FISHING CRAFT TECHNOLOGY

UNIT TOPIC PAGE NO.

UNIT 1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF FISHING CRAFT 1
1.1. Development of Fishing Craft
1.2. Factors influencing in fishing craft development
1.3. Classification of fishing craft
1.4. Traditional fishing crafts of India
1.4.1. Fishing boats of Gujarat 5,6
1.4.2. Fishing boats of Maharashtra 6,7
1.4.3. Fishing boats of Goa, Karnataka and Kerala 8
1.4.4. Fishing boats of Tamil Nadu 8
1.4.5. Fishing boats of Andhra Pradesh 10
1.4.6. Fishing boats of Orissa and West Bengal 10
1.4.7. Fishing boats of Andaman and Nicobar Islands 11
1.4.8. Fishing boats of Lakshadweep Islands 11
1.5. Mechanization of fishing craft 12
UNIT 2 BASIC GEOMETRIC CONCEPT OF THE FISHING VESSEL 13
2.1. Important terminologies of fishing craft 13
2.2. Lines plan 15
2.3. Form co-efficient 16
UNIT 3 DESIGN PROCEDURE 18
3.1. Properties of Irregular shapes 18
3.2. The trapezoidal rule 20
3.3. Simpson’s Ist rule 21
3.4. Simpson’s IInd rule 22
3.5. Displacement 22

UNIT 4 BOAT BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION OF BOAT 24

4.1. Materials used for boat construction
4.2. Wood 24
4.3. Seasoning of wood 26
4.4. Preservation of wood 28
4.5. Fouling and boring organisms (Factors causing deterioration of wood) 32
4.5. Hull Protection method 33
4.6. Construction of wooden boat 38
4.7. Construction of steel boat 42
4.8. Construction of FRP boat 43
4.9.Construction of aluminium boat 44
4.10.Construction of Ferro-cement boat 44
4.11.Deck fittings and equipments 45
4.12.Rules and regulations of fishing vessel fabrication 46
Regulations for prevention of collisions at sea
Marine Fishing Regulations of Mari time States of India 51
Maritime Zones of India Act: 53

UNIT 5 MARINE ENGINE AND PROPULSION SYSTEM 54

5.1. Introduction to marine engine 54
5.3.Components of Engines 55
5.4. Systems of diesel Engines 57
5.4.Estimation of engine power for fishing 57, 58
5.5. Outboard and In board Engine 59
5.7. Care and Maintenance of engine 60
5.8. Propulsion system 61
 FISHING CRAFT TECHNOLOGY-PHT-311(1+1)
UNIT 1 - HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF FISHING CRAFT

1.1. Development of Fishing Craft

Definition : Fishing vessel is a floating device used for fishing activities like, fishing, fish transportation, research and
training purpose.
Development of fishing Craft
No one knows exactly how the first crafts were made or when they were used. It was
certainly in prehistoric times but unfortunately there are no remains of these earliest
vessels in existence today to tell us anything of their construction or the men who made
them. Our prehistoric ancestors soon found some sort of ‘boat’ essential as a means of
crossing rivers and navigating inland water ways. Initially the problems would almost
certainly have been solved by the use of floating logs. Primitive man would sit astride the
floating tree trunk and either row with his hands or use tree branches or pieces
of bark as paddles. This crude form of transport was improved upon by the
development of the stable raft. It consists of several tree trunks tied together
with strings. This type of boat is called “CATAMARAN”.

These crafts however remained too slow, heavy and unwieldy. Soon came
realization – perhaps from observation of the shape of a fish that, more stream lined
vessel would move through the water more easily. Thus the canoe was developed
made from a single hollowed out log with the refinements of a sharpened bow and
stern. This is called as “DUGOUT CANOE’. Suitable logs were probably hollowed out by
burning or by chipping away the wood with primitive tools.

