Steam Turbine and Generator

HPT/KTH 01-14
EFFICIENT STEAM TURBINES

FOR SMALL-SCALE ENERGY
CONVERSION PLANTS
- Literature survey
Jens Fridh
Technical progress report

June 2000 – June 2001
SNEA project P12457-1
Department of Energy Technology

Division of Heat and power
Royal Institute of Technology
Efficient steam turbines for small-scale energy conversion plants 2
Literature survey
Literature study report

Dept. of Energy Technology
Div. of Heat and Power
Prof: Torsten H Fransson
Title: Efficient steam turbines for small-scale energy Keywords: Small-scale, steam turbine,
conversion plants - Literature survey advanced, efficient, high-temperature, high-
pressure
Author: Jens Fridh Report nr: KTH/HPT 01-14
Project title: Efficient steam turbines for Pages: 41 Drawings: 16
small-scale energy conversion plants
Supervisors at KTH: Torsten Fransson, Date: 2001-06-20 Appendices: 7
Per Almqvist, Laszlo Hunyadi
Overall responsible at KTH: Torsten H Fransson
Approved at KTH by: Signature:
Overall responsible at industry: Ulf Rådeklint
Industrial partners: Alstom Power Sweden, Skellefteå Kraft
Approved by industrial partners: Signature:

Abstract
The Swedish government has decided to perform an "energy-transfer" from nuclear to renewable energy
resources. To achieve this goal, various kinds of basic and applied research are needed. In Sweden and
Northern Europe there are several communities with district heating supply, where small and midsize (<25
MW el) heat and power plants are of interest. Existing heat and power plants utilizing biomass (mostly Rankine
cycles) have so far low electrical efficiencies, in the magnitude of 30%. There exists a great potential to
significantly increase the electrical efficiency for the steam Rankine cycle (approximately 5-10%-points) by
raising the admission pressure and temperature of the steam. Also, the potential is large for combined cycles
containing steam bottoming cycles where, for example, the supplementary firing is better utilized if the steam
process efficiency is improved.
The main concept of the current project is to investigate and put forward the possibilities to increase the
efficiency, within economically reasonable boundaries, of small-scale steam turbines. Here the term small-
3
scale refers to turbines with inlet volumetric flows up to 0.7m /s and electric outputs less than 25 MW.
The main objectives of the ongoing literature study are to investigate and establish the parameters, which
govern the performance of an efficient small-scale steam turbine, and to investigate the possibilities to apply
advanced steam conditions. Also, one important aspect is to investigate and propose the experimental
continuation of this project, which is relevant for advanced small-scale steam turbines.
One clear conclusion regarding advanced steam conditions is that the material exposed to high
temperatures is a key-issue. The major problem, in principal, is to find cost efficient materials to the boiler
system, i.e. superheaters, pipes etc., since the steam turbine alone requires very little material relative to
other components exposed to high steam temperatures. Advanced heat resistant materials like super alloys
are expensive, and the Austenitic steels, which in general are cheaper than super alloys, are presently
commercially available up to 600°C, with 650°C as foreseen in the near future.
As a result of the investigation on small-scale steam turbines, high part-load turbine efficiency is important,
especially for district heating turbines. Also, better understanding of losses induced by the small volumetric
flow and partial admitted flows are necessary, due to lack of open literature regarding this.
Approved for distribution:
Open
Restricted, to distribution list below
Name/company Address Locality
Jörgen Held, Energimyndigheten (SNEA)
Ulf Rådeklint, Alstom Power Sweden
Lars Atterhem, Skellefteå Kraft
Lars Hedlund, Alstom Power Sweden
László Hunyadi, KTH
Per Almqvist, KTH
Jens Fridh, KTH
Torsten Fransson, KTH
Marianne Salómón, KTH
Literature survey
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
NOMENCLATURE
1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................................................6
2 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................................................................7
2.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT ...........................................................................................................................7
2.2 OBJECTIVES OF THIS LITERATURE STUDY .........................................................................................................7
3 METHODOLOGY.............................................................................................................................................8
3.1 METHODOLOGY OF THE PROJECT .....................................................................................................................8
3.2 METHODOLOGY OF THIS LITERATURE STUDY ...................................................................................................8
4 STEAM CYCLES WITH ADVANCED STEAM CONDITIONS.................................................................9
4.1 INVESTIGATION OF THE ELECTRICAL EFFICIENCY ...........................................................................................11
4.2 LARGE-SCALE POWER GENERATION ...............................................................................................................13
4.2.1 Plant examples.....................................................................................................................................14
4.2.2 Discussion on large-scale power generation.......................................................................................14
4.3 SMALL-SCALE POWER GENERATION ...............................................................................................................15
4.3.1 Interesting small-scale concepts ..........................................................................................................16
4.3.1.1 The Split Stream Boiler.................................................................................................................................... 16
4.3.1.2 High performance steam systems..................................................................................................................... 18
4.4 DISCUSSION, ADVANCED STEAM CONDITIONS ................................................................................................19
4.5 CONCLUSION, ADVANCED STEAM CONDITIONS ..............................................................................................21
5 SMALL-SCALE STEAM TURBINES ..........................................................................................................22
5.1 ‘STATE-OF-THE-ART’ .....................................................................................................................................22
5.1.1 Reference turbines ...............................................................................................................................22
5.1.2 Questionnaire ......................................................................................................................................24
5.1.3 Inlet volumetric flow ............................................................................................................................25
5.2 THE STEAM TURBINE IN A SYSTEM .................................................................................................................26
5.2.1 Turbine as a component.......................................................................................................................26
5.2.2 The control stage .................................................................................................................................28
5.2.3 The gearbox .........................................................................................................................................28
5.2.4 The generator ......................................................................................................................................29
5.2.5 Actual turbine examples.......................................................................................................................30
5.2.5.1 The Lycksele turbine........................................................................................................................................ 31
5.2.5.2 The Solar turbine ............................................................................................................................................. 31
5.3 THE STEAM TURBINE IN DETAIL......................................................................................................................32
5.3.1 Flow loss..............................................................................................................................................32
5.3.1.1 Flow mechanisms............................................................................................................................................. 34
5.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION, STEAM TURBINE ..................................................................................................34
5.5 PROPOSED EXPERIMENTAL CONTINUATION ....................................................................................................35
6 CONCLUSIONS ..............................................................................................................................................36
6.1 ADVANCED STEAM CONDITIONS.....................................................................................................................36
6.2 THE STEAM TURBINE ......................................................................................................................................36
6.3 TURBINE CONCEPTS .......................................................................................................................................36
6.4 EXPERIMENTAL CONTINUATION .....................................................................................................................36
7 FUTURE WORK .............................................................................................................................................37
7.1 FUTURE WORK FOR THE PERIOD 2001-07-01 – 2002-03-31 ...........................................................................37
7.2 TIME PLAN .....................................................................................................................................................37
8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................................................38
9 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................................39
Literature survey
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A1 THE ELECTRICAL EFFICIENCY
APPENDIX A2 LARGE SUPERCRITICAL POWER STATIONS
APPENDIX A3 LYCKSELE CHP PLANT
APPENDIX A4 QUESTIONNAIRE
APPENDIX A5 REFERENCE TURBINES
APPENDIX A6 PART LOAD CONTROL
APPENDIX A7 EXPERIMENTAL: PERFORMANCE AND SCALING PROCEDURE

Literature survey
NOMENCLATURE
Latin
m & Mass flow [kg/s]

t Temperature [°C]
p Pressure [bar]
∆h Actual enthalpy drop [J/kg]
∆hs Isentropic enthalpy drop [J/kg]
T Absolute temperature [K]
s Specific entropy [J/(kg,ºC)]
Y Stagnation pressure loss coefficient [-]
Q Volumetric flow rate [m3/s]
V change in specific entropy [J/(kg,ºC)]
Greek
s Entropy loss coefficient [-]

η Efficiency [-]
Subscripts
01 Stagnation condition at blade inlet

02 Stagnation condition at blade outlet
1 Static condition at blade inlet
2 Static condition at blade outlet
Abbreviations
BP Back Pressure
C Condensing
CFB Circulated Fluidized Bed
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CHP Combined Heat and Power
DH District Heating
HHV Higher Heating Value (compared to the Lower Heating Value (LHV) the
HHV includes the extractable heat from condensation of the water content
in the burned fuel)
HPSS High Performance Steam Systems
HPT Heat and Power Technology
HRSG Heat Recovery Steam Generator
LHV Lower Heating Value for fuel [J/kg]
MCR Maximum Continuous Rate of steam flow
OTSG Once-Through Steam Generator
SNEA Swedish National Energy Administration
SSB Split Stream Boiler
ST Steam Turbine
STIG STeam Injected Gas turbine
TIT Turbine Inlet Temperature
Literature survey
1 BACKGROUND
The Swedish government has decided to do an "energy-transfer" from nuclear to

renewable energy resources. For this purpose, various kind of basic and applied
research is needed. The Swedish National Energy Administration (SNEA) supports this
project financially.
In Sweden and Northern Europe there are several communities with district heating
supply, where small and midsize (<25 MW el) heat and power plants are of interest.
Existing heat and power plants utilizing biomass (mostly Rankine cycles) have so far
low electrical efficiencies, in the magnitude of 30%. There exists a great potential to
considerably increase the electrical efficiency for the steam Rankine cycle (5-10%-
points) by a significant raise in pressure and temperature of the steam. For Fluidized
Bed Boilers the final super-heater can be placed in the bed, and as for combined cycles
with gas turbines, a raise of steam data is reached with supplementary firing. Small- and
midsize steam processes with advanced steam conditions (high-pressure and/or high-
temperature) have only been studied sporadically, but the interest has increased during
the last couple of years, mainly because of the demands for high electrical efficiency
and low environmental impact. The steam turbine is an important part of small-scale
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) and Combined Cycle (CC) plants for future
prospective de-centralization of the energy generation, and has not been thoroughly
investigated in detail with the prerequisites of today. The de-centralization is an
attractive scenario in the perspective of the Swedish transfer of electricity generation
from nuclear to other options.
Considered in this work, initially, there are two principal turbine applications, both co-
generations, where a high efficient small-scale turbine is of interest. Either as a
backpressure (BP), district heating (DH) or condensing (C) steam turbine in the
bottoming steam cycle of a combined cycle, where gas turbines provide heat to a heat
recovery steam generator (HRSG). Or, as a BP or DH steam turbine in a Rankine
steam cycle where biomass-fired boilers provide the heat addition.
Literature survey
2 OBJECTIVES
In order to grasp the totality of the project, both project objectives and the objectives of
this literature study are presented.
2.1 Objectives of the project
The overall objectives of the project are to investigate and put forward the possibilities
of an efficiency enhancement, within economically reasonable boundaries, for small-
scale steam turbines. Here the term small-scale refers to turbines with inlet volumetric
flows up to 0.7m3/s and electric outputs less than 25 MW. Further, the effects on the
efficiency by using advanced steam conditions should be clarified. In order to meet the
demands of relevancy, the study originates from the available ’state-of-the-art’
technologies for small-scale steam turbines and complements with further investigations
and judgments. To keep the study at a reasonable size, the main work is aimed towards
aero-thermodynamic calculations and experiments in order to achieve a minimum of
flow losses leading to efficient steam turbines.
2.2 Objectives of this literature study
The main objectives of the literature study are to investigate and establish the
parameters, which govern the performance of an efficient small-scale steam turbine,
and to investigate the possibilities to apply advanced steam conditions.
Furthermore, the ‘state-of-the-art’ for small-scale turbines and the research areas for
these shall be presented. Another important objective is to suggest the aim for the
experimental continuation of the project.
Literature survey
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Methodology of the project

