Construction and Building Materials 227 (2019) 116598

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Effect of silica fume on durability of self-compacting concrete made with

waste recycled concrete aggregates
Hossein Sasanipour a, Farhad Aslani b,c,⇑, Javad Taherinezhad a,d
a
Central Lab., Sinab Gharb Consulting Engineers., Hamedan, Iran
b
Materials and Structures Innovation Group, School of Engineering, University of Western Australia, WA 6009, Australia
c
School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, WA 6027, Australia
d
Civil Eng., Dept., Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran

h i g h l i g h t s

Silica fume play an important role to improve durability performance.

Silica fume decreased water absorption according to BS and ASTM standards.

Recycled aggregates decreased UPV and ER in SCC mixtures.

Silica fume increased significantly ER and chloride ion penetration resistance.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Due to adhered mortar in recycled concrete aggregates, some of the properties of concrete made with
Received 26 April 2019 these types of aggregates, such as water absorption, porosity, electrical resistivity, and chloride ion pen-
Received in revised form 23 July 2019 etration, may be affected. In this study, silica fume was used as a part of cementitious materials to
Accepted 29 July 2019
improve the properties of self-compacting concrete (SCC), which were made with fine and coarse recy-
Available online 13 August 2019
cled aggregates. Three series of mixtures were made in the laboratory. In the first and second series,
coarse recycled aggregates with replacement of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% were used with and without sil-
Keywords:
ica fume. In the third series, 25% of fine recycled aggregates were replaced with fine natural aggregates.
Self-compacting concrete
Recycled concrete aggregates
Slump flow and J-ring tests were considered for fresh state of SCC. The compressive strength, water
Silica fume absorption, ultrasonic pulse velocity, electrical resistivity, and chloride ion penetration tests were per-
Chloride ion penetration formed for hardened concrete. The use of silica fume improved the properties of fresh SCC. The results
Electrical resistivity showed that silica fume can reduce water absorption and porosity. The silica fume showed that can
Water absorption resulted in a significant increase in electrical resistivity. On the other hand, the replacement of 25% of
Ultrasonic pulse velocity recycled aggregates did not have a significant effect on electrical resistivity, the electrical resistivity
decreased by increasing the amount of replacement. Silica fume was very effective in controlling chloride
ion penetration and reducing total charge passed. Silica fume also controlled the temperature of the solu-
tions used during the test which indicates the control of the movement of ions in the penetration into
concrete.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Undoubtedly concrete is one of the most widely used building

Abbreviations: SCC, self-compacting concrete; C, cement; w/b ratio, water/
binder ratio; RCA, recycled concrete aggregate; CNA, coarse natural aggregate; CRA,
coarse recycled concrete aggregate; FNA, fine natural aggregate; FRA, fine recycled
concrete aggregate; SF, silica fume; SP, superplasticizer; LP, limestone powder;
Comp St, compressive strength; UPV, ultrasonic pulse velocity; ER, electrical
resistivity; TCHP, total charge passed; ITZ, interface transition zone.
⇑ Corresponding author at: Materials and Structures Innovation Group, School of
Engineering, The University of Western Australia, WA, Australia
E-mail address: farhad.aslani@uwa.edu.au (F. Aslani).
materials in recent years. With the advancement of technology in
particular concrete designs, researchers succeeded in producing a
kind of concrete called self-compacting concrete (SCC) that is
easily placed in the form just because of its own weight, especially
in places with a high density of reenforcing bars [1]. The advantage
of this type of concrete, due to the fact that it does not need to be
compacted, is to implement it without creating noise during