The canoe was a reasonably safe craft for inland water ways, but too easily turned
over in rougher water to make it suitable for going in to the sea, they have started to
fitted with some sorts of plat form to protect the people on board and the goods
carried from waves which might wash over the top of the logs. The idea of adding a
deck was also a great step forward in the process of producing a seaworthy craft.
The next step was taken to make the canoe more stable so that it would not capsize
on the open sea. This was done by adding floating attachments (out riggers) on one
or both sides of the canoe lashed in place to simple spars. This type of canoe was
called as ‘RAMPHANI’. The next necessary step was to build up the sides of canoes
to stop them from flooding and enable them to ride the waves. This led to the
building up of hulls from bark skin and other light weight materials stretched over a
frame work of the required stiffness. Such a light weight hull was found to be stable
enough without outriggers.

While during these developments man has learnt the utilization of oar, bamboo poles for movement of vessels. In the
history of civilization, progress can often be attributed to (the desire to) avoid physical effort. In this case as rowing was
both slow and strenuous, another means of propulsion through the water was sought. The only natural force that
primitive man could use to his advantage apart from river currents was the strength of wind. Perhaps he had noticed
occasions when the wind pushed craft along without need of oars and paddles or perhaps he had observed the effect of
wind on the wings of birds. This result leads to invention of the sails. Initially this consisted of a wide surface of leaves
tied to a pole placed vertically in the canoe or raft. However, the use of leaves did not entirely solve the problems and
later skins were used. At this point in history the progress of navigation by sail was open to the initiation of future
inventors. These sails require more strength to withstand different weather conditions. When there is no wind they have
to depend on manual power.
After some time man started to use mechanical power. Engines are used to movement of the vessel and mechanical
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equipments are used for operating the gear. Fishing boats are developed based on topographical factors, local region,
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environmental condition, available resource facilities for construction.

Powers used for the propulsion of fishing craft
There are three powers used for the movement of fishing vessel.
 Manual power
 Wing power
 Mechanical power
Limitations of Indigenous craft:
 Cannot possible for go to deep water
 It is not possible to catch large quantities of fish
 Cannot meet the demand of fish
 It increases the cost of fish
 Propulsion by wind or oar – speed is less
 Limited carrying capacity
 Requires good weather conditions
 No proper preservation facilities
 No facilities for crews for cooking and sleeping etc.,
Advantages of mechanized craft:
 Mechanical propulsion – Higher speed, shorter time to reach the fishing grounds.
 Fish holds with preservation facilities.
 There will be safety and good working environment.
 Possibilities of bulk catching

1.2. Factors influencing in fishing craft development

The following factors are influencing the development of fishing craft.
i) Topographical factor:
It is evident that the geographical location of a country and even the region within that country for which a new type
of mechanized fishing vessel is to be developed will have a considerable influence on the design. The broad
geographical or climatic classification of the country such as tropical, subtropical or temperate will decide number of
important features of the boat such as general arrangement, accommodation, ventilation and material.
Meteorological characteristics such as wind velocity, temperature, humidity, precipitation etc., also influences on
the boat design. Countries with specific monsoon or other rain and storm should carefully examine the nature of
fisheries that would be profitable during those seasons before designing boats for fishing in or through such
seasons. Generally tropical and subtropical countries are border oceans, where the warmer salt water encourages
electrolytic corrosion of ferrous metal surfaces and devasting attacks on timber surfaces by marine bores and fouling
organisms.
Geography and hydrography of these areas have an important bearing on such characteristics as maximum draft.
Prevalence and sea conditions such as wave length, sea waves, wave height, wind velocity, direction and tidal
variations also influence design. Many places either have no natural shelters or harbours, construction is too
expensive or water and current prevent such construction. In these places fishes are landed on the beach. Large and
efficient beach landing boats have been designed.

ii) Geographical and physical influences:

Indian’s east coast is shelter less and surf beaten, the most commonly used craft is the “CATAMARAN” operating
from open beach. Catamaran and other simple crafts have been evolved from these conditions along most of India’s
east coast. In certain regions catamaran can be fitted with out- board engines. On surf beaten coasts with sheltered
bays where wind conditions are favourable and fishing grounds are little further off shore, craft must be fast and
able to negotiate swells and rough seas. The TUTICORIAN canoes are suitable.

