APP 007 III Raw data, original sources of literature reviews, library catalogues, 

information before it has been databases. 3. RESEARCH QUESTION

DAY 1 analysed.
4. NON – DOCUMENTARY -  Usually the end of the
HOW TO PLAN A RESEARCH Characteristics: First hand observations, Unpublished forms of communication introduction should be related to
PROJECT contemporary accounts of events, the topic.
viewpoints at the time. Examples: Interviews, conversations with
1. Find an interesting topic related professionals, students, and other expert in Explaining the purpose of a research study
to your strand. Examples : Interviews, Speeches, Diaries, the field and providing a compelling rationale is an
2. Think of a particular question. Birth Certificates, Journal Articles important part of any research study.
3. Search the literature. (Science), Newspaper articles written at 5. ONLINE SEARCHING -
4. Test the research question the time. Information on the internet through The main purpose of the introduction is to
5. Measure the research question. search engines. give a description of the problem that will
6. Plan a feasible study. 2. SECONDARY SOURCES - Data be addressed in the study.
7. Study an ethical standards that has been collected from a readily Examples: google, yahoo and bing
8. Write a research protocol. available sources. DAY 3: DAY 4
-Sources that analyse or interpret STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM -
INTRODUCTION - first paragraph
Broad Topic –something that covers a lot primary data. They do not offer new Researchers guide during the research
written in a research paper.
of area evidences. process
Narrow Topic –it has focus and the Characteristics: Interpretation of RESEARCH TITLE - Summarized the
main idea of research study -Verbalization of the researcher question.
choices available are defined and specified information, written after the event offer
review or critiques. PURPOSE - Reason for which something TWO TYPES
HOW TO NARROW DOWN A
BROAD TOPIC Examples: Biographies, Journal articles, is done or created. 1. MAIN/MAJOR PROBLEM
textbooks, commentaries, editorials, 2. SUB-PROBLEM
1. State your broad topic. HYPOTHESIS - Method of acquiring
literary criticisms.
2. Describe your broad area more knowledge on the scientific method. WAYS TO PRESENT THE PROBLEM
specifically.
3. Ask familiar questions such as 3. TERTIARY SOURCES - BRAINSTORMING - Gathering of 1. INTERROGATIVE MANNER
what, who, where, when, and References that aid the researcher in spontaneous idea of the member to a ( for sub- problem)
why. using primary and secondary sources. certain topic. 2. DECLARATIVE MANNER
4. Name a specific topic to your (for main problem)
broad topic to make it a focused -Sources that compile data on INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY
topic. particular topic DAY 5
1. RATIONALE
Characteristics: Collection of lists  Provides ideas, background that HYPOTHESIS - Is a tentative answer to a
of primary and secondary sources,
cause the researcher to conduct research problem.
DAY 2 reference works, finding tools for
the study.
sources. -Prediction of an expected outcome in
1. PRIMARY SOURCES - Original 2. PURPOSE
materials that has been collected Examples: Encyclopaedias, terms of significant effects, differences or
 Goals and objectives of your
specially for the purpose of the mind. bibliographies, abstracts, indexes, relationship.
research study

-provides the basis for the testing of
statistical significance of the finding of the
study
NULL HYPOTHESIS - States that the
absence of relationship effect or difference
between the dependent and independent
variables.
-The researcher tries to disapprove or
nullify
-It’s always stated in negative form.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS -
Always predicts that there will be a
relationship effect or difference between
the variables being studied.
-The researcher tries to prove.
–affirmation of the existence of observed
phenomena.
DAY 6
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK - Basic
structure that serves a mental window of
the research.
-Illustrate the research design and the
relationship of the variables involved
-Written or visual representation that
explain either geographically or in
narrative form, the main things to be
studied.
-Flowcharts, tree diagram, shape – based
diagram, triangle, concentric, circles,
overlapping circles, mind maps, and
software systems.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK -
Statements about mechanism underlying a
particular behavior.
-Theories helps to organize and verify
different observation related to the
behavior and good theories will generate
prediction about the behaviour.
-Consist of theories that are interrelated.
-If there is a relationship between two or
more variables, then a theory should be
formulated to explain why the relationship
exists.