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.324
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 H. Sasanipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 227 (2019) 116598
concreting [2]. On the other hand, while the natural resources used
in construction are decreasing these days, the amount of waste
materials and materials from the destruction of structures is
increasing. In the meantime, the use of recycled concrete aggre-
gates (RCAs) for sustainable development and the production of
eco-friendly concrete is of great importance [3,4]. Researchers’
recent studies show that the interest in the use of RCAs in SCC is
increasing [5–7]. The adhered mortar to RCAs reduces the quality
of recycled aggregates, including increasing water absorption,
increasing porosity and reducing resistance which, in turn, affects
the properties of both fresh and hardened concrete [8–10]. Many
studies show that it is possible to produce SCC with RCAs. This is
possible by controlling the water-cement ratio, proper use of
chemical and mineral admixtures as well as appropriate prepara-
tion methods before using RCAs [3,11–13]. The results of the study
by Nili et al. [13] showed that using air-entraining agent and silica
fume, as well as the preparation of RCAs by pre-soaking method
resulted in a significant reduction in bleeding and segregation of
SCC containing fine and coarse RCAs. This can be attributed to
the very fine particles of silica fume which can effectively control
bleeding and segregation of the concrete [14]. The compressive
strength of SCC is expected to reduce by using RCAs. This may
related to the porosity of RCAs and their high water absorption
(which causes an increase in the w/c ratio) and the increase of
interface transition zones (ITZ). In recycled concrete, three inter-
face transition zones are defined: 1) the transition layer between
the old mortar and the new mortar, 2) the transition layer between
the aggregates and the old mortar, and possibly 3) the transition
layer between the recycled aggregate and the new mortar. Since
the location of the transition layer is the weakest structural part
of the concrete. However, the possibility of decreasing or increas-
ing resistance has been observed depending on the RCAs and the
specifications of the reference concrete from which the aggregate
has been recycled [13,15]. For example, some researchers have
found that replacing up to 40% of RCAs has not had a significant
effect on the reduction of compressive strength that can be due
to the proper connection of RCAs with cement paste, the contribu-
tion of porosity water of RCAs in improvement of ITZ (self-healing),
and the appropriate quality of the adhered mortar to RCAs [16–19].
In some cases, it has been reported that the compressive strength
of concrete has increased due to the reaction of non-hydrated
cement of mortar on FRAs [20].
Nevertheless, extensive studies have been done to improve the
quality of RCAs and some methods have been recommended. These
methods are either physical or chemical operations on RCAs. With
these methods, the mortar adhering to aggregate is removed or
strengthened. Mechanical grinding, Pre-soaking in water/acid are
Table 1
Chemical, physical and mechanical properties of cement and silica fume.
Chemical properties Cement (%)
SiO2 21.27
CaO 62.95
Fe2O3 4.03
Al2O3 4.95
MgO 1.55
Na2O 0.49
K2O 0.65
SO3 2.26
C3A 6.3
LOI 2.11
Physical properties
Specific gravity 3–3.1
Specific surface (cm2/gr) 2910
Setting Time (min) Initial- 154
Final- 195
methods used to remove adhesive mortar and polymer emulsion,
pozzolan slurry, calcium carbonate bio-deposition, sodium silicate
solution, and carbonation are methods to strengthen RCAs [21–23].
In comparison with the normal concrete, the concrete containing
RCAs has higher porosity and water absorption, in which, affect
the durability of recycled concrete [24]. It has been reported that
using cementitious minerals such as fly ash and silica fume can
improve the durability properties of recycled concrete, including
ER and resistance to chloride ion penetration [25–27]. This can
be attributed to the very fine structures of these minerals that
act as filler in concrete and effectively improve its durability
[28]. As reported by Hassan et al. (2012), the results of few
research works indicate that fly ash performed better than silica
fume [29]. However, recently conducted studies demonstrated that
due to smaller particles, silica fume improves the durability prop-
erties of recycled concrete much better than fly ash [27,30]. Refer-
ring to the fact that the use of minerals can effectively improve the
durability of SCC made with RCAs, a positive attitude has arisen
towards the use of RCAs.
2. Research significance
In the last decade, the consumption of SCC has been widely wel-
comed, so several studies have been carried out to examine its var-
ious properties, including durability [31–35]. Also, the effect of
RCAs on the durability of conventional concrete has been widely
studied [36–38]. However, research work on the impact of RCAs
on the durability of SCC is lacking and needs further investigation
[6,25,27,39,40]. It is evidenced that while the use of RCAs alone has
negative effects on concrete properties, the use of silica fume as a
cementitious material additive can compensate the effects and
improve the concrete quality. Furtherly, replacement of Portland
cement (which needs large amount of fossil energy during produc-
tion) with silica fume can significantly contributes in saving energy
and reducing environmental pollution. On the other hand, using
RCAs in concrete can lead to a considerable reduction in construc-
tion debris. This also assists the concrete industry to preserve the
natural resources by reducing the consumption of natural aggre-
gates. In addition, resolving the durability issues of SCC containing
RCAs by including silica fume, expands the lifespan of structures
which, in turn, results in financial benefits. Therefore, development
of SCC containing RCAs and silica fume can pave the path to pro-
duce an environmental-friendly and clean material.
The main objective of this study is to investigate the durability
properties of SCC incorporated with up to 100 percent of CRAs, 25
percent of FRAs and containing silica fume. It is expected that the
study paves the path to produce a SCC with RCAs which can satisfy
Silica fume (%) Mechanical properties
85–95 Mortar Comp Str (MPa).
– f’c 3 days 20.1
0.4–2 f’c 7 days 28.2
0.5–1.7 f’c 28 days 40.3
0.1–0.9
0.15–0.2
0.15–1.02
–
–
3.5
2.21
14,000
–
–
 H. Sasanipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 227 (2019) 116598 3