Dugout canoes are the common craft where seas are not very rough most of the year and where fishes are
abundant in shallow depth and in shore water. The evolution of the dugout is directly linked with geographical,
wave, beach conditions and the availability of large and good qualities of timber (e.g. Kerala and Karnataka).
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From Bombay to Ratnagiri the coast is generally rocky and has harbours, sheltered bays and creeks. Fishing grounds
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are distance. Here the SATPATI type of boat has developed and is considered one of the best fishing boat types. In
 the regions of great tidal variations and where large mud floats or coral beds are exposed the vessels are of shallow
draft, but large enough to negotiate tidal currents. Along the Bombay coast, shallow water and sandy bottom, there
is not a single sheltered fishing harbor, the estuaries are silting fast and fish resources are limited. Here MACHWA
types are suitable.

iii) Distance and fishery:

Design is influenced by the distance of the fishing ground and whether the fishery is bottom, surface or pelagic. On
the Indian West Coast abundant shoaling fishes occur near the coast and at surface and in mid- water. Here boat
range is limited to inshore areas, speed and capacity are restricted. Later on these craft have been fitted with
outboard engines to enable them to extend their range for catching good quality and large quantity fishes.
The fishing grounds on the South–East are a little further off shore. The design must reflect the speed with which the
boats should reach and return from the grounds for marketing. Large boats are used on the North-West coast. The
grounds are distant from the home parts. Fish hold capacity need not be large where fish are caught close inshore
can be landed fresh. In area where grounds are distant and in the open sea or where fish must be processed at sea,
boats much have adequate space for cleaning, salting, storing dried fish and fish products.

iv) Availability of boat building material:

When developing the fishing craft in different regions one of the primary considerations besides the geographical,
physical and fishing conditions is the availability of suitable material for boat construction. The areas where
sufficient and good quality timber is available, wooden boats are developed on such areas. Catamarans are found in
areas where soft wood is available locally.

v) Harbour development:
As fishing becomes more intense the need arises for harbours with berthing, landing, distribution and servicing
facilities to replace beach landing. Harbours can be developed only in certain places. These will be determined by
their distance from fishing ground, their natural shelter, communication facility and other factors with harbours. The
sizes and design of fishing boats could be increased and improved for large scale fishing. Such facilities normally lead
to the development of standardized fishing boats for working different types of fisheries and in various grounds.

1.3. Classification of fishing craft

The fishing crafts can be classified into various types based on different criteria like, depth of operation, duration of
voyage, size of vessel , materials used in the construction, type of propelling system and in accordance with the actual
operation.

a) Based on depth of operation:

 Inshore vessels – Vessels operating up to 10 fathoms depth
 Offshore vessels – Vessels operating in the depth range of 10-40 fathoms
 Deep sea vessels – Vessels operating beyond 40 fathoms depth
b) Size of the vessel and duration of voyage:
 Near water – Vessels of length up to 12 m which makes daily trips or trips of short duration
 Middle water–Vessels of length between 12 and 30 m having and endurance of 7 days or more but not
exceeding 25 days.
 Distant water – Vessels of size over 30 m length with endurance exceeding 25 days
c) Construction of hull:
 Decked boats
 Half decked boats
 Open boats
d) Materials used for construction:
 Wooden
 Steel
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 Fibre glass reinforced plastic

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 Ferro- cement
  Aluminum
 Composite
e) Based on Gross – Registered Tonnage:
 1-25 GRT
 26-50 GRT
 51-100 GRT
 101-250 GRT
 251 – 500 GRT
 501-1000 GRT

f) Area of operation of the vessel:

 Large vessels – Operating principally in open sea.
 Medium vessels – Operating in the EEZ marine areas.
 Small vessels – Predominantly used in coastal and sheltered marine and brackish water.

g) Based on their function:

1) Trawlers – Vessels which use trawl as fishing gear
 Side trawlers – Trawler in which the trawl is set over the side and the warps pass through blocks hanging from two
gallows, one forward and one aft.
 Stern trawler – In a stern trawler, the gear is set and hauled over the stern. The warps are led from the trawl winch
through various lead blocks over the stern.
 Wet – fish trawler – The fish is kept in the hold in the fresh/wet condition in a wet fish trawler
 Freezer trawler – A trawler which is equipped with refrigerating plant and freezing equipment and in which fish is
preserved by freezing.
 Factory trawler – A trawler equipped with processing plants including mechanical gutting and filtering equipment
with freezing installation, fish oil, fish-meals and some time canning plants. The number of crew in such a vessel is
large.
 Out rigger trawler – These make use of out rigger booms to tow the gear.