Theory of Constructivism (Jean Piaget)
1920 – It emphasizes the learner’s social
interaction with knowledgeable members
of society.
Theory of Behaviorism (John Watson)
1913 – It is concerned with the behaviour
that are associated with feeling and
thinking, imagining or desiring.
Psycho-Social Theory (Erik Erickson)
1994 – It states that successful completion
of each stage results in a healthy
personality and the acquisition of basic
virtues. Basic virtues are characteristics
which ego can use to resolve subsequent
crises.
DAY 7
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY -
The significance of the study will mainly
focus on the question “Who will benefit
from the study?”
-This section will state the contribution of
your study in the society.
DEFINITION OF TERMS - Identify and
define terms that readers need to
understand a proposal.
-Define terms introduced in all section of
the research plan.
a) The title of the study
b) The problem statement
c) The purpose statement
d) The research question, hypothesis, or
objectives.
e) The literature review
f) The theory based of the study
g) The methods section
CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION -
Universal as the meaning is understood by
the people
- Abstract and most general in nature
- Usual source is the dictionary, the
reference book of everyday language.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION - The
meaning of the concept of term used in a
particular study
- It is concrete as it is subject to
measurement.
DAY 9
Review of Literature – It is the sufficient
background information should be
presented through the section in the
research study. It is refer to a collected
body of scholarly work related to a
research topic. This contains findings of
other studies or investigations similar to
the present study.
Related legal basis – The sources or
related legal basis are laws, constitution,
department directives such as circulars,
orders, memoranda, and many others
which have implications to government
thrusts.
Related Literature - are published
articles, books, journals, magazines,
novels, poetry and many others which
have direct bearing to the proposed study.
Related Studies – are findings of
unpublished researches which have direct
bearing to the proposed study are included
in this section. They are segregated into
local and foreign studies. They are
arranged chronologically from present to
past.
Day 10
Plagiarism – a practice of taking someone
else’s work or ideas and passing them off
as one’s own.
Direct Plagiarism (Plagiarism of
Language) – copying word for word
Accidental Plagiarism (Unintentional
Plagiarism) – failing to cite the sources
correctly
Collusion – is the collaboration with other
when working on school assignments or
projects.
Self-Plagiarism – re-using of your own
paper or even modify a paper you have
already written in another course without
prior approval of your adviser.
DAY 11
American Psychological Associaton
(APA) citation – it is used within the
social sciences.
Modern Language Association (MLA)
citation – it is used within the liberal arts
and humanities.
APA Styles
 Single Author – The last name of
the author and the year of publication
are placed in text
Narrative/ In-text – only the date is
inside the parentheses.
Hernandez (2013)
Parenthetical – the surname and year is
separated by a comma.
(Hernandez, 2013)
 Two Authors – Name both authors in
the signal phase or parentheses each
time you cite the work.
Narrative/ In-text – use the word “and”
between the authors name within the text.
Echavez and Santos (2014)
Parenthetical – use ampersand in the
parentheses
(Echavez & Santos, 2014)
 Three to Five Authors – List all the
authors in the parentheses the first time
you cite the source
Narrative/ In-text – use the word “and”
between the authors name within the text.
David, Garcia and Castro (2015)
Parenthetical – use ampersand in the
parentheses
(David, Garcia & Castro, 2015)
In the succeeding citations, only use the
first author’s last name and followed by
“et al.” in the parentheses.
(Garcia et al., 2015)
 Six or More Authors – Use the first
authors name followed by “et al.” in the
signal phrase or in parentheses
Narrative/In-Text:
Sanchez et al. (2010)
Parenthetical:
(Sanchez et al., 2010)
 Unknown Author – id the work
doesn’t have an author, cite the source
by its title in the parentheses. Titles of
books and reports are italicized or
underlined; titles of articles, chapters,
and Web pages are in question marks.
Treat the title as the author’s name
MLA Styles
Author’s name in the text: Fellona Title of the Reading Material:
emphasized that (20-21)
Underlined or Italicized
Authors name in the parentheses: Copyright date:
(Fellona 20-21)
Written after the publisher’s name
Multiple Authors:
Indention:
(Avila and Ramos 9)
Indent after the first line of each entry
Organization as Author:
Order:
(National Food Authority, 40-43)
Resource materials are arranged according to
DAY 12 their classification
APA Style Citation Appearance:
Work Cited
Author’s name:
Full surname, initials of first and middle name DAY 13
Title of the Reading Material: Research Methods – These are the particular
strategies researchers use to collect the
Italicized evidence necessary for building and testing
theories
Copyright date:
-Decisions pertaining to what, where, when,
Written after the author’s name how much, and by what means with regards to
Indention: a study make up a research design.