the structural and durability necessities and be considered as a
clean product.
3. Experimental design and materials
3.1. Materials
In this research, Portland cement type 2 from Hegmatan
Cement Factory and silica fume from Iran Ferrosilicon Co., were
used as shown in Table 1. Powdered stones with a specific gravity
of 2.58 were used as powdered materials. The characteristics of
natural and recycled aggregates are shown in Table 2. In order to
supply RCAs, specific resources were used, such as residential
and sanitary buildings which were going to be destroyed later.
The RCAs were prepared by crashing the concrete in the laboratory.
Natural aggregates are crashed [in almost all sides]. RCAs have
been crashed at laboratory. First, the waste concretes were crashed
by small rock crushing machine to produce CRAs, and then some of
Table 2
Specifications of natural and recycled coarse and fine aggregates.
Type of aggregates Specific gravity
CNA 2.63
CRA 2.36
FNA 2.58
FRA 2.23
the CRAs have been crashed manually using a hammer to produce
FRAs. The grains with diameter greater than 19 mm were removed
by sieving (see Fig. 1). Particle size distributions of natural and
recycled aggregates are shown in Fig. 2. Gradation curves show
that fineness modulus of FRAs and FNAs are similar, while water
absorption of FRAs are 7 times more than FNAs (Table 2). Adhered
mortar in RCAs led to increase water absorption. Moreover, a com-
parison between specific gravity of aggregates shows that it is
lower in RCAs than natural aggregates. On the other hand, CRAs
are smaller in size than CNAs as is shown in Fig. 2. A superplasti-
cizer admixture based on polycarboxylates was used to obtain
appropriate workability according to the EFNARC recommendation
[14].
3.2. Mix proportions
The amount of silica fume replacement, based on the recom-
mendations in the literature, was selected eight percent of the
weight of the cement. Since the amount of silica fume for replacing
is low, replacing of SF do not has a significant effect on calculation
of mix proportion and for laboratory scale can be negligible. This
issue can be found in the literature [27,41]. Also, coarse RCAs were
Fineness Water used by the replacement of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. The fine and
Modulus absorption (%) coarse recycled aggregates were pre-soaked before mixing. Pre-
– 1.7 soaking was considered an effective way to separate impurities
– 5.4 and obtain higher quality RCA. The amount of water that RCAs
3.70 2.1 have absorbed before being used in the mixture has carefully been
3.67 14.8
considered and calculated in mixing water. Table 3 shows the val-
ues of the mixing plan in SSD situation. In all mixes, the water-
cementitious materials ratio was 0.4 and cementitious materials
with content of 420 kg/m3 were used. Two SS and S reference
mixes has been casted to compare with 10 mixes containing RCAs.
The results of the tests on the fresh SCC are shown in Table 4. As
illustrate in Fig. 3 the fresh state of all mixes were in good condi-
tion according to EFNARC. J-ring test results show that the height
difference decreased from 10 mm to 2 mm with introducing silica
fume. Due to the grading curves, it can be concluded that CRAs are
smaller in size than those of coarse natural ones, making it easier
to pass through the bars. Smaller size cause the trend of reduction
in height difference occurring with less intensity in the J-ring test
for RACs.

3.3. Test methods

The compressive strength test was performed on 100 mm test

cubes at the age of 91 days. Water absorption test was done on
75  75 mm cylindrical specimens, according to BS 1881 Part122
[42] and ASTM C 642–13 [43] standards. Ultrasonic pulse velocity
measurement was also performed according to ASTM C597 [44]
Fig. 1. Coarse and fine concrete aggregates recycled in the laboratory. standard on 100 mm test cubes at the age of 3, 7, 11, 14, 21, 25
and 28 days. Test of electrical resistance measurement was carried
out on 100 mm test cubes at the age of 3, 7, 11, 14, 21, 25 and
100 28 days. Saturated surface dry specimens were used in the test.
fine natural aggregate The specimens were placed between two copper plaques and elec-
fine recycled aggregate trical resistance (R) crossing the specimen was recorded. Electrical
80
% Passing the sieve

coarse natural aggregate

resistivity (q) was calculated from Equation (1). To investigate the
coarse recycled aggregate
60 resistance of mixtures against chloride ion penetration, the rapid
chloride penetration test (RCPT) was performed based on ASTM
40 C1202 [45], on 100  50 mm cylindrical specimens. Also, during
the RCPT tests, temperature of solutions was recorded, and effect
20 of silica fume on thermal behavior was investigated. Fig. 4 shows
the equipment used in pulse velocity, electrical resistance, and
0 chloride ion penetration tests.
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve opening (mm) A
q¼R ð1Þ
L
Fig. 2. The gradations of coarse and fine aggregates.
4 H. Sasanipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 227 (2019) 116598

Table 3
Proportions of the concrete mixes.