The literature study is intended to be a foundation for the continuation of the project.
Participation in actual ongoing turbine measurements and evaluation work will prepare
for the future experimental work in this project.
More detailed design and performance calculations are intended to result in new
concepts, regarding small-scale steam turbines with inlet volumetric flows up to 0.7m3/s.
The experimental tests and evaluation are intended to study the distinguished aero-
thermodynamic phenomena related to small-scale steam turbines that are concluded in
the literature study.
3.2 Methodology of this literature study

Initially, in chapter 4, overall cycle studies with advanced steam conditions for small-
scale facilities are to be considered. Because of the lack of sufficient reference material
for small-scale plants, several commissioned and projected large-scale advanced power
plants are studied. Conclusions are made and possible parallelisms between large-
scale and small-scale facilities are discussed.
Secondly, in chapter 5, a more detailed investigation of small-scale steam turbines is

brought forward where maturity, problems and possibilities are the key issues. This part
is divided into two main sections. The first section, chapter 5.2, deals with the turbine
system as a whole, where surrounding equipment such as: alternator, inlet valve, layout
etc. is included. The second section, chapter 5.3, deals with the interior of the turbine
such as flow losses, thermodynamic and aerodynamic considerations etc.
Finally, the results and discussions will lead to conclusions and recommendations on
how to proceed with the project experimentally.
Literature survey
4 STEAM CYCLES WITH ADVANCED STEAM CONDITIONS
Cycles to be considered in this chapter are the common Rankine cycle and the
bottoming steam cycle in a combined cycle. Advanced steam conditions are here
defined as steam with admission pressure over 221 bar and/or temperature over 540°C.
The interest for advanced steam cycles has increased during the late twentieth century,
mainly because of extensive development in boiler design and new improved materials
for the boilers and turbines. Some large power plants and projects with advanced steam
cycles are shown in Table 1.
Status Plant Country Commis Electrical Steam Steam Electrical net

sion Gross output pressure temperature Efficiency
year MW bar °C/°C/°C % (LHV)
In operation Meri Pori Finland 1992 680 240 540/560 42.5
In operation Schwarze Germany 1998 800 268 547/565 45
Pumpe A
In operation Nordjyllands Denmark 1997 411 285 582/580/580 47
vaerket
Commissioning Suijun China 2000 800 250 545/545 44
Under Avedore 2 Denmark 2001 460 305 582/600 49
construction
Project Thermie700 EU ∼2015 400 350 702/720 ~ 50
1000 375 702/720/720 ~ 55
Table 1 Some large power plan ts with advanced steam conditions. The temperatures
refer to “live steam / 1:st reheat / 2:nd reheat”. All values refer to design conditions with
cold condensing applied.
Efficiency improvements with the steam cycle may be achieved with e.g. preheating and
reheating, but substantial improvements can only be accomplished by raising the steam
pressure and temperature above the conventional values of 180 bar and 540°C. By
studying the theoretically maximum possible steam cycle efficiency (ηmax), compare with
the Carnot efficiency, it shows that a rise in the average temperature of heat addition
(Tavg) and reduction in the temperature of heat rejection (T0), increases the efficiency
and correspondingly the thermal efficiency of the actual cycle.
T0
max = 1−
Tavg
T0 is the average temperature of the steam leaving the last rotor disc in the turbine, and
is limited by the temperature of the available cooling water for the condenser and the
allowable steam quality at the turbine exhaust. T0 is typically between 4 - 40°C for
condensers, where 4°C represents an ideal seawater-cooled condenser and where
higher temperatures are representative for cooling towers or re-coolers. Of course,
district-heating condensers have temperatures over 40°C. Tavg is the average
temperature where heat is added to the cycle. There are in principal four ways of
increasing Tavg,
• Increase the maximum steam temperature
• Increase the feed water temperature by preheat
• Increase the maximum steam pressure, facilitating a higher preheating
temperature
• Reheat the steam
Literature survey
The most direct way of increasing the average temperature of heat addition is to
increase both main and reheat steam temperatures. This improves the relative
efficiency (relative to 540ºC/180bar) by a rate of approximately 1%-point per 20°C rise
over a wide range of temperatures and pressures (Fig. 1) [1], for both single and double
reheat. This improvement is virtually independent of the turbine design.
Relative
efficiency
improvement
(%)
Pressure (bar)
Fig. 1 Steam cycle efficiency ( single reheat) improvement as a function of admission

pressure. Unchanged condenser pressure. Adopted from Paterson [1].
As turbine inlet steam pressures are increased the steam volumetric flows will be
reduced. Consequently, the specific aerodynamic flow losses such as expansion,
leakage, profile and secondary flow losses, tend to increase. This occurs because of the
shorter turbine blade heights corresponding to the reduced volumetric flow and larger
blade chord to withstand the increased steam loading. This implies that for a given
steam inlet temperature, there is a level of steam inlet pressure beyond which a further
pressure increase does not contribute to an efficiency improvement for the turbine. This
level is lower for small turbines due to lower volumetric steam flows than for large
turbines, and this fact is of crucial importance for this work where the ultimate goal is to
find and increase this level.
Fig. 2 presents the thermal cycle efficiency as a function of admission pressure, at three
different isentropic turbine efficiencies, for a steam cycle with no reheat nor preheat.
Here the thermal efficiency is fairly low due to the fixed outlet point of 1 bar on the
saturation curve. It is readily noted that the efficiency of the steam turbine has an
important impact on the thermal cycle efficiency, especially for high temperatures and
pressures. It should be mentioned that the figure is a strong simplification of actual
conditions but it gives a preliminary indication of the importance of high steam turbine
efficiency, in respect to both financial and environmental aspects.
Literature survey
0.390
eta = 0.9 800.00

0.370
eta = 0.875
750.00
Thermal cycle efficiency (%)
0.350
eta = 0.85
Temperature (°C)
700.00
0.330
eta = 0.80
650.00
0.310
600.00
0.290
0.270 550.00
0.250 500.00
0 50 100 150 200 250
Pressure (bar)
Fig. 2 Steam process improve ment, no reheat or preheat, fixed point on saturation
curve (1 bar) as condenser pressure. Plotted as thermal efficiency as a function of
admission pressure at four different, constant, isentropic turbine efficiencies (eta=0.8-
0.9). Approximate admission temperatures are shown on the secondary y-axis. Pump
work is neglected and water pressure of 1 bar is assumed after the condenser.
4.1 Investigation of the electrical efficiency
The total economy governs the overall efficiency. For a combustion heat and power
plant the largest production cost, in general, is the cost of fuel. Therefore a reduction in
the used fuel will generate great economical savings; i.e. the overall efficiency is directly
related to the fuel consumption. Also, the total emissions are often proportional to the
amount of fuel used, which implies to an accompanying emission reduction for an
efficiency increase.
The term “efficiency” is widely used and therefore many different definitions are
DYDLODEOH 6LPSOLILHG WKH HOHFWULFDO HIILFLHQF\ el) can be stated as below, for a single
steam cycle, when only the electricity generation is accounted for.
el = Pel / Pinput (fuel) th * t,s * b* m* g* ap * pipe (eq. 1)
• 7KHUPRG\QDPLFF\FOHHIILFLHQF\ th, theoretical