Indent after the first line of each entry - It is the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a fashion
Order: which.
All the author’s last name are alphabetically Qualitative, Quantitative, Mixed-methods
arranged.
(Frey, Botan, Friedman, & Kreps 1991)
Citation Appearance:
 Identifying the research environment
Reference
 Identifying the population of the study
MLA Style  Consideration on the research instruments
 The procedure in gathering and treatment of
Author’s name:
data
Full surname, initials of first and middle name
Almeida, Gaerlan, and Manly (2016) pointed
(optional)
out that the choice of study design would
depend largely on the philosophical
perspective, objective, of the study, the inquiry
mode and applicability of research findings.
1. Research Design Based on the
Number of Contacts
Cross-sectional Studies – are commonly
used in the social sciences. These studies
aim to find out the prevalence of
phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude
or issue by taking a cross section of the
population.
The before and after Design (Pre-test
and Post-test Design) – described as two
sets of cross sectional data collection
points on the same population to find out
the change in the phenomenon or variable
between two points in time. The change is
measured by comparing the difference in
the phenomenon or variable before and
after the intervention.
The Longitudinal Design – it is useful to
determine the pattern of extent of change
in a phenomenon, situation, problem, or
attitude in relation to time
2. Research Design Based on the
Reference Period
The Retrospective Study Design – is
used to investigate a phenomenon,
situation problem or issue that has
happened in the past. The study may be
conducted either on the basis of the data
available for that period or on the basis of
respondent recall of the situation.
The Prospective Study Design – attempts
to establish the outcome of an event or
what is likely to happen, such as the likely
prevalence of a phenomenon, situation,
problem, attitude or outcome in the future.
Experiments are usually classified as
prospective studies since the researcher
must wait for an intervention to register its
effect on the study population.
The Retrospective-Prospective Study
Design – this applies to a study available
data are analyzed and used as bases of
future projection. It does not involve a
control group. Trend studies fall under this
category.
3. Research Design Based on the Nature
of Investigation
Experimental Design – has an
assumption of a cause and effect
relationship. In this design, the researcher
introduces the intervention that is assumed
to be the cause of change and waits until it
has produced the change.
Non-Experimental Design – the
researcher observes a phenomenon and
attempts to establish what caused it. In this
instance, the research starts from the effect
or outcome and attempts to determine
causation
Survey – The objective of the study is to
see a general picture of the population
under investigation in terms of their social
and economic characteristics, opinions and
their knowledge about and behavior
towards a certain phenomenon.
Correlational Study – to find out the
direction and extent of relationship
between variable of a population under
study.
Quasi-Experimental – has the properties
of both experimental and non-
experimental design.
Case Study – This is a dominant
qualitative study design but also prevalent
in quantitative design. This is an in-depth
investigation of a single or small number
of units. It is used to describe any entity
that forms a single unit such as a person,
an organization, or an institution. It offers
rich and in-depth information which is not
usually offered by other methods.
Grounded Theory – This is an approach
in collecting and analysing qualitative data
that aim to develop theories and theoretical
propositions grounded on the real world
observations.
Phenomenology – a study design
describes accurately the lived experiences
of people being studied. The primary
source of data is the life world of the
individual, in depth interviews are the
most common means of data collection.
Furthermore, emerging themes are
frequently validated with participants
because their meanings of the lived
experience are central in
phenomenological study (Ploeg, 1999)
Ethnography – This is a research process
which deals with the scientific description
of individual culture involving the origins,
development and characteristics of human
kind, including social customs, beliefs and
cultural development (Weirsman &Jurs,
2009)
Mixed Methods – It uses both
quantitative and qualitative approach in
answering the research questions.
Researchers may use narratives to add
meaning to the gathered numerical data.
DAY 14
Probability Sampling – also called as
random sampling. Every element of the
population has the non-zero chance to be
chosen as a sample.
