
Within groups 88252 .05 831 106 .20
Total 91975 .95 837
Pay Between groups 205 .82 6 34 .30 4 .128 < 0 .000***
Within groups 6914 .43 832 8 .31
Total 7120 .25 838
Promotion Between groups 110 .90 6 18 .48 3 .141 0 .005*
Within groups 4890 .35 831 5 .89
Total 5001 .25 837
Co-worker Between groups 85 .65 6 14 .28 2 .973 0 .007*
Within groups 3994 .34 832 4 .80
Total 4079 .99 838
Supervisor Between groups 217 .14 6 36 .19 4 .239 < 0 .000***
Within groups 7102 .86 832 8 .54
Total 7319 .99 838
Work-itself Between groups 237 .11 6 39 .52 5 .691 < 0 .000***
Within groups 5777 .16 832 6 .94
Total 6014 .27 838
Note . N = 839; ***p < 0 .001, **p < 0 .01, *p < 0 .05; OC = Occupational commitment; WE = Work experience; JS = Job satisfaction
 Employee commitment, work engagement and job satisfaction
and favourable working conditions, will likely display
higher levels of WE and OC (see Lu et al ., 2016; Sutra
et al., 2015). Employees who are satisfied with support
from their supervisor, and who enjoy mutual trust and a
conducive working environment, will likely be engaged in
their work tasks . This, in turn, could lead to employees
showing loyalty and psychological attachment, and
extending their relationship with their organisation (see
Choi et al ., 2018) .
Job satisfaction as a moderator
The results indicate that JS moderated employees’
psychological and emotional attachment to the
organisation; hence, they wanted to work there longer .
This might be explained by the fact that when employees
score high on the JS variables they might respond with a
high level of WE (Yalabik, et al ., 2017), and show their
intention to continue to work at the organisation (Lu et al .,
2016) .
Previous research findings suggest that employees with
a high level of WE demonstrate relatively higher levels of
energy, enthusiasm, pride, and psychological involvement
(van Wingerden et al ., 2016) . Employees who perceive an
adequate and fair reward system and favourable working
conditions will most likely also be engaged in their work,
show loyalty to, and stay with, the organisation (Zhang
et al., 2017). These findings mirror those of previous
studies by Lu and colleagues (2016), who found that JS
is a key driver of employees’ WE and commitment; and
that satisfied employees are likely to be engaged, loyal,
and psychologically attached to the organisation. Satisfied
employees are likely to demonstrate higher levels of
work engagement, which, in turn, will influence their
commitment to the organisation and, ultimately, enhance
its competitive advantage (Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter, &
Taris, 2008; Havens et al ., 2018) .
Effects of gender and seniority
The results indicate that the participants’ gender
significantly differs regarding work engagement and
job satisfaction . Male employees had a higher level of
engagement and satisfaction than female employees .
These findings are consistent with Coetzee and De
Villiers’ (2010) conclusion that males and females differed
significantly regarding their level of work engagement .
Previous research indicates that men tend to be satisfied
with pay, working conditions, and feedback (Gumbang,
Suki, & Suki, 2010) .
The results further indicate that participants’ seniority
differs in terms of work engagement, job satisfaction,
and organisational commitment . This implies that senior
employees who are engaged in their work and who
are committed are likely to be satisfied with pay and
working conditions, promotion, and relationships with
colleagues . While tenure increases, they may become
more autonomous . Although they remain, are engaged, and
committed; their satisfaction may increase. These findings
mirror those of Bakker’s (2013) research, reporting that
tenure, education level, and job position groups differed
significantly in terms of their engagement level.
553
Implications for human resource practices
The results of this study have significant implications for
human resources management interventions and retention
strategies . First, human resource managers who strive to
retain skilled employees, should create working conditions
which will render employees satisfied, engaged, and
committed (van Wingerden et al ., 2016) . This is because
satisfied employees who are engaged are likely to be
creative, intrinsically and extrinsically motivated, and
loyal (Babakus et al ., 2017) . Human resource managers
who cultivate a happy working environment enjoy higher
levels of employees’ work engagement, a higher retention
rate, and a higher level of employee commitment leading
to employment stability and loyalty .
Employees who perceive their job satisfaction
positively (pay, promotion, co-worker, supervisor,
and work it-self), display positive emotions, and are
intrinsically and extrinsically satisfied with their work
environment (indicative of JS; Choi et al ., 2018) .
Therefore, human resources managers who want to
retain employees and drive productivity should consider
the importance of employee satisfaction as a strategic
advantage for the organisation; because satisfied
employees are likely to contribute to organisational
performance, dedicate their time to the organisation, and
extend their stay at the organisation (Mitonga-Monga,
Flotman, & Cilliers, 2016) . The presence of a good
reward system and working conditions could encourage
employees to give back in the form of engagement and
OC (Albrecht, 2010) . These considerations would apply
even in developing countries’ industrial settings with
underdeveloped managerial systems, high unemployment,
and relatively poor compensation .
Limitations and future directions
Firstly, limitations of the study include the fact that the
sample comprised individual employees who work in one
organisation in the DRC, which may limit the findings’
generalisability . Secondly, the study made use of a cross-
sectional design, which implies that there may not be
causality between the variables . Future studies should seek
to replicate these findings in other developing countries’
transport service systems .
Conclusion
This study found that employees who perceive a good
reward system, conducive working conditions, mutually
trusting relationships with colleagues, and physical,
emotional, and psychological attachment are more willing
to exert effort in the interest of the organisation, whilst
showing a strong desire to remain committed to the
organisation . The results of this research provide evidence
that JS has a significant positive influence on employees’
level of WE and psychological attachment, as well as their
intention to stay at the employing organisation .
ORCID
Jeremy Mitonga-Monga https://orcid .org/0000-0002-4287-7498
554 Mitonga-Monga
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