• ,QWHUQDOLVHQWURSLFWXUELQHHIILFLHQF\ t,s
• %RLOHUHIILFLHQF\ b
• 0HFKDQLFDOHIILFLHQF\ m
Literature survey
• *HQHUDWRUHIILFLHQF\ g
• $X[LOLDU\SRZHUIDFWRU ap
• 3LSHZRUNHIILFLHQF\ pipe
Appendix A1 (The electrical efficiency) discusses the term efficiency and the different
types of efficiencies included in this chapter.
In order to determine the approximate size-range of the different efficiencies and their
influence on the overall efficiency, a ranking list is shown in Table 2. It presents the
efficiencies with increasing values downwards and consequently, decreasing potential
for efficiency improvements. Note that the list contains only estimated values, referring
to an average midsize combustion steam plant.
7KHUPRG\QDPLFF\FOHHIILFLHQF\ th ≈ 0.45-0.65
,QWHUQDOLVHQWURSLFWXUELQHHIILFLHQF\ t,s ≈ 0.80-0.93
%RLOHUHIILFLHQF\ b ≈ 0.85-0.93
$X[LOLDU\SRZHUIDFWRU ap ≈ 0.88-0.97
0HFKDQLFDOHIILFLHQF\ m ≈ 0.94-0.98
*HQHUDWRUHIILFLHQF\ g ≈ 0.98-0.99
3LSHZRUNHIILFLHQF\ pipe ≈ 0.99
Table 2 Estimated ranking list o ver efficiencies based on the Lower Heating Value
(LHV).
The simple conclusion from Table 2 and Eq.1 is that a 1-%-point increase in the
theoretical thermodynamic efficiency will raise the electrical efficiency by about 0.5
percentage points. For a 100 MW elSODQW el=0.4 [LHV]) running at full load 5000 hours
per year and with a fuel price about 10 US$/MWhfuel, this yields an annual saving of
approximately 155 000 US dollars. Fig. 4 shows approximate annual saving for a 0.5
percentage point increase in electrical efficiency for different plant sizes, with an
estimated fuel price of 10 US$/MWhfuel and equivalent full load hours of 5000 per year.
Please note that the saving is only referring to fuel save, i.e. the investment cost and
additional costs of achieving the efficiency is not taken into consideration.
Annual fuel saving (US$)
$300 000
$250 000
$200 000 10 MW
25 MW
$150 000
50 MW
$100 000 100 MW
$50 000
$-
0.3 -> 0.305 0.4 -> 0.405 0.5 -> 0.505
Electrical efficiency improvement
Fig. 3 Annual fuel savings for different plant sizes for a 0.5 percentage point increase in
electrical efficiency. Fuel price 10 US$/MWhfuel. 5000 equivalent full load hours per
year.
Literature survey
However, if the investment cost stays below the saving for given pay back time, the
investment is likely to pay off. This because the fuel cost is a major part of the total cost,
and there is no reason to suspect raised O&M costs, rather lowered, and provided a
mature technology is adapted. Furthermore, it is worth noting that the turbine has a high
ranking in Table 2, which implies that there is high potential for efficiency increase and
thus, possibility for high gain in the electrical efficiency. This is especially valid for small-
scale turbines, which generally have lower efficiencies than large turbines. The reason
for the lower efficiency is mainly the increased amount of aerodynamic flow losses in
small machines, caused by the decreased volumetric flow. This subject will be further
discussed in chapter 5 (Small-scale steam turbines).
Up till now, the interest of efficiency improvements by using advanced steam conditions
has focused, almost exclusively, on large power plants. The reasons for this may be the
greater financial room for investments and the greater potential savings. In chapter 4.2
large power plants with advanced steam conditions will be studied, followed by small-
scale plants in chapter 4.3. This procedure is so to be able to distinguish and discuss
the eventual similarities between large-scale and small-scale.
4.2 Large-scale power generation
First large supercritical power stations have been built in the United States already
before 1960’s [1]. Many problems occurred in the beginning of operation, which is not
unusual for new technologies, but the development continued and since the late 1990’s
almost every new large fossil power plant in Europe (based on the Rankine cycle) is
supercritical, e.g. those in Table 1. The electrical net efficiencies have reached 49%
(based on LHV), see Fig. 4, and the target for the future is set to 55% [2].
60
Thermie 700
55
Avedore 2 Target
Net efficiency (%LHV)
50
Nordjyllansvaerket 3
Supercritical
45 Meri Pori
40
35
Subcritical
30
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Fig. 4 The electrical net efficie ncy for large-scale (above 400 MWel) power plants. All
points not accounted for in Table 1 are taken from J. of Modern Power Systems [2].
Literature survey
One important issue for advanced steam conditions is the choice of material for both the
boiler and the turbine. As for the boiler, superheaters and reheaters for up to 600°C
(metal temperature) require ferrite steels with improved resistance against steam side
corrosion. For temperatures up to 650°C austenitic steels are required, and up to
approximately 800°C nickel based alloys are required [2], [16]. For the turbine, the
material has changed from 12%CrMoVNb, used since 1950’s, to apply modified
9%Cr1%Mo for tubing and 10%CrMoVNbN alloy for rotor forgings, which has been
applied for the Nordjylland power station [3]. For future applications, Nickel based alloys
are strong candidates with 100 000-hour rupture strength up to 300 MPa at a
temperature of about 700°C, see Fig. 5.
350
300
100 000 hour rupture strength (MPa)
250
200
150
100
50
0
475 525 575 625 675 725
Temperature (°C)
Fig. 5 Rupture strength of nick el based alloys and expected strength of 9-12%Cr steels
under development compared with low alloy steels and recently developed 9-12%Cr
steels. Adopted from Vanstone [3].
4.2.1 Plant examples
Three large power stations with supercritical steam conditions are discussed in
Appendix 2 (Advanced power systems): One in operation (Nordjyllandsværket 3), one
under commission (Avedøre 2) and one research project for a future plant (Thermie
700).
4.2.2 Discussion on large-scale power generation
For the future larger power stations with large steam turbines, with high inlet volumetric
flows, the area of interest is mainly focused within the material issues in order to find not
only heat and stress resistant steels or composites but also cost effective materials.
Here it should be mentioned that the main difficulties are related to the boiler and the
high temperatures pipe-work since they stand for the major part of the material usage in
a CHP plant, while gas turbine design concepts more easily can be adapted to the
steam turbine. With more advanced materials, the material cost becomes a vital part of
the total plant investment cost and a lot of effort is focused on minimizing the material
Literature survey
usage by applying an intelligent layout which reduces the pipe-length. For example, this
is done by adopting horizontal boiler design instead of vertical and reducing the boiler
height to one-third [4].
4.3 Small-scale power generation

Table 3 presents some combined heat and power plants (CHP). In comparison with
table 1 (page 6) the electrical net efficiency is for co-generation with backpressure
turbines, and the first two with DH as heat load. Therefore, the electrical net efficiency
very much depends on the actual heat load. For example the CHP plant in Lycksele has
a design heat load of approximately 30 MW. Here the DH water has a return
temperature of 47ºC and will be heated to 80ºC by the DH condensers. And for the
Brista Kraft CHP plant the numbers correspond to a return temperature of 50ºC and a
forward temperature of 85ºC. The “Solar’s test plant” is a DOE funded research project
in USA [10] where the aim was to gain a step-increase for advanced steam processes.
This was done by a Combined Cycle (CC) that included a one stage impulse turbine of
4 MW, and is shortly presented in paragraph 4.3.1.2 and in last section of paragraph
5.1.1.
Status Plant Country Com Electrical Steam Steam Electrical net Heat
missio Gross output pressure temperature Efficiency Load
n year MW bar °C % (LHV) MW
In operation Brista Kraft Sweden 1994 44 140 540 27 77
In operation Lycksele Sweden 2001 16 88 520 31 30
Experimental Solar’s test USA 1996 9 (ST 4) 105 815 ~ 60 (CC) 0
plant
Table 3 Some small-scale heat and power plants. Design conditions.
The interest in advanced steam conditions for small-scale power generation is so far
small. Usually, for steam turbine electrical outputs up to 25 MW, the plant is co-
generating electricity and heat, and the question arises whether the plant should be
optimized in regard to the electricity generation or the heat generation. Many plants are
designed and optimized to supply a certain demand of heat and, thus, the electricity
generation becomes a second-hand issue. The main reason for using advanced steam
data is to increase the electrical efficiency and this implies that the electricity generation
must become a first-hand issue even for the small-scale plants. The economical
restrictions for small-scale are tighter than for large-scale and there is simply no room
for too advanced investments, i.e. single or double reheat, many pre-heaters etc [20].
What can be done is improving the admission steam data and/or dividing the heat load
over more than one condenser, which is common for district heating supply, and
thereby expanding a portion of the steam further.
Of course the choice of admission data is strongly related to the design and capability of
the boiler and the turbine. Furthermore, supercritical conditions put higher demands on
the boiler and turbine, which consequently increases the investment cost. According to
appendix A3 (Lycksele CHP plant) a fictive increase in admission data from
520°C/88bar to 600°C/100bar for a, at origin 15.7 MW el, reference plant yields an
additional annual income of approximately 50 kEu, in saved fuel cost. This assumes a
constant DH-load and non-considerate additional costs, e.g. the investment cost.
Literature survey
Extending the expansion curve of a cold condense turbine is also a possible choice, if
cooling capacity is achievable at site. In these cases the outlet pressure and moisture
content for the studied turbine is determining the admission pressure at the turbine inlet
(together with the efficiency of the turbine), assuming a fixed admission steam
temperature and no reheat. For moisture contents above 10-12%, asymptotic erosion
occurs on the blade surface (at the leading edge), with the most erosion impact on the
blade’s largest radius where the tangential velocity is the largest [6].
If a condensing turbine with extractions for DH is selected for the plant then the
important issue is to select the right size (mass flow) for the steam cycle in regard to the
electricity generation. If a combined cycle with a gas turbine is considered, the selection
is restricted by the choice of the gas turbine and whether supplementary firing is
featured or not. Although the choice of boiler design may have influence on the
combined cycle efficiency, the achievable steam mass flow is more or less
predominated by the actual gas turbine. For the stand-alone steam cycle plant, i.e.
Rankine cycle, with a condensing turbine the optimization of the electrical efficiency by
selecting the thermal capacity of the plant to yield the optimum electricity generation
price depends mainly on electricity, heat and fuel price. A CHP steam cycle plant in
Sweden, with condensing turbine, which utilizes biomass should have an electricity-to-
heat ratio of approximately 1, according to Strömberg [7]. To have a backpressure
turbine for generation of DH is not an optimization of electricity generation but merely an
optimization of heat generation. The awkward situation in Sweden is due to the low
electricity accreditation, and since this report contains aspects on advanced steam
conditions the issue of electricity optimization is natural.
4.3.1 Interesting small-scale concepts
4.3.1.1 The Split Stream Boiler
One of the simplest ways to increase the thermal efficiency of a particular power
generation cycle is to augment its temperature. In combined cycles this can be done
adding supplementary firing to the heat recovery steam generator to increase the
exhaust gas temperature. By doing this, the steam temperature and the power output
are increased. But, this may have the disadvantage of reducing the efficiency of the
combined cycle ([23], [22]) and for that reason it is only used when steam generation for
a particularly industrial process is needed. However, this depends on the power plant
characteristics because for some cases the decrease in the efficiency is very small or
the value even can increase. For some cases the efficiency can increase [22] according
with the particular conditions of the power plant. This depends on the thermal efficiency
of the GT and how well the bottoming cycle (steam process) utilizes the heat provided
(at high temperature) in the HRSG. If an elevated thermal efficiency is attained for the
steam bottoming cycle more likely the supplementary firing is better utilized, which will
credit the combined cycle efficiency [24] [25].
The alternative to increase the inlet pressure and temperature of the steam turbine, by
supplementary firing the whole exhaust gas flow, has been discarded because
generally, has not been a cost-effective option due to the usual penalty in the combined
cycle efficiency, according to Rice [23]. Some studies and research have been carried
Literature survey
out in the past years to find an effective way to increase the power output and the
efficiency of the steam bottoming cycle.
An alternative to reach this goal is the split stream boiler (SSB) [23], which tries to
increase the steam turbine inlet temperature and to keep a high efficiency. Its basic
concept is based on the fact that additional superheat of the steam can be achieved
through the use of supplementary firing of a small part of the exhaust gas turbine flow,
by this less supplementary fuel is needed.
In a split stream boiler configuration it is possible to reach exhaust gas temperatures up