2) Seines:
The vessels using surrounding gear and seine nets. Because of the high maneuverability required for the operation of
these gears, normally seiners are provided with lateral thrusters.
 Purse–Seiners: Vessels which operate purse seine and which are equipped with pursing gallows and
pursing winches for hauling of purse lines.Based on deck arrangement, purse seiners are differentiated
intoNorth – American type: Bridge and accommodation located forward
European type: Bridge and accommodation is located aft. Net is mostly carried on the upper deck.
Tuna purse–seiners: Arrangement similar to North American type. They are normally equipped with a skiff.

 Seine netters : These vessels operate seiners which are surrounding nets attached to very long ropes.
Dredgers: Vessels which are use dredges for collecting molluscs from the bottom. The vessel should have sufficient
power to drag the gear.
Lift netters: These vessels operate large lift nets which are raised and lowered by means of out riggers.
Gill netters: Gill nets are operated either set or drift and the larger vessels are often equipped with net haulers or net
drums.
Trap setters: This includes vessels not only setting traps and pots but also pound nets, fyke nets, stow nets and various
kinds of barriers.

3) Pot vessels: These set the pots for catching lobsters, crabs, cray fish and other similar species.
4) Liners: These vessels use lines and hooks with or without bait or lure.
 Hand liners: Hand lines are operated from small boats without any special features for gear handling.
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 Long liners: The length of these vessels depends upon the length of long line to be set.
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 Tuna long line: These are generally medium sized vessels. Brine freezing tanks for preservation of tunas are
normally provided on these vessels.
5) Pole and line vessels:
 These vessels are provided with special platforms on the sides on which the fishermen stand. Tanks with
live bait and a water spray system for fish attraction are typical features of these vessels.
 Japanese type pole and line vessel: In this the platform is on the forward part of the vessel and the bridge is
at the aft.
 American type pole and line vessel: In these the platforms are located at the aft.
6)Trollers:
 Equipped with troll lines fitted with lures. These are attached to trolling booms which are raised and
lowered by topping lifts.
7)Vessels using pumps for fishing:
 These are provided with pumps of special type which are lowered under the surface of water.
8) Multipurpose vessels:
 These are vessels which are equipped for alternative use of two or more different fishing gear without
major modifications to the vessel outfit and equipment.

h) Non fishing vessel:

 Mother ships: The term is used for vessels which provide fishing vessel at sea with supplies of fuel, provisions,
fresh water and other consumable goods, transfer the catch from the vessels, process and preserve them fresh,
render medical and social services to the crew. They also transport and land fish products in port. They also
carry on board small fishing vessels which are launched on arrival at the fishing ground. The catch is transferred
to the mother ship for processing and preserving.
 Salted fish mother ships: The wet fish are salted, cured and put into barrels on these vessels. These are then
stored in dry or refrigerated holds, depending upon the degree of salting.
 Factory mother ships: In this, fresh fish transferred at sea from fishing vessels undergoes processing and
preserving operations similar to those provided on factory trawlers.
 Mother ships with catching vessels aboard: These carry small tuna long liners on board. The catcher vessels are
carried on the upper deck and they are lowered and raised by means of booms and derricks.
 Mother ships for two boat purse-seining: These carry small tuna long liners on board. The catcher vessels are
carried on the upper deck and they are lowered and raised by means of booms and derricks.
 Mother ships for two–boat purse–seining: These vessels carry two purse- seiners at the aft part of the vessel.
The purse seiners set and haul the gear. Subsequently, the mother ships come along side and the fish is brailed
or pumped into the mother ship.
 Fish carriers: These are used for transporting fish in refrigerated holds.
 Hospital ships: These render medical services to the crew of fishing vessels operating offshore
 Fishery protection vessels: They perform the function of protection of the fishing grounds and surveillance of
fishing vessels operating in a country’s territorial waters and in the EEZ area.
 Fishery research vessels: These are engaged in fish stock assessment, experimental fishing using various gear
and in fish handling/storage experiments.
 Fishery training vessels: These are used for training future fishermen in navigating, seaman ship, fishing
operations and fish handling.