Non-Probability Technique – also called
as purposive sampling. The samples you
gathered does give all equal chances of
being selected.
Mixed Methods – This is a sampling
method that combines different types of
sampling methods into a single design.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Random Sampling – Every element of
the population has an equal chance to be
chosen as a sample.
Lottery, draw lots, raffle draw
Stratified Sampling – the population N is
divided to subpopulation called strata
Systematic Sampling – Equally important
in your selection of a probability sampling
method in your study
Cluster Sampling – It is also called area
sampling. It usually consist of geographic
units like barangay, cities, town, or
schools.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Convenience Sampling – most available
samples are chosen and they are familiar
to the researchers.
Snowball Sampling – also known as
referral sampling. The participants of the
study will refer another potential
participants. Sometimes it is used for some
sensitive topics that samples are hardly
available.
Purposive Sampling – It is used when
you want to access a particular subset of
people based on purpose.
Quota Sampling – there is a freedom to
choose any respondents as long as the
quota is met.
DAY 15
Interviews - one-on-one conversation to
gather information.
Questionnaires and Surveys – set of
written questions with a choice of answer.
Observations - watching someone or
something to gather information.
Documents and Records - Examining
existing data contained in databases,
reports, logs, etc.
Research Methodology – This contains
sets of instruments and procedures in
dealing with the research problem.
It is the Chapter 3 and the last section of
research proposal.
Components of Research Methods:
Research Design – it describes a
specific research approach you will use
in your study.
Research Environment – it describes
the setting or location of your study.
Research Respondents - It describes
the respondents of the study.
Research Instruments – It outlines the
instruments you will use in your study
Research Procedure – It describes the
specific steps you will undergo in order
to collect the data for your study.
-Data Collection or Data Gathering
-Data Analysis or Treatment of Data
Data Analysis Procedure – It contains
the section describes how you will analyze
the data that you will gather.
Also called as Treatment of Data
DAY 20
Textual Presentation – Data are
presented in the form of words, paragraphs
and phrases.
Tabular Presentation – Data are
presented in table
Thematic Presentation – These are
patterns across the data that are important
to the description of a phenomenon
Graphical Presentation – It is a visual
presentation of data
DAY 21-22`
Analysis – an examination of data or
fact in terms of quantity, quality,
attribute, trait, pattern, trend,
relationship to answer research
questions which involve statistical
techniques and procedures.
Interpretation – is the process of
assigning meaning to the collected
information.
DAY 27
Preliminaries
 Title Page – the first true page when
you open your research manuscript
-It contains the working title of the
study, addressed to whom it is
intended, a declaration of the
context of the work and formal
explanatory statement accompanied
by the subject or program and the
author of the research.
 Approval Sheet – It contains the
names and signature of the adviser,
panel members, the school head,
indicating the approval and
acceptance of the study.
 Acknowledgement – It contains the
appreciation of the researchers to all
the people who give intellectual,
personal, professional and financial
assistance in his research.
-It is suggested to be just short and
simple
 Abstract – It contains a brief
summary of the research. It should
have short discussion of the
statement of the problem, methods
and design, conclusion and findings.
 Table of Contents – It contains all
the list of the front, body and back
matter.
Text (Body)
Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS
SETTING– introductory chapter that
contains introduction of the topic, and
importance of the subject chosen for
the study, explanation of need for
research.
 Rationale of the Study
 Conceptual Framework
 Theoretical Framework
 Statement of the Problem
 Significance of the Study
 Definition of Terms
Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE AND STUDIES – It
contains the related research and
literature that are organized according
to themes or topic.
-It must have a proper citation
Chapter 3 RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY – It contains
elements involved in the methods of
investigation.
  Research design
 Research Environment
 Research Respondents
 Research Instrument
 Research Procedure
 Gathering of Data
 Treatment of Data

Chapter 4 PRESENTATION,
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
OF DATA – It contains the presentation
and result of the investigation
Chapter 5 SUMMARY OF FINDING,
CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

 Summary of Findings
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
Back Matter – It is also referred as
supplementary pages
References/Bibliography – It is found in
the back paper
-References (APA)
-Work Cited (MLA)
Appendices- it contains materials that
supplement the text of the study but should
not be appropriately included in the text.