to 1370 °C after the supplementary firing and steam temperatures of about 815 °C [23].
The steam pressure for the SSB can vary from 168 bar to 310 bar [23]. Therefore, an
increase of 2% to 4% -points in the efficient can be achieved through the use of this
concept.
The principle of the SSB is that part of the gas exhaust stream is divided and
supplementary fired to supply the adequate temperature to superheat the steam flow to
reach advanced conditions. The main stream of the exhaust gases and the
supplementary-fired part heats the steam from the economizer to the evaporator or the
superheater, depending in the gas turbine exhaust temperature. Then the steam from
both streams passes through the final superheater to reach the high temperature
conditions desired. Several configurations are available to meet the needs of a specific
case without compromising the benefits. Fig. 6 shows a schematic drawing of a SSB
configuration [22].
Fuel To steam turbine
Duct burner Final Superheater Boiler Economiser Fan

super-
Exhaust heater Exhaust
from
to
GT
stack
Internal
wall
To flash tank
Drum
Fig. 6 Schematically drawing o f the Split Stream Boiler (SSB).
Fig. 7 below [23] shows an enthalpy-temperature diagram of the split stream boiler. It is
shown the normal exhaust gas-cooling path in the heat recovery steam generator
(HRSG), the steam path through its circulation into the boiler and the gas-cooling path
in the split stream boiler. It is clearly shown the exergy saving in the figure. It is the area
between points 1,2 and 9. The important point is that the gas stream-cooling path is
more closely matched to the steam path. Thus, this is traduced as an important
increase in the heat transfer between the exhaust gas from the gas turbine and the
steam that is going to the steam turbine. This means that, for the same amount of heat
supplied to the cycle more power can be extracted because the exergy saving.
Literature survey
Fig. 7 Split Stream Boiler mod el of temperature versus enthalpy.
For higher exhaust gas temperatures, the temperature difference between the steam
and the gas is higher and thus the heat transfer surface and the backpressure are
reduced.
According with the SSB scheme, some superheating can be done by the exhaust gas
stream if the temperature is high enough (approximately 454 °C) and the rest of the
superheating is going to be done by the supplementary-fired exhaust gas stream [23].
Moreover, superheat and reheat can be achieved through the use of SSB in an effective
way. This design can accommodate different power plant configurations, including the
combined cycle with condensing steam turbine, or a dual gas turbine configuration (one
large GT and one small GT). In the latter case the small gas turbine exhaust gas stream
will be used for the topping superheater. In this way, combined cycle efficiencies of
more than 60% can be achieved.
4.3.1.2 High performance steam systems
Another way to increase the efficiency of the steam cycle is using High Performance
Steam Systems (HPSS). This concept is based on the use of advanced steam
conditions to achieved better efficiencies. HPSS used gas turbine’s high-temperature
alloys and new concept of steam generator to reach advanced steam conditions [10],
[11].
In HPSS steam temperatures of 815°C and pressures of 100 bar can be achieved.
These conditions have been fully tested in a full-scale 4 MW steam power plant with
complete success sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and carried out
by the gas turbine manufacturer, Solar Gas Turbines. The exhaust gas temperature of
Literature survey
the chosen turbine is 532 °C and before entering the steam generator is supplementary
fired to reach a final temperature of 1371°C [10]. This temperature allows low NOX
emissions and increases the heat transfer between the exhaust gas and the steam.
Moreover, for higher exhaust gas temperatures, the temperature difference between the
steam and the gas is higher and thus, the heat transfer surface is reduced.
The steam generator is a once-through steam generator (OTSG), which has the
function of steam production from the hot exhaust gases of the gas turbine. The only
difference that the OTSG has compared with the HRSG is that it converts directly the
feedwater to steam without using recirculating drums and thus, simplifies the design,
construction and operation of the steam generator.
One of the main drawbacks of the high-temperature, high-pressure steam cycles is the
use of costly materials in considerable quantities. These materials are mainly used in
the steam generator, the piping systems from the boiler to the steam turbine and in the
first stage of the steam turbine. The alloys that support those high temperatures are
more costly and their use in large quantities can be a decisive factor in the
implementation of these new steam technologies. In these sense the HPSS was
designed to reduce at the minimum the use of expensive new alloys by reducing the
pipe length that is going from the boiler to the turbine with the high-pressure, high-
temperature steam. In the steam turbine case its contribution to the use of new alloys is
only 10% of the total steam turbine material needed for its construction. Different
materials were used according with the temperatures that the OTSG can reach at
different points.
The thermal efficiency of a combined cycle using HPSS can reach up to 61%. That
represents 4%-points of efficiency increase compared to the normal combined cycle
configuration. In the case of a co-generation plant the increase in the overall efficiency
is about 12%-points, which means that instead of having an efficiency of 78% the co-
generation plant can reach 90% with the implementation of the HPSS [10].
4.4 Discussion, advanced steam conditions

According to Fig. 5 (page 14) ferrite steels that withstand a temperature of 600-650ºC
are foreseen in the near future and maybe these are the most attractive alternatives for
small-scale plants currently. But with the possibility of scaling benefits, in comparison to
large-scale plants, the future alloys may be a prospective alternative applicable for
future small-scale plants. This of course depends on the electricity price and the
material price, but with a high electricity price and moderate material price this may be
worth looking into further.
If the admission temperature is the limiting factor then the turbine exhaust pressure and
the allowable humidity, in the final stage, along with the isentropic turbine efficiency
determines the maximal admission pressure that can be allowed. For instance, for a
cold-condensing turbine with an isentropic turbine efficiency of 0.90 (for the entire
turbine) and an admission temperature of 650ºC, the maximal inlet pressure would be
about 140 bar (water content at turbine exit is 12%). Also worth mentioning, if the
isentropic turbine efficiency instead were 0.85 the admission pressure would not exceed
Literature survey
210 bar. Fig. 8 shows the above expansions illustrated in an entropy-enthalpy chart. For
small-scale turbines this higher pressure may induce additional losses due to decreased
volumetric flow rates, which shows the importance of a high isentropic turbine efficiency
for small-scale turbines with advanced steam data.
3700
1000bar 500bar 200bar 100bar 50bar 20bar
700deg 600deg 10bar

3600
3500 500deg
3400 5bar
3300
400deg
3200
2bar
3100
300deg
ENTHALPY
3000
1bar
2900 200deg
2800
0,50bar
x = 0.95
2700 100deg
x = 0.9 0.2bar
2600
x = 0.85
0.1bar
2500
0.05bar
2400
x = 0.8
0.025bar
2300
0.01bar
2200
5.7 5.9 6.1 6.3 6.5 6.7 6.9 7.1 7.3 7.5 7.7 7.9
ENTROPY
Fig. 8 Expansion lines in entro py-enthalpy chart
Considering combined cycles with gas turbines utilizing hydrogen for future applications,
one idea would be to “reheat” the steam with a gas burner implemented in the steam
turbine, a kind of inverted STIG cycle. This would avoid the costly heat resistant pipe-
work and reheaters in the HRSG and more easily facilitate high temperatures after
reheating. On the other hand, production of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas would be
costly. Maybe this is most applicable for large-scale plants, but still it is a thrilling idea:
the Gas Re-heat Induced Steam turbine (GRIS). An idea along this line is presented by
Tadashi et al [15], where performance enhancement with a combined CH4/O2-fired
gas/steam turbine closed cycle is modeled. The working fluid for the combustion steam
turbine is assumed to be a mixture of H2O and CO2, i.e. the combustion is
stoichiometric. Table 4 summarizes some of their results by means of a comparison
between a conventional combined gas turbine cycle, a conventional GT combined with
a combustion steam turbine and a Closed Brayton Cycle (CBC) combined with
combustion steam turbine, here referred to as CO2-CBC system. The purpose of the
CO2-CBC system is the non-CO2 emission.
Literature survey
TIT gas turbine, °C 1350 1500 1700

Conventional CC
Gross Thermal Efficiency (GTE) based on HHV, % 48.7 51.7 53.7
Gross specific power (Gross Power output to compressor 0.151 0.182 0.192
air flow ratio), MW/(t/h)
Conventional GT with combustion steam turbine
Effective gross thermal efficiency based on HHV, % (Major 51.6 53.8 56.0
utility load is taken into account)
CO2-CBC system
Effective gross thermal efficiency based on HHV, % (Major 45.9 48.4 51.3
utility load is taken into account)
Table 4 Comparison of combine d cycle thermal efficiencies [15].
4.5 Conclusion, advanced steam conditions
• An improvement of the theoretical achievable thermodynamic cycle efficiency, see