Mix Series Mix Code W/b W Cement SF CNA. FNA. CRA. FRA. LP SP (%)
3
(kg/m )
References S 0.4 168 420 – 526.2 1032.5 – – 172 0.9
SS 386.4 33.6 526.2 1032.5 172 1
Series 1 S25C 0.4 168 420 – 401.4 1032.4 119.5 – 172 1.06
S50C – 263.1 1032.4 239.1 – 172 1.09
S75C – 131.6 1032.4 358.7 – 172 1.05
S100C – – 1032.4 478.2 – 172 1.00
Series 2 SS25C 0.4 168 386.4 33.6 401.4 1032.4 119.5 – 172 1.00
SS50C 33.6 263.1 1032.4 239.1 – 172 1.09
SS75C 33.6 131.6 1032.4 358.7 – 172 1.00
SS100C 33.6 – 1032.4 478.2 – 172 1.00
Series 3 S25f 0.4 168 420 – 526.2 774.3 – 223.1 172 0.92
SS25f 386.4 33.6 526.2 774.3 – 223.1 172 0.9

Table 4
Properties of fresh SCC mixes.

Mix Series Mix Code Slump flow (mm) T50 (s) T final (s) J-ring (mm) J-ring SP (%) Density (kg/m3) Whether conforms to
EFNARC guide-lines [14].
References S 600 4.3 29 585 10 0.90 2305 Yes
SS 600 4.9 29 580 2 1.00 2278 Yes
Series 1 S25C 575 4.5 30 560 4 1.06 2296 Yes
S50C 590 4.9 27 580 6 1.09 2271 Yes
S75C 685 4.6 32 630 6 1.05 2248 Yes
S100C 610 4.9 20 560 5 1.00 2240 Yes
Series 2 SS25C 625 5.0 28 585 2 1.00 2265 Yes
SS50C 610 4.1 29 595 3 1.09 2247 Yes
SS75C 600 3.2 27 590 4 1.00 2231 Yes
SS100C 610 4.9 22 590 2 1.00 2205 Yes
Series 3 S25f 670 3.2 20 635 5 0.92 2272 Yes
SS25f 628 3.1 19 610 4 0.90 2248 Yes

(a)

(b)
Fig. 3. Fresh state of self-compacting concrete containing RCAs: a) mix with replacement of 100% coarse RCAs, and b) mix containing 100% RCAs and silica fume.
 H. Sasanipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 227 (2019) 116598
(a)
Fig. 4. Equipment used in the experiments, a) UPV measuring device, b) ER measuring device, c) The device used for testing RCPT using the ASTM C1202 method.
where q is the electrical resistivity (X.m), R is the electrical resis-
tance (O), A is the area of the specimens (m2), and L is the length
of the specimen (m).
4. Test results and discussions
4.1. Compressive strength
The results of the 28 and 91 days of compressive strength are
shown in Fig. 5. The results showed that with the replacement of
RCAs, the compressive strength decreased compared to the refer-
ence mixes. A comparison between mixes containing SF and with-
out SF shows that incorporating SF cause a reduction in
compressive strength at the 28 days up to 19%, 31% and 27% as
compared to the reference mix, second series, and third series,
respectively (Fig. 5a, b, c). Results of some researchers have shown
that it is possible a reduction in compressive strength at the early
ages due to the using SF in the mixtures containing RCAs. Never-
theless, the effective influence of SF has been observed at a later
age as all the observed RCA concretes were able to achieve com-
pressive strengths more than 70 MPa after 91 days [46,47]. Expect-
edly, in the first series with 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% replacements
of CRAs, the compressive strength at 91 days decreased by 30%,
35%, 40% and 42%, respectively (see Fig. 5a). This can be attributed
to the formation of a weak ITZ, formation of cracks in RCAs during
the process of preparing RCAs and the porosity of the mortar
adhering to RCAs, [5,18,48,49]. In the second series, the compres-
sive strength reduction was almost the same as in the first one
(Fig. 5b). Also, in this series, silica fume caused a slight increase
in compressive strength. In the third series, with the replacement
of FRAs, compressive strength decreased by 29% and 26% for S25f
and SS25f, respectively, at 91 days (Fig. 5c). The microstructure
5
(b)
(c)
of concrete with RCAs differs from that made of natural aggregates.
In fact, with the presence of RCAs, the number of boundary layers
increases which cause decreased compressive strength. On the
other hand, CRAs are smaller in size than CNAs, which leads to lar-
ger specific surface of the aggregates and, in turn, formation of a
high number of ITZs. This can cause a reduction of compressive
strength [5].
4.2. Water absorption
The results of water absorption test according to BS 1881
Part122 and ASTM C642 standards are given in Fig. 6. Fig. 6a shows
the results based on BS 1881 Part 122. It can be seen that with the
replacement of 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% CRAs, water absorption
increased by 6.4, 14.7, 65 and 66%, respectively, compared with
the reference mix of S. Also, with the replacement of 25% FRAs,
water absorption increased by 41%. The presence of porous struc-
ture in RCAs causes to increase the absorption of water in concrete
[50,51]. The results of Xuan et al. [52] also show that with the
increase in the replacement of RCAs, the absorption of water in
concrete has increased. On the other hand, water absorption in
mixes was significantly reduced compared to the first series of
mixes with the incorporation of silica fume. The results showed
that silica fume can reduce the water absorption by up to 41% in
the SS reference mix compared to the reference mix of S. Also in
mixes containing RCAs, silica fume reduced water absorption.
The use of silica fume in mixes with 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% CRAs,
resulted in decreased water absorption by 32%, 18%, 35%, and 33%,
respectively, compared to similar mixes without silica fume. In the
SS25f mix, there was also a decrease in water absorption by 28%
compared to S25f.
In the test, according to the ASTM C642 standard, the absorp-
tion of water for most mixes was reduced by using silica fume as
6 H. Sasanipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 227 (2019) 116598