 STM 008 – BIOLOGY REVIEWER DAY 3: NUTRITION NUTRITION Autotrophic Nutrition - can make their
DAY 1:  Autotr  Heterotr own food
PLANT ANIMAL
REPRODUCT REPRODUCT ophic ophic
Characteristics of Living Things: ION ION Photoautotrophic Saprophytic  Photoautotrophic Nutrition –
LIFE Alteration of NO alteration Chemoautotrophi Parasitic plants manufacture their own
 Movement CYCLE generation of generation
c food by using sunlight
GAMET Haploid Haploid
 Responsiveness / Immutability ES gametes gametes Chemosynthesis Holozoic
SPORE Haploid spores NO spores –They are “photosynthetic”
 Adaptation –process of change
S (photoautotrophs)
by which an organism or species GAMET Haploid Diploid ANIMAL NUTRITION: -
becomes better suited to its ES gametophyte organism
MADE (mitosis) (meiosis) Heterotrophic Nutrition –cannot make can directly use the solar energy in
environment (Structural – SPORE Diploid NO spores their own food the presence if chlorophyll to make
adaptation of body or body S sporophyte
MADE (meiosis) their organic food (glucose) from
parts)(Behavioural –response to -depends only on some living things to get
simpler inorganic substances like
stimuli) foods
water and carbon dioxide and give off
 Reproduction –ability to Plants: –undergoes series of process: oxygen (all green plants)
reproduce (sexual and asexual) 1. Diploid Stage –spores are produced. Ingestion – digestion – absorption -
 Life Span and Life Cycle  Chemosynthetic Nutrition –
2. Haploid Stage –spores will become elimination
 Homeostasis –equilibrium : certain bacteria that can make
gametophyte to diploid zygote to
stability of internal environment  Holozoic Nutrition: (ex. Cat organic food from simpler
sporophyte.
and Mouse) organic substances without
 Metabolism –chemical
Gametophyte –gamete producing plant – Herbivores –eat plants using solar energy : they use
processes that occur within a
chemicals (chemoautotrophs)
living organism in order to Sporophyte –spore producing plant – Carnivores –eat meats
(ex. Sulphur bacteria and iron
maintain life – Omnivores –eat plants and
Photosynthesis - process which green bacteria)
plants use sunlight to synthesize foods meats
DAY 2:
from CO2 and H2O  Parasitic Nutrition –organisms DAY 6:
Cellular Organization - living things are that gets their nutrition through
-makes food through sunlight Irritability –an excitation response to
made of cells : basis and evolution of life attaching themselves on or stimuli
(from micro molecules to macromolecules DAY 4: thriving inside a host : one
-form of organelles-) Stimuli –Reaction : response
benefits, one harms
Nutrition – process of taking in and
Heredity - our genetic information can be utilizing the various nutrients by an  Saprophytic Nutrition –getting PLANTS IRRITABILITY (tropism)
passed from one generation to another. organism nutrients from the thing they are
 Phototropism – response to
decomposing
–nutrients are substances that provide light
energy to the organism –positive phototropism: bends
PLANT NUTRITION towards light
PLANT ANIMAL
 –negative phototropism: bends
away from it
 Geotropism / Gravitropism –
response to gravity
–negative geotropism: upward
growth of plant
–positive geotropism:
downward growth of plants
 Thigmotropism –turning or
bending of a plant in response
to a touch stimulus
 Thigmotropism – turning or
bending of a plant in response
to a directional source of heat
 Hydrotropism - plant’s growth
response to water
concentrations
 roots are positively
hydrotropism
ANIMAL IRRITABILITY (taxis)
 Aerotaxis –towards or away
from a region of higher oxygen
conten
 Phototaxis –response to light
 Thigmotaxis – response to
touch
–positively thigmotactic: will
seek contact to other objects
–negatively thigmotactic: will
avoid contact
 Chemotaxis –response to
chemical stimulus
 Geotaxis –response to gravity
 Thermotaxis – response to heat
–positive thermotaxis: toward
higher temperature
–negative thermotaxis: toward
lower temperature
DAY 13
NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
Incomplete Dominance
-It is the blending of traits expressed by
the alleles that combine for any given
characteristic.