chapter 4.1, yields the largest increase in the electrical net efficiency. The most
direct way of increasing this efficiency is a significant raise in admission steam
temperature and pressure. Also an improvement of the internal isentropic turbine
efficiency has a noticeable effect on the electrical net efficiency, especially for small-
scale turbines.
• Steam admission improvements for the pure Rankine cycle may be costly, but
considering combined cycles it may be of vital importance if a high thermal CC
efficiency is pursued. In order to exploit the supplementary firing righteously a high
thermal steam cycle efficiency is needed, higher than the thermal GT cycle
efficiency. This is of significant importance especially for aeroderivative GTs and
modern industrial GTs with high thermal efficiency. Also the split stream boiler (SSB)
is an interesting concept for increasing the CC efficiency.
• When applying advanced steam conditions the main limiting parameter is the
allowable steam temperature in the boiler, i.e. a material issue. Presently there
exists large-scale plants operating at temperatures about 600ºC and for the future
the target is about 700ºC. The question whether it is applicable for small-scale plants
is purely economical; high electricity price may facilitate this option. These
temperatures may be reached with supplementary firing for the combined cycle with
a gas turbine as a topping cycle, and for stand-alone steam cycles by placing the
final superheater somwhere in the recycling section of a CFB boiler, for instance.
• Advanced heat resistant materials like super alloys are expensive, and since the
steam turbine alone requires very little material relative to other components
exposed to high temperature steam, the major problem in principal lies with the
boiler system, i.e. superheaters, pipes etc. Austenitic steels, which in general is
cheaper than super alloys, are presently commercially available up to 600°C, with
650°C as foreseen in the near future. If gas turbine technology can be applied
without too many difficulties on steam turbines, turbine inlet temperatures up to 800-
850°C should be possible without cooling. As an alternative, to be able to adapt
cheaper material, saturated steam can be used as coolant.
Literature survey
5 SMALL-SCALE STEAM TURBINES
5.1 ‘State-of-the-art’
According to the background and objectives of this study the main area of interest is 1
to 25 MW el steam turbines for district heating purposes or as backpressure turbines in
industrial processes.
Every type of energy optimization is about reducing the total cost of generation, i.e.
reducing the losses in relation to the cost, either by increasing the thermal efficiency of
the process or the efficiency of its components. For example a gain in the isentropic
turbine efficiency is of high interest in the field of steam turbine research. Reliable three-
dimensional Computational Fluid dynamics (CFD) tools facilitate the optimization of
turbine blade design by reducing the profile, secondary flow and tip leakage losses [5].
Profile loss is usually referred to as the loss generated in the blade boundary layers,
including the loss arising at the trailing edge. End-wall loss arises from the annulus
boundary layers, and is sometimes referred to as secondary flow loss to include all the
losses that otherwise are not accounted for. Tip leakage loss arises from the leakage
flow over the tips of rotors and the hub clearance between blade rows, the cavity flow.
The CFD tools make it feasible for the designer to try out and simulate different
operating conditions for the design in a cost-efficient manner. Generally, for the entire
turbine the profile loss is the largest flow loss. However, for upstream stages the
secondary flow loss and tip leakage loss also become important, and for admission
stages in small-scale machines even more significant than the profile loss [8]. Also the
optimization of non-bladed flow channels, e.g. the valves, pipe-work, admission and
exhaust casings, are areas where the CFD technology has become an important design
and simulation tool.
5.1.1 Reference turbines
In order to get an overview of the status and trends of the existing steam turbines in the
range of approximately 1 to 25 MW el, references from 6 manufacturers, globally spread,
on ordered turbines between the years 1990 and 2001 (~600 units) are presented in
Fig. 9 and Fig. 10.
In Fig. 9 steam turbines with an outlet pressure up to 1 bar are shown where the
turbines with the admission temperature of about 500ºC are mostly 10-25 MW el turbines
for DH or CHP purposes. Here are turbines for condensing (CHP) and district heating
purposes more common but turbines for industrial processes are a vital part, as well.
The rated power is evenly distributed over the entire range. The annual increase in
admission temperature is approximately 3°C, based on the mean values from 1990 to
2001 for the turbines and the change in admission pressure is negligible. However, a
trend of increasing temperatures, as well as decreasing rotational speed, for an
increase in rated turbine power is readily noted in Fig. 9 and Appendix A5 (Reference
turbines, Fig. 4). The decrement of rotational speed is hardly astonishing since the
raised mechanical stresses in the turbine at larger dimensions, which confines the
Literature survey
peripheral velocity and consequently the rotational speed. Most machines seem to be
located around two admission temperature levels, 400°C and 500°C.
600
e d c
f a
b
500
400
Temperature (°C)
h
Turbine unit
300
Trend
i
Examples of application
200 a - Feed water pump Condensing (C)
b - Compressor, chemical plant
c - Compressor, chemical plant
d - District heating (DH)
e - DH
100 f - Combined heat and power (CHP), condensing
g - Waste Incineration and Chemical plants
h - Feed water pump Condensing (C)
i - Compressor, chemical plant
0
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 180.0
Inlet pressure (bar)
Fig. 9 DH and C steam turbine s, 1-25 MWel, with outlet pressure up to 1 bar(a), from
1990 to 2001.
600
a
f
c b
500
g
400
e d
Temperature (°C)
h Turbine unit
300
Units below 10 MWel Units above 10 MWel Trend
200 Examples of application

a - High-pressure turbine (HPT) in Combined Cycle (CC)
b - HPT. District heating (DH)
c - Paper mill
d - Iron mill
100 e - Brewery
f - DH and combined heat and power (CHP)
g - Chemistry
h - Chemistry, sugar
0
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 180.0
Fig. 10 Backpressure steam tur bines, 1-25 MWel, with outlet pressure over 1 bar(a),
from 1990 to 2001.
Literature survey
Fig. 10 shows backpressure turbines with an outlet pressure over 1 bar, where turbines
for industrial processes that facilitate steam or heat, e.g. pulp/paper mill, chemistry, are
mostly represented. Though, some high-pressure units for CHP or CC may be
represented. These turbines are mainly representatives in industrial. The size of the
turbines is vaguely divided over the pressure-range where pressures above 110 bar
hold turbine units larger than 10 MWel as most represented.
A trend can be correlated, Fig. 11, between the reference data and large-scale turbines
(paragraph 4.2), which shows predicted admission data for future turbines. The
admission temperature for small-scale turbines are, generally, below 520-540°C, whiles
for large turbine is 40-60°C higher (during the same period of time).
800
700
600
Temperature (°C)
500
400 Future steam

turbines,
Large-scale turbines estimate
300 250-1000 MW
Small-scale reference
turbines up to 25 MW
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Fig. 11 Trend in admission data for steam turbines
Appendix A5 (Reference turbines) contains further information regarding the turbines,

and how the data was collected.
5.1.2 Questionnaire
In order to get an idea what the owners and prospective buyers of steam turbines up to
50 MW el (in Sweden) put as priority parameters, a questionnaire has been
implemented, see appendix A4 (Questionnaire). The questionnaire was sent to the
operational Swedish power plants owning a steam turbine up to 50 MW el, directed
towards the plants’ production manager. The result can not be seen as statistically
accurate since only 13 out of 35 send-outs have been returned, but the top priorities are
nevertheless presented below as average values, using a scale from 1 to 5, where 5
corresponds to the most important aspect. The standard deviation (S), defined in
Literature survey
accordance with Eq. 2, shows the deviation (±) of the answers where a higher value
represents more spread answers.
QUESTION: Please, prioritize the quality parameters on a steam turbine (up to 50 MWel) provided
that you would purchase one today.
4.9 - 0.3 (+0.1) TOTAL ECONOMY

4.6 - 0.8 (+0.4) AVAILABILITY
4.0 ± 1.0 HIGH PART LOAD EFFICIENCY
3.8 ± 0.7 COST PRICE, TURBINE
3.8 ± 0.7 ELECTRICITY PRICE
3.5 ± 0.8 SERVICE
3.4 ± 1.4 INTERNAL TURBINE EFFICIENCY
n ⋅ Σx 2 − (Σx )
2
S=
n(n − 1)
S = Standard deviation (Eq.2)
n = Number of answer
x = Answer
The appearance of the turbine was considered as the least important with an average
score of 1.6. The “total economy” and “availability” were included as reference
questions and may apply more to the entire plant, not only the steam turbine, and are
often considered as top priorities. Worth noting is the high ranking of high part load
efficiency which implies that the turbines in the current range (up to 50 MW el) often
operate at part loads.
5.1.3 Inlet volumetric flow
According to the thermodynamic properties of steam, the specific volume decreases

when the pressure is rising. This affects heavily especially small-scale turbines’
efficiency: The physical inlet geometry shrinks and the unavoidable aero-
thermodynamic losses (see chapter 5.3.1) become a large portion, in relation to the
isentropic enthalpy drop across the turbine.
If an axial inlet stage (impulse) would be used for advanced steam conditions,
preliminary calculations show that the rotor blade height would be very short, less than
1 cm at full admission for inlet flows up to 25 kg/s (~0.7 m3/s) according to the example
in Fig. 12. This chart shows the blade height as a function of the inlet volume flow rate,
for different admitted areas (where 100 corresponds to full admission in respect to the
inlet flow area). The admission temperature and pressure, and the inner turbine disc
diameter are considered constant.
Literature survey
Blade height (m)

0.09 Admission rate (%)
0.08 100
0.07
75
0.06
50
0.05
0.04 25
0.03 10
0.02
0.01
0 Volumetric
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 inlet flow (m 3/s)
Fig. 12 Rotor blade height vers us admission rate for the inlet stage in an axial steam
turbine with constant inner diameter, 0.2 m. Inlet stator conditions are 650ºC/140bar.
The conditions at stator exit are 500ºC/60bar. The axial inlet velocity is constant over
the different volume flow rates.
The reason why 650°C/140 bar is selected, as reference in Fig. 12, is because of the
adduced discussion in chapter 4.
5.2 The steam turbine in a system

In order to understand the turbine’s function and dependence on other devices in a
steam cycle, it is important to achieve an understanding of the nature of the surrounding
devices and their influence on the turbine itself.
5.2.1 Turbine as a component
In order to select the appropriate turbine for an arbitrary operating condition,

comparison must be done. In this study the non-dimensional specific speed and
diameter are used to select either a 90-degree radial inflow or an axial flow machine.
The radial out flow, i.e. the Ljungström turbine, is not considered in this work. The non-
dimensional specific speed is mostly used for incompressible flow machines, e.g.
pumps, fans etc. This is because the definition (see Eq. 3 below) contains the
volumetric flow rate as a term, which obviously changes through a compressible flow
machine, and the question which volumetric flow rate that should be used is raised.
According to Balje [9], the significant volumetric flow rate that should be used is that in
the rotor exit.
Literature survey
n ⋅ Q1/ 2
nS =
∆h0 s
3/ 4
n S = Specific speed (-)

n = Speed of revolution (1/s) (Eq. 3)
Q = Volumetric flow rate (m /s) 3
∆h0 s = Isentropic stagnation - to - static enthalpy drop (J/kg), from inlet to exhaust
According to preliminary calculations, it is not recommendable to use a radial turbine for

a large enthalpy drop, from say 650ºC/140 bar to 1 bar. However, applying a radial
inflow turbine as a first stage in a low rate machine is an interesting solution for small-
scale machines. The main reasons for this are as follow [14]:
• Compact design
• Large enthalpy drop
• High peripheral velocity, typically 320 m/s. For high-pressure axial stages this value
is typically 250 m/s.
• Good performance at low inlet blade height, compared to axial
Also, due to generally small physical dimensions compared to an axial turbine the tip
leakage loss will most probably decrease [14] for a given enthalpy drop, this is mainly
why it is an interesting choice for small volume flows while for axial machines the tip
leakage loss would be considerable. However, the flow is more complex and mixing
losses/secondary losses will have a dominating impact on the total loss coefficient. Fig.
13 shows a layout example.
Live steam
Gearbox
Exhaust
Coupling
Fig. 13 Layout example of a ra dial backpressure turbine combined with an axial