70 70
28 days 91 days 28 days 91 days

Compressive strength (MPa)

Compressive strength (MPa) 60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
S S25C S50C S75C S100C SS SS25C SS50C SS75C SS100C
Mix Mix
(a) (b)
70
28 days 91 days
Compressive strength (MPa)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
S SS S25f SS25f
Mix
(c)

Fig. 5. Compressive strength test results of: a) mixes containing coarse RCAs, b) mixes containing coarse RCAs and SF, c) mixes containing fine RCAs.

Reference mix S Reference mix S

Reference mix SS
Reference mix SS
Concretes containing C RA
Concretes containing C RA
Concretes containing CRA & SF
Concretes containing CRA & SF Mix containing f RA
Mix containing f RA Mix containing fRA & SF
Mix containing fRA & SF
4 15
after 30 minute immersion (%)

3.5
Water absorption

3
after immersion (%)
water absorption

2.5 10

2
1.5
5
1
0.5
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100
substitution level (%) substitution level (%)
(a) (b)
Fig. 6. Effect of silica fume on water absorption: a) Results of water absorption test according to BS 1881 Part122, and b) Results of water absorption according to ASTM C642.

shown in Fig. 6b. Water absorption of SS mix was 11% lower than 4.3. Ultrasonic pulse velocity
the S mix. Comparison of the first and second series showed that
water absorption for mixes containing silica fume with the The results of UPV test showed that by replacing RCAs, pulse
replacement of 25, 50 and 75 of CRAs decreased by 12, 10 and 7, velocity decreased in hardened concrete. In the first series with a
respectively, compared to mixes without silica fume. Water replacement of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% CRAs, the pulse velocity
absorption in SS25f also decreased 8% compared to the S50f. Silica decreased by 5.56%, 5.63%, 9%, and 10%, respectively, than the ref-
fume with a much fine structure than cement coats the surface of erence mix S (see Fig. 7a). The results in Fig. 7b show that in the
RCAs and reduces water absorption. Results of Pedro et al. also second series, with the increase in the replacement of RCAs, pulse
show that with the increase in replacement of RCAs, the absorption velocity reduced as the first series. Generally, the pulse velocity
of water increases, but the absorption of water by using silica fume decreases with increasing porosity. The pulse velocity also depends
decreases [53]. on ITZ and density of concrete [17,54]. It seems that the factor of
 H. Sasanipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 227 (2019) 116598 7

5.0 5.0

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (km/s)

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (km/s)
4.8 4.8
4.6 4.6
4.4 4.4
4.2 4.2
4.0 4.0
S 3.8
3.8 SS
S25C
3.6 3.6 SS25C
S50C
3.4 3.4 SS50C
S75C
S100C 3.2 SS75C
3.2
3.0 SS100C
3.0
0 7 14 21 28 0 7 14 21 28
Time (day) Time (day)
(a) (b)
UPV of Reference mix S
UPV of Reference mix SS
Concretes containing CRA
Concretes containing CRA & SF
5.0 Mix containing fRA
5
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (km/s)

Mix containing fRA & SF

4.8

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (km/s)

4.6 4.8
4.4
4.2 4.6
4.0
S
3.8 4.4
3.6 SS
3.4 S25f 4.2
3.2 SS25f
3.0 4
0 7 14 21 28 0 25 50 75 100
Time (day) substitution level %
(c) (d)
Fig. 7. The effect of recycled aggregates and silica fume on pulse velocity of: a) mixes containing coarse RCAs, b) mixes containing coarse RCAs and SF, c) mixes containing fine
RCAs, and d) a comparative graph of the effect of RCAs and silica fume at the age of 28 days.