-The phenotype of a heterozygous
organism can actually be a blend between
the phenotypes of its homozygous
parents.
-A heterozygote phenotype intermediate
between the two homozygote
phenotypes.
Co-dominance
-Both alleles are simultaneously
expressed in the heterozygote.
-Neither allele is recessive or masked by
the other allele in the pair that code for
any given characteristic.
-Instead of blending, both alleles are
equally expressed and their features are
both seen in the phenotype.
-Neither a complete dominance nor
incomplete dominance of one trait over
the other for that given characteristic.
Multiple Alleles
-It is the phenomenon in which the same
gene has more than two different alleles.
-Three or more alternative forms of a
gene (alleles) that can occupy the same
locus.
DAY 14
Y - Determines the sex of the offspring.
Sex-linked trait
-is a trait in which a gene is located on a
sex chromosome
-A gene present on one of the sex
chromosomes (X or Y in mammals).
1. X-linked trait
-Is a sex-linked trait where the gene or
allele for the trait is found on the X
chromosome.
-In x-linked traits, most females are just
carriers, only few are affected, the most
affected ones are the males.
a. Color-blindness - an affected
individual could not distinguish red from
green color (red green color blindness)
b. Hemophilia - an affected
individual suffers from delayed blood
clotting during injuries because of the
absence of certain blood clotting factors.
Ex. Hemophilia is caused by a mutation in
either of two genes, both of which are
located on the X chromosome. Both
genes encode proteins that help blood
clot.
2. Y-linked trait
-It is a sex- linked trait where the gene or
allele for the trait is found on the Y
chromosome.
-Never occur in females, and occur in all
male descendants of an affected male.
a. Hypertrichosis Pinnae Auris -
a Y-linked trait where affected
males have hair growing from
their external ears.
DAY 15
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) – is a long
molecule that contains our unique genetic
code. It holds the instructions for making
all the proteins in our bodies.
DNA Structure – DNA is a polymer or
nucleotides. Each nucleotide composed of
Pentose Sugar, Phosphate group, Nitrogen
base and Sugar deoxyribose.
RNA – is a nucleic acid similar in
structure and properties to DNA, but it
only has a single strand of bases. Instead
of Thymine it has a base called Uracil.
Protein – is a large molecule made up of
chains of amino acids. Essential to the
functioning of our cells.
DNA BASES
Purine bases; Adenine and Guanine
Pyrimidine bases; Cytosine and Guanine
DNA Structure; double helix, discovered
by Watson and Crick on 1953
DNA Replication
-In the nucleus
-Each DNA strand becomes a template,
parent strand becomes apart.
-Proper base-pairs are assembled on that
template.
-Nucleotides are connected together to
make a new strand that is complementary
to the old.
-This is called Semi-Conservative
Replication.
-A – T is a double bond
-C -G is a triple bond (stronger)
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
 Single stranded and shorter
 Sugar; Ribose
 Bases; A – U and G – C
 Less stable than the DNA
 RNA doesn’t persist in the cell
for long whereas DNA can persist for the
life of the cell.
Central Dogma
DNA –-- Transcription –-- RNA –--
Translation --- Proteins
Transcription
-Occurs in the nucleus.
-mRNA carries the message about what
type of protein to make from the DNA in
the nucleus to the ribosome.
-The nucleotide sequence of RNA and
DNA are the same (except for uracil).
-mRNA is synthesized from DNA using
base pairing.
-DNA unwinds in a section.
-RNA polymerase attaches at the
promoter sequence of DNA, and it moves
along the DNA, unzipping the strands,
this allows for one mRNA molecule to be
formed.
-Molecule of messenger RNA is formed
as a complimentary copy of a region.
Translation
-Occurs at the ribosome, in the cytoplasm
of a cell.
-mRNA leaves nucleus and migrates to
ribosome.
-mRNA bonds to the small ribosome sub
unit
-tRNA brings an amino acid to the
ribosome, where anticodon on the tRNA
binds to the codon of mRNA.
-The amino acid bonds to its adjoining
amino acid to form a growing
polypeptide.
-The tRNA without the amino is released
from the ribosome.
-Other tRNA’s bring amino acid to the
ribosome to complete protein molecule.