condensing turbine, coupled to the same gearbox [14].
Literature survey
5.2.2 The control stage
Often small-scale CHP steam turbines are designed/optimized for good part load
performance. Depending on the nature of the actual heat load, the full load isentropic
efficiency may be lower than actually achievable for the turbine. In order to have high
part load efficiency for the turbine, the first stage is usually a control stage (or governing
stage) adjusting the inlet volume flow with partial admission to maintain high inlet
temperature and high pressure for the fully admitted segment arcs, even for low mass
flows.
The maximum efficiency most probably occurs at a certain guarantee point given by the
nature of the heat loads (according to existing duration curves and forecasted), which
varies a lot from plant to plant. Also the variation of the electricity price plays a vital role.
These factors are weighted together and yield a specific operation point (guarantee
point), which most probably corresponds to a fully opened control stage. Usually there
are further guarantee points, given in the contract. Commonly the control stage is
dividing the annulus into three or four segments, each with different segment angles
depending on the guarantee points, and where the guarantee points most probably
corresponds to fully opened segments in some order.
Worth noting, a control stage is not commonly adopted for steam turbines in combined
cycles with gas turbines. If the reader desires additional information regarding part load
controlling then Appendix A6 (Part load control) exploits and explains the issue some
further.
5.2.3 The gearbox
Large turbines are usually coupled directly to the generator. For small-scale turbines the
small inlet volumetric flow, according to earlier discussion in chapter 5.1.3, results in
shorter blades and thus lower stage efficiency. The blades become longer if the inner
radius is reduced which, at a constant rate of turbine power, is compensated with a
higher angle velocity. This results in a more compact design, which of course is
economically attractive, and where the limit is the mechanical stresses in the rotor
blade’s hub entrance, i.e. allowed peripheral velocity. The high speed needs to be
reduced by a gearbox, and this plays an important role for the mechanical efficiency,
referring to Eq.1 in chapter 4.1. Besides the mechanical friction loss (as heat) induced
by the gear itself, the bearing friction torque, which is proportional to the loss, is another
strong contributing factor. Principally, the bearing friction torque drops with decreased
shaft diameter (if bearing load is constant) but there also exists a relation with the
rotational speed and lubricating quantities, and for very high speeds, light bearing load
and large shaft diameters this may have a significant impact. For ordinary roller
bearings SKF handbook suggests the following formula to calculate the bearing friction
torque [21]:
Literature survey
d
M = M0 + µ ⋅ F ⋅ M = Bearing friction torque (Nm)
2
Empirical : µ = Friction coefficient (-)
M 0 = 10 −7 f 0 (ν ⋅ n ) ⋅ d m if (ν ⋅ n ) ≥ 2000 n = Speed of revolution (rpm)
M 0 = 160 ⋅ 10 −7 f 0 ⋅ d m if (ν ⋅ n ) < 2000 ν = lubricant kinematic viscosity (m 2 /s)

F = Bearing load (N)
(Eq.4) d m = Bearing mean diameter (m)
f 0 = Constant depending on type of lubrication
Pinion gears with axis-symmetric inclined cogs is commonly adapted for high gear ratio
and high peripheral velocity.
5.2.4 The generator
One way that improves the electrical net efficiency of a power generating process with
turbines is to use high-speed generators with suitable power conversion electronics,
directly coupled on the turbine. In this way the gearbox and accompanying losses can
be avoided. This is an interesting aspect for small-scale turbines, and is therefore
brought forward in this chapter in order to judge its present status. Presently almost
every generator above a couple of megawatts are synchronous, i.e. coupled to the
electrical grid, operating at the grid frequency (50 Hz in Europe and 60 Hz in U.S.A.).
This limit the choice of rotational speed to the number of poles in the generator,
commonly 2 poles (3000/3600 rpm) is adapted up to 50-55 MW and 4 poles (1500/1800
rpm) for larger rated powers [26]. The main reason for only using 2 poles is because of
the lower cost of manufacturing, but with increased size the rotor windings become
more complicated to manufacture, which will render in a too costly generator. Using 4
poles is a straight forward way to reduce the shaft speed and is representative at large
nuclear power plants, where the very large last stage’ blades determines the rotational
limit (in regard to mechanical stresses) [19]. The idea of having synchronous generators
is to deal with the current gradients, present in the electrical grid due to rapid load
changes, by providing the angular momentum of the generator shaft as a “buffer” when
controlling the grid frequency.
Never the less, for generators up to 25 MW (as this study concerns) a high-speed
generator would probably be beneficial for the overall efficiency of power conversion
provided that the generator efficiency is maintained at a high level, which not always is
the case. According to Farraday’s law (Eq. 5) the induction increases with elevated
rotational speed but also the iron losses of the generator rises squared to the frequency.
The main limiting parameter for the rotational speed is mechanical related where the
maximum peripheral velocity is about 200 m/s, slightly higher for advance designs [17].
dΦ
emf = − N ⋅ = NABω sin(ωt ) (Eq. 5)
dt
Literature survey
emf = induced emf (" Induction" )

N = Number of turns on coil (-)
dΦ
= The magnetic flux (Φ = BA) differentiated in respect to time
dt
A = The sectional area of the coil (m 2 )
B = Magnetic field strength (Tesla)
ω = The angular velocity (rad/s)
(iron loss) 2 ∝ ω
Fig. 14 shows the approximate limit of commercials high-speed generators presently

available, where an approximate increase of 10 to 20 percent in speed, in small
incremental steps, is foreseen in the near future [17]. As an example of 1000 MW
generators with 3000/3600 rpm, Fossil fired Frimmersdorf Power Station can be stated
as a representative [18].
Generators
1000 MW 1000
Rated power (log MW)

100
20 MW
10
2 MW
1
0.1
0.1 MW 0.04 MW
0.01
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
...
0
Speed (rpm)
Fig. 14 High-speed generators
5.2.5 Actual turbine examples
In order to exemplify which turbines this report treats, two different turbines is described
below. The turbine in Lycksele CHP plant is chosen since this represents the upper limit
in regard to the inlet volumetric flow, and the Solar turbine because of its advanced
steam data.
Literature survey
5.2.5.1 The Lycksele turbine
The 16 MW el backpressure reaction turbine in Lycksele CHP plant is selected as a

reference, appendix A3 (Lycksele CHP plant) explains the plant in more detail. The
turbine is purchased in 2000 and starts to operate in the beginning of the year 2001.
The inlet volumetric flow is about 0.7m3/s with the following admission data:
p = 88 bar(a)
t = 520 °C
m & = 17.5 kg/s
The total annual operating time is about 8000 hours while the equivalent full load
operating time is approx. 3500 hours, implying that high part load efficiency is needed.
The turbine expansion curve in the enthalpy-entropy chart can be seen as the left figure
in Fig. 15, whereas the right figure shows the efficiency curves for the turbine’s
modules. The first module, the control stage which is an impulse-action stage, is used to
achieve high efficiency for the entire turbine during part loads (see chapter 5.2.2), i.e.
keep the efficiencies at an acceptable level for the stages that follow. The control stage
itself has very low efficiency that can be readily noted in the figure.
Steam Turbine Expansion Curve
3700
1000bar 500bar 200bar 100bar 50bar 20bar
700deg 600deg 10bar

3600
3500 500deg
3400 5bar
Inter nal is entropic turbine efficiency

3300
400deg
3200 R egulation
2bar
S tage
3100
300deg
ENTHALPY
3000
HP
1bar
2900 200deg
2800 ∆h
∆hs
0,50bar
x = 0.95
IP
2700 100deg
x = 0.9 0.2bar
2600
x = 0.85 LP
2500 0.1bar
0.05bar
2400
x = 0.8
2300
0.025bar LP
0.01bar
2200
5.7 5.9 6.1 6.3 6.5 6.7 6.9 7.1 7.3 7.5 7.7 7.9 0 5 10 15 20
ENTROPY S team flow (kg/s )
Fig. 15 Left figure: Turbine exp ansion curve at MCR load. Right figure: The internal
isentropic turbine efficiency
5.2.5.2 The Solar turbine
Another example is the backpressure steam turbine of 4 MW el used in a test facility,

designed and constructed by Solar Technologies in USA, referred as ‘Solar test plant’ in
Table 3. Duffy and Schneider [10] reported in 1996 a step increase in admission
temperature for steam turbines, up till 815ºC. They adapted concepts from industrial
gas turbine design criteria, such as: keeping the dimensions small and symmetric to
reduce costs, pressure stresses and thermal stresses. For the stator/nozzle proven gas
turbine super-alloy material was used. In order to provide an optimum in compactness
and symmetry, a high-speed (30’000 rpm) single-stage impulse turbine with a small
diameter was selected. The turbine expands steam from 815ºC/105 bar to 11 bar
backpressure, which yields a 535ºC exhaust flow partially used for cooling of the inner
Literature survey
casing and rotor. The maximum steam flow is 7 kg/s (~0.33 m3/s) and the isentropic
turbine efficiency was calculated to 68%. Much effort was laid upon the design of the
inner casing and the nozzle ring. Three separate castings were manufactured to be able
to conduct laboratory tests in order to select the final design [11]. A disc failure occurred
early during the 100-hour endurance test of the turbine. The unshrouded rotor first used
did not have sufficient damping to limit resonant response. The rotor was then replaced
with a rotor with 62 inserted shrouded blades and full power tests imposed over 2.57
billion cycles successfully [10].
5.3 The steam turbine in detail