pulse velocity rate reduction in concrete containing recycled aggre- reference mix. The electric current passes through the porous
gate is also the porosity of this type of aggregates as well as the environments easily [57], and due to the fact that porosity in
weak boundary layer at the site of the aggregate connection to RCAs is more than natural aggregate, the ER of recycled concrete
the cement paste. Similar results have been observed in other stud- is expected to decrease, which is in good agreement with a very
ies, which have shown a decrease in pulse velocity by replacing recent observation by Santos et al. [25]. This behavior was also
recyclable aggregates [17,19]. Pulse rate reduction for replacement seen in the second series. By replacing 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%
of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of RCAs compared to the SS mix, was CRAs, the ER decreased by 14%, 29%, 27% and 31%, respectively
recorded 9%, 4.6%, 5% and 10%, respectively (see Fig. 7b). In compared to the reference mix SS (see Fig. 8a, b). Since, with a
Fig. 7c, by replacing the FRAs in the S25f and SS25f, the pulse veloc- decrease in the size of the aggregate, the electrical resistance will
ity decreased slightly to 4.7% and 1%, respectively relative to the be reduced [57]. Due to the graining curve in the Fig. 2 the CRAs
reference mixes. Comparison of all mixes showed that with the are smaller in size than the natural aggregates, causing the ER to
introduction of silica fume, the pulse velocity decreased. Since be reduced. As can be observed in Fig. 8c, the replacement of 25%
pulse velocity is dependent on concrete density [55], the reason FRAs reduced the ER by 9.6% and 11.5%, respectively, for S50f and
of the pulse velocity reduction may be the decrease in the density SS50f mixes. Comparing the first and second series shows that sil-
of the second series because silica fume is lighter than cement (see ica fume can increase the ER by 2.12, 2.36, 2.25 and 2.62 times,
Fig. 7d). The pulse velocity rate of recycled concrete in the first, respectively for SS50C, SS75C, SS100C, and SS25f compared the
second and third series were in the range of 4.629–4.417, 4.420– mixes lacking silica fume (see Fig. 8d). Comparison of the results
4.033 and 4.671–4.419 km/s, respectively. The results showed that of Fig. 8d also shows that the surface of aggregates strongly
all mixes had fair quality [56]. affects ER. So that by being surrounded by silica fume, ER
increases. When RCAs are coated by silica fume, the boundary
4.4. Electrical resistivity formed between aggregates and cement paste (ITZ) improves
the surrounded surface and covers the porous surface. As a result,
The results of electrical resistivity tests showed that in the first when the electric current is passing, the paste containing silica
series, by replacing 25% CRAs, the ER has not changed compared to fume prevents current passing from the porous volume of RCAs.
the reference mix. The results also showed that with the introduc- This can be responsible of increased ER. Silica fume play a very
tion of silica fume, the ER increased significantly. Comparison of important role in improving the interface transition zone, filling
mixes with the replacement of 25% CRAs shows that silica fume porous space and increasing density in porous media due to its
has caused to an increase by 2.28 times in electrical resistivity. highly active pozzolanic property [58]. Since ER is one of the
The results in Fig. 8a indicates that with the increase in the methods for estimating the strength of concrete against corrosion
amount of replacement of CRAs in the first series, the electrical [59], with the increase of ER in mixes containing silica fume, cor-
resistivity has decreased from 11% to 19% compared to the rosion resistance also seems to increase [60].
8 H. Sasanipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 227 (2019) 116598

140 140
S SS
S25C SS25C
120 120

Electeriical Resistivity (Ω-m)

Electerical Resistivity (Ω-m) S50C SS50C
S75C SS75C
100 100
S100C SS100C
80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 7 14 21 28 0 7 14 21 28
Time (day) Time (day)
(a) (b)
ER of Reference mix S
140 ER of Reference mix SS
S Concretes containing CRA
Concretes containing CRA & SF
Electeriical Resistivity (Ω-m)

120 SS Mix containing fRA

Mix containing fRA & SF
S25f 140

Electeriical Resistivity (Ω-m)

100
SS25f 120
80
100
60 80
60
40
40
20
20
0 0
0 7 14 21 28 0 25 50 75 100
Time (day) substitution level %
(c) (d)
Fig. 8. The effect of recycled aggregates and silica fume on ER of: a) mixes containing coarse RCAs, b) mixes containing coarse RCA and silica fume, c) mixes containing fine
RCAs, and d) a comparative graph of the effect of recycled aggregates and silica fume at the age of 28 days.