The Genetic Code – each 3 consecutive
bases on the mRNA is a code word.
Codon – specifies an amino acid. 3 codon
acts as terminators.
AUG – codes for methionine, start signal
for translation.
20 Amino Acids – they are like the bricks
or building blocks to make all the protein.
Protein Synthesis – occurs in the
cytoplasm. Biological activity (function)
of proteins depends largely on its 3D
structure.
 Both DNA and RNA have a
direction; one end is the 3’ and
the other is 5’ end.
 Thus, codons are read in one
direction only.
DAY 17
Archaea Domain
-Have genes that are similar to both
bacteria and eukaryotes.
-Do not have a membrane bound nucleus.
-Extreme organisms that live under some
of the most extreme environmental
conditions. Ex. Thermophiles.
Bacteria Domain
-Have unique cell wall composition and
rRNA type.
1. Proteobacteria – phylum with
the largest group of bacteria. Ex.
E.coli, Salmonella and
Heliobacter pylori.
2. Cyanobacteria – are capable of
photosynthesis. Also known as
blue-green algae because of
their color.
3. Firmicutes – gram-positive
bacteria including Clostridium,
Bacillus and Mycoplasmas.
Bacteria without cell walls.
4. Chlamydiae – parasitic bacteria
reproduce inside their host’s
cells. Ex. Chlamydophila
pneumoniae (causes pneumonia)
5. Spirochetes – these corkscrew-
shaped bacteria exhibit a unique
twisting motion. Ex. Treponema
pallidum (cause syphilis)
Eukarya Domain
-Have a membrane bound nucleus. Have
rRNA that is distinct from bacteria and
archaeans.
DAY 18
Recombinant DNA – artificially made
DNA
Genetic Engineering – a genetic
modification, purposeful addition/
modification of a foreign gene.
Steps in Genetic Engineering:
1. DNA Extraction – extracting
DNA from a chosen organism.
2. Gene Cloning – part of the
DNA you want to clone- gene of
interest. Circular DNA –
plasmid (inside the bacteria).
3. Gene Design – the gene will be
finalized.
4. Transformation – (tissue
culture) produce mass of
undifferentiated plant cells. The
gene clone will be entered
nucleus of plant cells. Allow
plant to grow into maturity.
Transgenic Plant – contains a
gene that is already cloned.
5. Backcross Breeding –
backcross with elite plant,
produce both of plant properties.
DAY 19
Fossils – relies or impressions of ancient
organisms. Provide solid evidence that
organisms from the past are not the same
as those found today; they show a
progression of evolution.
Anatomical Evidences – organism have
anatomical similarities when they are
closely related because of common
descent. It is used to determine ancestry
among organisms.
a. Homologous Structures –
organisms have the same
structure but different in
function.
b. Analogous Structures –
organisms have different
structure but the same in
function.
c. Vestigial Structures – a
structure that is no longer
functional but show common
ancestry.
Embryological Evidences – embryos of
many different animals appeared so
similar that it was difficult to tell them
apart.
Biochemical Evidences – organisms use
the same basic biochemical molecules,
similarities in amino acid.
DAY 20
Geologic Time Scale – system of
chronological measurement that relates
rock layers to time. The deeper, the older.
Carbon Dating – carbon present were
used.
PRE-CAMBRIAN ERA (5 million years
ago)
 Where fungi, algae and sponges
are present.
PALAEOZOIC ERA (360-600 million
years ago)
 Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian,
Devonian, Carboniferous,
Permian
 Age of fishes
 Age of invertebrates (no
backbones)
 Age of amphibians (can live
both land and water)
MESOZOIC ERA
 Triassic (230 MYA) –
dinosaurs are dominant, first
mammals.
 Jurassic (180 MYA) – first
flowering plants, first birds
 Cretaceous (130MYA) –
dinosaurs gone extinct.
CAENOZOIC ERA (65 million years
ago)
 Age of human
 Herbs and grasses
 Modern mammals and birds
DAY 21
Jean Baptiste Lamarck
-French naturalist born on August 1,
1744 in Picardy, France
-Youngest of 11 children
-Interested in collecting plants when he
was a soldier in South France
1. Theory of Need – Lamarck believed
that organisms change because they need
to.