In order to improve the stage efficiency in a turbine the losses over that stage must be
reduced, i.e. to find the origins and behaviors of the losses in order to improve the
understanding of them and to decrease the generation of them. Every loss is equal to
an entropy increase, and the sources for this increase are, in general: viscous effects in
boundary layers, viscous effects in mixing processes, shock waves and heat transfer
across temperature differences. Since the expansion occurs at high flow speed it is
almost adiabatic and thus, the most significant loss occurs due to irreversibilities.
Therefore, a deeper understanding of the aero-thermodynamic losses is the aim of this
chapter. The major part of chapter 5.3.1 is based on the material by Denton [12], which
interprets the different flow phenomena with the intention of enhancing the physical
understanding of the loss mechanisms in turbomachinery. In this chapter only turbine
applications are considered.
5.3.1 Flow loss
The classical breakdowns of flow loss, as mentioned in chapter 5.1.1, are “profile loss”,
“end-wall loss” and “leakage loss”. However, these are not independent of each other
and there exists an interaction between all of them. Especially the end-wall loss and the
leakage loss may interact strongly and for example, the dependence is very different
whether shrouded or non-shrouded blades are considered.
h p01 p
02
p1
01 02
c12/2
c22/2 p2, T2
1
2s 2
∆s s
Fig. 16 Enthalpy-entropy chart f or cascade flow
Literature survey
The definition of the loss coefficient may differ depending on what purpose it is intended
for. A common definition, easy to calculate from cascade test data, is the stagnation
pressure loss coefficient (Y), and referring to Fig. 16 this is defined:
p − p02
Y = 01 (Eq. 6)
p02 − p 2
This is valid for two-dimensional flow across a stator in the absolute frame of reference
or a rotor blade in the rotor’s relative frame of reference. However, in a machine with
rotating cascades, i.e. a turbine, the relative stagnation pressure can vary as a result of
changes in radius without any entropy decrease. For a turbine the efficiency, often
referred as the isentropic turbine efficiency, is defined as the ratio of the actual work to
the isentropic work. In theoretical calculations it may be more convenient to use entropy
as a measure of loss, i.e. every entropy increase is an increase of loss. In a single-
phase fluid, entropy is a function of two other arbitrarily thermodynamic properties, for
example temperature and enthalpy, and the entropy loss coefficient can be stated as
follows:
T ∆s
ζs = 2 (Eq. 7)
h02 − h2
Fluid velocities can express, starting from the Euler turbine equation and applying the
cosine-theorem, enthalpy differences. Assuming that the static temperature is constant
along the static pressure line 2 – 2s in Fig. 16, an isentropic efficiency can be
expressed:
h1 − h2 h1 − h2 h1 − h2
ηs = = = =
h1 − h2 s h1 − h2 + h2 − h2 s h1 − h2 + T2 ∆s
=
h1 − h2
=
(
0.5 ⋅ c 22 − c12 ) (Eq. 8)
( )
h1 − h2 + ζ s ⋅ (h02 − h2 ) 0.5 ⋅ c 22 − c12 + 0.5 ⋅ ζ s c 22
The dependence between the efficiency and the entropy is clearly shown in Eq. 8. For
example, by looking at the final term in the denominator in Eq. 8 and take Eq. 7 into
account the entropy generation is lower for a high temperature provided constant
velocity and constant loss coefficient. This seems reasonable with the general
appearance of the expansion curve in mind. The simple conclusion from Eq. 8 is to
keep the final denominator term at a minimum in order to achieve a high efficiency. The
outlet velocity should be kept at a minimum without running the risk of a choked flow in
the machine. The remaining question is what this entropy loss coefficient is depending
on. This question is a quite intriguing one, and tougher (if not impossible) to give an
analytic answer to. As a matter of fact this question has occupied a large number of
people within the turbomachine research for several decades.
Several loss models that try to interpret and describe the losses in turbomachines have
been presented over the past years and Wei [8] summarizes extensively most of the
existing ones for axial flow turbines and makes comparisons between them applied on
five different turbine stages. Wei concluded that the overall performance, for the two
investigated impulse stages (low degree of reaction), all the applied models gave about
the same trend of predicted loss, however overestimated, as the experiments. At the
design point, the Craig/Cox model showed the best agreement with the experimental
results, however it overestimates the losses in the off-design region. The Craig/Cox
Literature survey
model divides the total loss in four main parameters, profile loss, secondary loss,
annulus loss and tip leakage loss. It should strongly be stated that the probable reason
for the good agreement of the Craig/Cox model at design point is because of the model
total loss coefficient is smallest around the angle of incidence (into rotor) corresponding
to the design point. This is not the case for the other applied models. On the other hand,
for a different stage design another loss model may show better accordance.
5.3.1.1 Flow mechanisms
The basic thermodynamic processes that contribute to the entropy generation are,
according to Denton [12]:
• Viscous friction in either boundary layers or free shear layers. The latter include the
mixing process in, for example, a leakage jet.
• Heat transfer across finite temperature differences, for example, from the main
stream flow to a coolant flow.
• Non-equilibrium processes, for example, those that occur in rapid expansions or
shock waves.
For this project, small-scale steam turbines, a reasonable assumption would be that the
viscous effects and non-equilibrium processes play the most vital role for the entropy
generation. Though, heat transfer across flow shear layers with finite different
temperatures do exist, and will probably play an important role if there are large cavity
flows, e.g. blockage steam flows, or coolant flows.
For small-scale steam turbines with advanced steam conditions some of the main
contributing sources for the entropy generation may be:
• Mixing processes between main flow and leakage flows (e.g. tip leakage) or
boundary layer flows (e.g. blade wake).
• For partial admission: Mixing processes between full-admitted flow and partial
admitted flow, see chapter 5.4 for further explanation.
• Non-equilibrium process across the rapid expansion across partial admitted control
stage.
• Viscous friction in free shear layers.
• The disturbance of the trailing edge shock on the main flow.
5.4 Results and discussion, steam turbine

In this study the importance of part load efficiency for small-scale steam turbines has
been pointed out. The first admission stage (often referred to as governing or control
stage) is extensively applied for small-scale steam turbines, where the flow is only
admitted to certain segments of the first stator row. This results in jets, which only
occupy parts of the annulus, leaving the first stator row and entering the following full-
admitted rotor row. Usually the first stage is of impulse-action design, i.e. the entire
pressure drop for the stage is across the stator row. This leaves only a small
circumferential pressure gradient after the stator so the spreading of the jets
circumferentially may be attenuated. However, the rotor passages entering and leaving
the jets are in an unsteady flow and will induce additional entropy increase anyway.
Literature survey
Considering a turbine with such a stage at partial admission, and neglecting the non-
uniform inflow due to blocking or throttling of the flow into some stator segments, i.e.
looking at a stage later in the turbine where the circumferential distribution of the flow is
assumed uniform. Here, the reduced volumetric flow rate may be less than optimal for
the blade design, which may influence the entropy generation, i.e. the losses. To find
and study the effect that contributes most negatively to the entropy generation would be
one interesting topic for the experimental continuation of the project.
Furthermore, another interesting topic that is related to the discussion above, would be
to study the effects on the entropy generation of just these non-uniform and unsteady
flow phenomena, which occur in the following rotor and stator rows after the partially
admitted stator row. For example, if the static pressure is, for the sake of simplicity,
assumed to be uniform after the second stator row, there must be a heavy mixing of jets
and redistribution of the flow before the second stator row, which probably induces a
large entropy increase. This occurs because there exists a strong circumferential
pressure gradient at the second stator inlet due to the inhomogeneous flow (some
segments have full flow resulting in large pressure drops across the stator while other
have low flow resulting in little pressure drop). There seems to be little information
published on these effects according to Denton [12]. Skopek et al [13] investigate partial
admission numerically and experimentally in an axial turbine stage but with emphasis
on the first stage. They pointed out the strong impact of the axial clearance (distance
between stator and rotor row) on the performance of the turbine. Also, one notification
was that the flow into the second rotor row was unevenly distributed in the annulus,
which resulted in that also the second stage seem partially admitted.
5.5 Proposed experimental continuation

Even though it has not clearly been stated in this report, that partial admission is,
exclusively, to be the objective of the experiments, this is still proposed. The reasons for
this conclusion are the sum up of discussions in the reference group, with technical
experts out in the industry, and due to the fact that little open literature has been found
about this issue (referring to the discussion in chapter 5.4 above). Also, not to forget,
the feasibility of the suggested experimental continuation is important too.
As a continuance of the discussion in the chapter above, appendix A7 (Experimental:

performance and scaling procedure) discusses some issues regarding the experimental
work. In order to verify the accordance between the non-dimensional scaling factors
preliminary similarity analyzes between a full-scale turbine and model-scale is
performed. The results concludes that one of the main difficulties for this proposed
experiments, is the limitation of the rotational speed for the HPT test turbine, presently
maximum ∼8000 rpm for stable measurement conditions.
Literature survey
6 CONCLUSIONS
6.1 Advanced steam conditions
• The main focus for large steam turbines are laid upon finding a heat resistant and
cost efficient material for the boiler system components exposed to high
temperatures. Other materials than ordinary carbon-steels, e.g. nickel based alloys,
or cooling must be applied to reach admission steam temperatures over 540-600°C.
This will be needed as well for small-scale turbines.
• For small-scale turbines it is attractive and possible to improve the isentropic
efficiency. Such an improvement has notable effect already at present inlet
conditions, but becomes more important for advanced steam conditions.
• One prospective small-scale application, in the near future, is as a topping advanced
steam process in combined cycles with gas turbines. Because of the already high
thermal efficiency of combined cycles, and prospective gain due to increased steam
cycle efficiency, implies shorter pay back times than if, for example, advanced steam
conditions were applied on small-scale pure Rankine cycles. However, the future
experience from large-scale plants with advanced steam conditions, like Avedore2
and Thermie700, will contribute with further important knowledge on this point.
6.2 The steam turbine
• The majority of existing small-scale turbines operate at admission conditions below

540°C/140 bar.
• High part-load turbine efficiency is important for small-scale steam turbines,
especially DH and BP turbines.
• Better understanding of losses induced by the small volumetric flow and partial
admitted flows are considered necessary.
6.3 Turbine concepts
A first radial stage may be to prefer, over an axial with partial admitted flow annulus, at
full-load operating conditions for small volumetric flows. However, presently axial
turbines seem to be applied, in vast majority, for the turbine rates just below 25 MW el.
6.4 Experimental continuation

The author promotes an experimental continuation regarding small volumetric flows,
with the focus on losses due to partial admission. This because it has shown to be an
important aspect for small-scale turbines, and since there is little material published on
this and thereby the confined knowledge so far. The aim of the experiments is to gain a
better understanding of the loss mechanisms related to part loads and partial
admission, in order to indicate which parameters would yield a diminution in entropy
creation, at prevailing conditions. Experiments on the HPT turbine facility is concluded
to be most doable for partial admission studies, even though a radial turbine may be the
best choice for small-scale turbines.
Literature survey
7 FUTURE WORK
In principal, the project is at the beginning of phase 2, see chapter 7.2 (Time plan), and
more effort is laid upon preparing and planning for the experimental continuation of the
project.
7.1 Future work for the period 2001-07-01 – 2002-03-31
• By active participation in turbine measurements and evaluation work, both at