4.5. Rapid chloride penetration concrete strength against chloride ion penetration decreases. This
increase for the replacement of CRAs from 25% to 100% was
Summary of results of chloride ion penetration test at age of recorded 16%, 20%, 26% and 18%, respectively. The reason for the
28 days, based on the ASTM C1202, is shown in Table 5. At the first, increase in TCHP is due to the porous structure of the mortar that
the ambient temperature and the temperature of the solutions surrounds recycled aggregate. The porosity of the mortar facilitates
used in the test were in appropriate conditions which are recom- the increase of chloride ion penetration [27]. By the incorporation
mended by the standard. By replacing the CRAs in the first series, silica fume, the resistance to chloride ion penetration increased
the resistance to chloride ion penetration reduced. The replace- significantly. Comparison of reference mixes shows that the use
ment of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% CRAs increases the area below of silica fume reduces the TCHP up to 60%. Fig. 9b shows that with
the curve as shown in Fig. 9a, which indicates the total charge the incorporation of silica fume, the surface under the curve is less
passed (TCHP). According to the ASTM 1202, as the TCHP increases, than that of series 1. Reduction in TCHP for the replacement of 25%,

Table 5
Rapid chloride penetration test results.

Mix Series Mix Code Total charge passed Chloride Ion Penetrability Based Temperature (°C)
(Coulombs) on ASTM C1202 [45]
NaOH at first NaCL at first NaOH at end NaCL at end Temp of Room
References S 3565 Moderate 24.5 24.5 50.7 50.7 24  26
SS 1429 Low 23.7 23.3 30.7 30.6 25  26
Series 1 S25C 4149 High 24.6 24.1 54.6 57.2 24  25
S50C 4289 High 27.4 25.5 58.4 57.3 24  25
S75C 4490 High 24.5 24.4 69.6 68.6 25  26
S100C 4170 High 24.1 23.8 58.5 59.8 25  26
Series 2 SS25C 1455 Low 22.1 21.2 45.4 46.9 24  25
SS50C 2152 Moderate 21.8 21.7 35 35.1 24  25
SS75C 2330 Moderate 24.2 24.3 35.6 39.1 25  26
SS100C 2989 Moderate 23.8 23.4 43.4 42.2 25  26
Series 3 S25f 4254 High 21.5 21.1 45.4 46.9 23  25
SS25f 1897 Low 21.5 21.1 34.7 35.7 23  25
 H. Sasanipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 227 (2019) 116598 9

0.3 0.3
SS

Current Passing Intensity

SS25C

Current Passing Intensity

SS50C
0.2 0.2 SS75C
(Ampere)

(Ampere)
SS100C

S
0.1 S25C
0.1
S50C
S75C
S100C
0.0 0.0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Time (min) Time (min)
(a) (b)

Reference mix S
Reference mix SS
0.3 S Concretes containing CRA
Concretes containing CRA & SF
SS Mix containing fRA
S25f Mix containing fRA & SF
Current Passing Intensity

SS25f 5000
0.2
4000
(Ampere)

Total charge passed

(Couloumbs)
3000

0.1 2000

1000

0.0 0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 0 25 50 75 100
Time (min) substitution level %
(c) (d)
Fig. 9. The effect of recycled aggregates and silica fume on chloride ion penetration of: a) mixes containing coarse RCAs, b) mixes containing coarse RCAs and silica fume, c)
designs containing fine RCAs, and d) a comparative graph of the effect of recycled aggregates and silica fume at the age of 28 days.

50%, 75% and 100% was 65%, 50%, 48%, and 28%, respectively com-
pared to the series 1. Also, the results showed that by raising the
amount of CRAs, the TCHP has increased. However, the replace-
ment of 25% CRAs along with the replacement of 8% silica fume
has had little effect on reducing resistance to chloride ion penetra-
tion. By replacing of 25% FRAs in the S25f, TCHP increased by about
19% compared to the reference mix S (see Fig. 9c). However by
using silica fume, TCHP significantly decreased by 55% compared
to S25f. Comparison of mixes containing and lacking silica fume
in Fig. 9d shows that silica fume can be greatly effective in reduc-
ing and controlling chloride ion penetration. The reason can be the
improvement of the porosity at the aggregate surface due to the
formation of high-quality C-S-H by silica fume [27,61].
By examining the temperature of the used solutions (NaOH and
NaCl) during the test, it is concluded that in mixes containing silica
fume the temperature of the solutions during the test is less than
that of mixes lacking silica fume. In fact, silica fume affects the
activity of ions. The higher the temperature of the solutions get
during the experiment, the more activity and penetration the ions
will have. And that will increase the TCHP. By entering silica fume
into mixtures, the temperature is controlled in the test process,
which reduces the temperature during the test, the ion mobility
is controlled, and the chloride ion penetration is greatly reduced.
In Fig. 10 the effect of silica fume on the thermal behavior of the
mixes can be observed. This can be due to the improvement of
the ITZ and the coating of the porous surface of aggregates in the
presence of silica fume.
Through the results, it is observed that incorporating silica fume
to the SCC containing RCAs, not only can compensate the negative
impacts of using RCAs in SCC, but also can improve its properties,
especially the durability performance. Therefore, the SCC that
made of RCAs and silica fume can be utilized in many structures.
This paves the way to recycle concrete from destroyed structures
which, in turn, significantly reduces building debris and silica fume
(as a bypass material) that must be imposed in the landfills. Conse-
quently, SCC made of RCAs and containing silica fume can be con-
sidered as a clean material with less environmental impacts in
comparison with SCC made of natural aggregate and lack of silica
fume. It is not unreasonable to advise authorities in concrete
industry to replace at least coarse natural aggregates with recycled
ones in order to preserve the natural resources and reduce the
environmental pollution.
5. Conclusions
The influence of silica fume on durability performance of SCC
containing recycled aggregates have experimentally investigated.
Based on the research done in this study, the following are pre-
sented as results:
1. Silica fume increased the workability and improved the fresh
properties of SCCs. However, the mixes lacking silica fume
had good fresh properties and appropriate passing ability. It is
possible to use recycled aggregates along with maintaining
the properties of fresh SCC.
2. Due to porosity and high water absorption of recycled aggre-
gates, the compressive strength of the concrete made with
these aggregates decreased.
3. Replacement of recycled aggregates increased the water
absorption in SCC. Also, with an increase in the replacement
of CRAs, an increase in water absorption was observed. With
the incorporation of silica fume, water absorption decreased
by 7 to 12% in different mixes.
10 H. Sasanipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 227 (2019) 116598