2. Theory of Use and Disuse – organisms
could change the size or shape of organs
by using them or not using them. The part
of the body that is always used will be
strengthened; part not always used
deteriorates.
3. Theory of Inheritance of Acquired
Traits – changes happened during the life
of parents will be passed to the offspring.
August Weismann – scientist of
disproved Lamarck. Made an experiment
which he cut off the tails of mice and
allowed the mice to mate. Repeatedly did
it for 20 generations but the 22nd
generation did not exhibit the cut-off trail
of original parents.
DAY 22
Charles Darwin
-Born in Shrewsbury, England, on
February 12, 1809.
-English naturalist, published the Origin
of Species.
-Greatly influenced by Thomas Malthus,
a minister, mathematician and economist
in his Essay on the Principle of
Population.
-Failed to explain the source of variation
and it failed to explain the sudden
changes which occur and are inheritable.
-Made observations about nature and
some evolutionary trends.
1. Organisms vary in different
traits.
2. No two individuals are exactly
alike.
3. There was a gradual change in
each species.
4. Fossils were different from the
living animals. But fossils had
many similarities to modern
forms of life.
5. Species in Galapagos islands
resembled species on the
mainland but different in
characteristics.
6. Organisms became isolated on
many islands.
7. Most organisms produce more
offspring that can survive.
8. Different species of finches
living on the islands were
alike, yet species was slightly
different from on the next
island.
Darwin’s Theory (Darwinism)
1. Overproduction – species have
the ability to produce a large
number of offspring, much more
than can survive.
2. Struggle for existence – results
from the competition among
organisms for available
necessities of life.
3. Variations – differences within
populations that make every
individual different from other
individual.
4. Survival of the fittest
(adaptation) – members of
species that are best adapted to
environment survive. Survivors
will live longer and reproduce
more successfully.
5. Natural Selection –
environment selects organisms
that survive to be the parents of
the succeeding generations.
6. New Species are formed
(speciation) – favorable
variations accumulate in an
isolated population, new
variations come out and are
passed on the next generation.
Hugo Marie de Vries
-Graduated in 1870 from Leiden
University with a Doctorate in
Botany.
-Known for his best work in the field
of genetics as the subject was in its
so-called infancy stages.
-Had come up to put together with
Mendel’s laws to create a more fully
developed picture of genetics.
-Hypothesized that the characteristics
were transmitted vie some sort of
particle that was given to the
offspring by the parents.
-He postulates the following:
1. Mutation is the cause of
changes in the plant as well
as in other organisms.
2. Mutation brings about the
development of new
species.
3. Mutation can be the cause
of evolutionary change.
4. Organisms that exhibit
these changes are known as
mutants.
DAY 25
Taxonomy – Science of naming, defining -Recognized 5-Kingdoms; Monera,
and classifying organisms based n shared Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
characteristics
Carl Woese
DOMAIN, KINGDOM, PHYLUM, -the one who proposed the 6-kingdom
CLASS, ORDER, FAMILY, GENUS, system.
SPECIES -2 prokaryotic kingdoms; Archaebacteria

Aristotle
-Ladder of Nature (Scala Naturae) –
about the different organisms that
showed different levels of complexity
and abilities to thrive.
-2 kingdoms; plants and animals.
 Ability to grow and reproduce
 Ability to move
 Ability to think rationally

Carolus Linnaeus
-Father of taxonomy, who created a
uniform system for naming all living
organisms known as Binomial
Nomenclature.
-Created a hierarchal classification of
organisms with 6 levels; Kingdom, Class,
Order, Family, Genus, Species.
-Genus and Species – used in binomial
nomenclature.

Ernst Haeckel
-German investigator who proposed a 3-
kingdom system; Animalia, Plantae and
Protista.
-Kingdom Protista -protozoa, fungi,
bacteria, and other microorganisms.

Robert Whittaker
-A Taxonomist devised a system that was
widely accepted by biologists in 1968.
and Eubacteria

-4 eukaryotic kingdoms; Protista, Fungi,

Plantae and Animalia
-Archaebacteria – believed to have
evolved from the earliest cells. Inhabit
extreme environments such as hot springs
and salt ponds.
 Eubacteria – considered as the
more “modern” prokaryotes. More
numerous than archaebacteria.
SSP
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