KTH and DLR (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt), an extensive and
useful knowledge is foreseen, that will benefit own measurements in this project.
• Modification of existing test objects to fit the experimental objectives.
• Planning of measurements performable on the test turbine at HPT, and put them
into practice.
7.2 Time plan

The project started the 1:st of June 2000 and is predicted to carry on for 2.75 years, i.e.
to the 31:st of March 2003. The Time plan consists of the following phases:
Description Starting time Duration Status Remarks
Phase 1 01-06-2000 12 months Finished
Sub phase 1.a Literature survey 01-06-2000 4 Finished Delayed 3 months
from starting date
Sub phase 1.b Preparation work for 01-01-2001 4 Finished Delayed 2 months
running the test turbine (in from starting date
parallel with other studies)
Sub phase 1.c Identify interesting turbine 01-01-2001 4 Finished Delayed 2 months
concepts and designs from starting date
Phase 2 01-06-2001 12 months Started
Sub phase 2.a Propose and select 01-06-2001 6 Started
interesting turbine
parameters to study and
methods to examine them
experimentally
Sub phase 2.b Plan the tests and put them 01-11-2001 5 Not
into practice on the test started
turbine
Sub phase 2.c Produce a scientific paper 01-11-2001 1 Started
for international publication
Phase 3 01-06-2002 12 months Not
started
Sub phase 3.a Perform turbine test 01-06-2002 4 Not
measurements started
Sub phase 3.b Produce a scientific paper 01-06-2002 0.5 Not
for international publication started
Sub phase 3.c Analyze the results and 01-09-2002 3.5 Not
present appropriate started
efficient turbines for small-
scale facilities
Sub phase 3.d Put together the results 01-11-2002 3.5 Not
and the conclusions started
Sub phase 3.e Produce a scientific paper 01-09-2002 0.5 Not
for international publication started
Literature survey
8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The most important prerequisite for this project’s existence is the financial support, and
for this the Swedish National Energy Administration is gratefully acknowledged.
Many thanks go to Lars Hedlund at Alstom Power Sweden and Laszlo Hunyadi, Per
Almqvist and Torsten Fransson at KTH for supportive and fruitful discussions during the
work. Thanks to Marianne Salamón at HPT for her contribution to this report.
Also, I would like to direct my thanks to all my colleagues at KTH, and especially the
division of Heat and Power Technology, for contributing to a good working atmosphere.
Furthermore, special thanks goes to all the people and companies that have contributed
with reference data in this report.
Literature survey
9 REFERENCES
[1] Paterson, A.N., 1997

“Steam turbines for advanced steam cycles”
International conference on Advanced Steam Plant, ISBN 1-86058-097-1, paper
C522/001/97
[2] Welford, G., 2000

“Vertical tubes improve supercritical systems”
Article in May 2000 issue in the Journal of Modern Power Systems
[3] Vanstone, R.W. et al, 1997

C522/007/97
[4] Smith, D., 2000

“Horizontal boilers make 700°C steam economic”
Article in May 2000 issue in the Journal of Modern Power Systems
[5] Oeynhausen, H. et al, 1997

C522/032/97
[6] Alvarez, H., 1990

“Energiteknik”
Energiteknik del 2, Studenlitteratur ISBN 91-44-31481-7, Pages 888-933
[7] Strömberg, L., 1996

“Kraftvärme från biobränsle – en affärsmöjlighet för Värmekraft?”
An evaluation report by Lars Strömberg, Vattenfall AB, dept. Elproduktion, 162 87
Stockholm, Sweden, +46 8 7395000
[8] Wei, N., 2000

“Significance of loss models in aerothermodynamic simulation for axial turbines”
Doctoral thesis, Department of Energy Technology, Royal Institute of Technology,
ISBN 91-7170-540-6, TRITA-KRV-2000-3, Pages 72-109
[9] Balje, O. E., 1962

“A study on design criteria and matching of turbomachines: Part A”
Journal of Eng. for Power. Trans. ASME, 84, 1962
[10] Duffy, T.; Schneider, P.; 1995

“High Performance Steam Development”
Advanced Turbine Systems Annual Program review, DOE /CE/40812-96/C0655
Literature survey
[11] Valenti, M., 1996

“Pouring on the steam”
Article in J. of Mechanical Engineering, February 1996, pp. 70-74.
[12] Denton, J. D., 1993

“Loss mechanisms in Turbomachines”
The 1993 IGTI Scholar Lecture, Journal of Turbomachinery Vol. 115
[13] Skopek, J., 1999

“Partial admission in an axial turbine stage”
IMechE conference 1999, paper C557/077/99
[14] Kubiš, S., 2001

“Private communication”
Stanislav Kubiš, Alstom Power, Czech Republic telephone: +420 4510 2322
[15] Tadashi, T. et al, 2001

“System performance enhancement by a combined CH4/O2-fired gas/steam turbine
closed cycle”
CIMAC conference proceedings 2001, CIMAC Central Secriteriat, c/o VDMA e.V.,
Lyoner Strasse 18, 60528 Frankfurt, Germany
[16] Kern, T-U. et al, 2001

“The application of high-temperature 10Cr materials in steam power plants”
Journal of VGB PowerTech, the May issue 5/2001, pp. 125-131
[17] Ahrens, M., 2001

Markus Ahrens, ABB Generators, Switzerland, markus.ahrens@ch.abb.com
[18] Zörner, W., 1994

“Steam turbines for power plants employing advanced steam conditions”
Siemens leaflet, Siemens Generation Group (KWU), New Zealand
[19] Gyarmathy, G., 1988

“On the design limits of steam turbine last stages”
Journal paper, Technology of turbine plant operating with wet steam. BNES,
London, 1988
[20] Sundkvist, S-G. et al, 1999

“KME-720-Avancerade ångdata för biobränsleeldade ångprocesser”
Internal report, Vattenfall AB, Sweden, 1999
[21] SKF, 1989

“SKF huvudkatalog”
Bearing handbook, SKF, Sweden, catalogue 4000-S, Reg. 47-51000-1989-10
Literature survey
[22] Jordal, K., 2001

“Modeling and Performance of Gas Turbines Cycles with Various Means of Blade
Cooling”
Doctoral thesis, paper VI, ISBN 91-7894-135-1, ISSN 0282-1990, ISRN
LUTMDN/TMVK-1027-SE
[23] Rice, I., 1997

“Split Stream Boilers for High-temperature/High-Pressure Topping Steam Turbine
Combined Cycles”
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbine and Power, Vol. 119, pp. 385-394.
[24] Kehlhofer, R., 1991

“Combined-Cycle Gas & Steam Turbine Power Plants””
Textbook, ISBN 0-88173-076-9 FP, ISBN 0-13-151481-4 PH, pp. 9-11
[25] Horlock, J.H., 1992

“Combined Power Plants”
Textbook, ISBN 0-08-040502-9, pp. 140-162
[26] Hedlund, L., 2001

Lars Hedlund, Alstom Power Sweden, telephone: +46 122 811 89

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HPT/KTH 01-14

EFFICIENT STEAM TURBINES

Technical progress report

Department of Energy Technology

Literature study report

Approved by industrial partners: Signature:

APPENDIX A1 THE ELECTRICAL EFFICIENCY

APPENDIX A2 LARGE SUPERCRITICAL POWER STATIONS

APPENDIX A3 LYCKSELE CHP PLANT

APPENDIX A5 REFERENCE TURBINES

APPENDIX A6 PART LOAD CONTROL

APPENDIX A7 EXPERIMENTAL: PERFORMANCE AND SCALING PROCEDURE

m & Mass flow [kg/s]

s Entropy loss coefficient [-]

01 Stagnation condition at blade inlet

The Swedish government has decided to do an "energy-transfer" from nuclear to

2.1 Objectives of the project

2.2 Objectives of this literature study

3.1 Methodology of the project

3.2 Methodology of this literature study

Secondly, in chapter 5, a more detailed investigation of small-scale steam turbines is

4 STEAM CYCLES WITH ADVANCED STEAM CONDITIONS

Status Plant Country Commis Electrical Steam Steam Electrical net

Fig. 1 Steam cycle efficiency ( single reheat) improvement as a function of admission

eta = 0.9 800.00

4.1 Investigation of the electrical efficiency

el = Pel / Pinput (fuel) th * t,s * b* m* g* ap * pipe (eq. 1)

• 7KHUPRG\QDPLFF\FOHHIILFLHQF\ th, theoretical

Annual fuel saving (US$)

4.2 Large-scale power generation

4.2.1 Plant examples

4.2.2 Discussion on large-scale power generation

4.3 Small-scale power generation

4.3.1 Interesting small-scale concepts

4.3.1.1 The Split Stream Boiler

In a split stream boiler configuration it is possible to reach exhaust gas temperatures up

Fuel To steam turbine

Duct burner Final Superheater Boiler Economiser Fan

Fig. 6 Schematically drawing o f the Split Stream Boiler (SSB).

Fig. 7 Split Stream Boiler mod el of temperature versus enthalpy.

4.3.1.2 High performance steam systems

4.4 Discussion, advanced steam conditions

700deg 600deg 10bar

Fig. 8 Expansion lines in entro py-enthalpy chart

TIT gas turbine, °C 1350 1500 1700

4.5 Conclusion, advanced steam conditions

• An improvement of the theoretical achievable thermodynamic cycle efficiency, see

5 SMALL-SCALE STEAM TURBINES

5.1.1 Reference turbines

200 Examples of application

400 Future steam

Fig. 11 Trend in admission data for steam turbines

Appendix A5 (Reference turbines) contains further information regarding the turbines,

4.9 - 0.3 (+0.1) TOTAL ECONOMY

5.1.3 Inlet volumetric flow

According to the thermodynamic properties of steam, the specific volume decreases

Blade height (m)

5.2 The steam turbine in a system

5.2.1 Turbine as a component

In order to select the appropriate turbine for an arbitrary operating condition,

n S = Specific speed (-)

According to preliminary calculations, it is not recommendable to use a radial turbine for

Fig. 13 Layout example of a ra dial backpressure turbine combined with an axial

• 7KHUPRG\QDPLFF\FOHHIILFLHQF\ th, theoretical