70 70

60 60
Temperature (ºC)

Temperature (ºC)
50 50

40 40

30 30

20 NaOH Temp-mix S 20 NaOH Temp-mix S25C

NaCL Temp-mix S NaCL Temp-mix S25C
10 NaOH Temp-mix SS 10 NaOH Temp-mix SS25C
NaCL Temp-mix SS NaCL Temp-mix SS25C
0 0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Time (min) Time (min)
(a) (b)
70 70

60 60

Temperature (ºC)
Temperature (ºC)

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 NaOH Temp-mix S50C 20 NaOH Temp-mix S75C

NaCL Temp-mix S50C NaCL Temp-mix S75C
10 NaOH Temp-mix SS50C 10 NaOH Temp-mix SS75C
NaCL Temp-mix SS50C NaCL Temp-mix SS75C
0 0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Time (min) Time (min)
(c) (d)
70 70

60 60
Temperature (ºC)
Temperature (ºC)

50 50

40 40

30 30

20 NaOH Temp-mix S100C 20 NaOH Temp-mix S25f

NaCL Temp-mix S100C NaCL Temp-mix S25f
10 NaOH Temp-mix SS100C 10 NaOH Temp-mix SS25f
NaCL Temp-mix SS100C NaCL Temp-mix SS25f
0 0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Time (min) Time (min)
(e) (f)
Fig. 10. The effect of recycled aggregates and silica fume on the thermal behavior of: a) reference mixes, b) mixes containing 25% replacement of coarse RCAs, c) mixes
containing 50% replacement of coarse RCAs, d) mixes containing 75% replacement of coarse RCAs, e) mixes containing 100% replacement of coarse RCAs, and f) mixes
containing 25% replacement of fine RCAs.

4. Due to porosity in recycled aggregates, pulse velocity can be
reduced in concrete containing RCAs. However, the reduction
range is negligible and minimal. On the other hand, with the
replacement of the silica fume, the pulse velocity decreased,
which could be due to its lower specific gravity than the
cement. However, the pulse velocity range is acceptable for all
mixes.
5. The replacement of 25% recycled aggregates did not signifi-
cantly affect the electrical resistivity. Because of the porosity
in recycled aggregates, the electrical resistivity decreased with
increasing the replacement of RCAs. Mixes containing silica
fume showed higher electrical resistivity compared to other
mixes. The results showed that silica fume improved electrical
resistivity and increased it significantly, which can be due to
the improvement of the interface transition zone and filling
the porosity of the surface of recycled aggregates.
6. Recycled aggregates caused an increase in TCHP and reduction
in resistance to chloride ion penetration of SCC. On the other
hand, silica fume was very effective in controlling chloride ion
penetration and reducing TCHP. Improvement of porosity of
surface on recycled aggregate can be the most important factor
in this reduction. Due to the presence of silica fume, by control-
 H. Sasanipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 227 (2019) 116598
ling the mobility of ions in mixes containing silica fume, the
temperature of the solutions decreased compared to other
mixes and that is the reason of increasing the resistance to chlo-
ride ion penetration.
In brief, SCC containing recycled aggregates and silica fume can
satisfy many mechanical and durability requirements and can be
used as structural concrete. This can assist concrete industry to
produce a clean and environmental-friendly material by reducing
building debris and saving the natural resources.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The authors of this article are greatly thankful to Sinab Gharb
Consulting Engineers Company for all the tests carried out in the
company’s central laboratory.
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