1.4. Traditional fishing crafts of India

1.4.1. Fishing boats of Gujarat
There is marked difference in the geographical and physical features of northern and southern regions of Gujarat.
Whereas the northern region is arid and stony, the southern region is distinguished by sandy bottom.
The following types of boat with their broad features gives along side are found in Gujarat.
1) Haler machwa:
 Length varies from 8-10 m
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 Broad beam and square stern

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 Open boat except for short decking

 in the fore and aft.
 Carvel planking with unusually large and heavy frames
 Tall mast carries on large lateen sail of Arab pattern
 It is used for gillnet fishing.

2) Porbandar machwa
 Length varies from 6-8 m
 Square stern and raked stem
 Used for gill net fishing

3) Cambay machwa
 Raked stem
 Undecked except for short length at stern
 Truncated stern with a slight rake

4) Navalaki hodi
 Length 5-6 m, breadth 1-1.5 m and draft of 90-105 cm
 Square stern and overhang bow
 Decked only fore and aft
 Single mast carries lateen soil
5) Malia boat
 Flat bottom boat which measure about 6-7 m in length, breadth 1.5 m with 65cm draft.
 Ends are pointed and there is small rudder
 Carvel planking
 Mast carries a lateen sail
 Small decking fore and aft
 Used in tidal waters for prawn fishery

6) Dugout canoe
 Double – ended round bottom boat
 Length varies from 5-9 m, breadth 60-90 cm and depth 60-68 cm
 Small sail raised on a wooden mast
 Used for gill netting
7) Ludhia
 The boat measures 9-10 m in length and 1.5 to 2 m breadth
 Short decking at the fore and aft
 Slightly racked stem and stern
 Two masts with small lateen sails
 Carved planking and has strong keel and heavy frames
8) Madhwad type wahan
 Length 10-13 m and breadth 2-3 m
 Raked stem and square stern
 Decked at the fore and aft
 Large heavy rudder
 Mast with lateen soil
 Used for operation of gill nets and dol nets

1.4.2. Fishing boats of Maharashtra

The physical and geographical features of northern Maharashtra up to Mumbai are similar to those of southern Gujarat.
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Southern Maharashtra has a rocky coast with sheltered bays, creeks and harbours. The following types of fishing boats
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are found in Maharashtra.

1) Bombay machwa (Karanja boat)
 Length 15 m, breadth 3-5 m and depth 1 m
 Long raking bow with great over hang and sheer. The actual keel is short in relation to the overall length.
 There are two masts, sails are of lateen type.

2) Satpati type (Gal boat)

 Length ranges from 10-15 m
 Carvel planking
 Medium pointed bow, broad stem, straight keel, high gunwale,
and transom stern
 Used for gill netting

3) Bassein boat
 Long, straight, pointed fine entry bow with abrupt round stern
 Carvel planking
 Broad hull straight keel and average gunwale

4) Versova boat (Hoda)

 Arched keel, round stern and deep fore foot
 Stem less raked than Bassein boat, it resembles Bassein boat in other
respects
 Aft deck is present but no fore deck
 Used for operation of dol nets.

5) Hodi (Toni)
 It is widened replicate of ordinary dugout, but built by planks
 Length varies from 7-10 m and breadth 0.75-3 m
 Single mast with lateen sail
 Stem and stern are curved like dugout
 A weather board about 30 cm high is fitted along the gunwale from the
stem to just abaft the
 mast to keep out sea and spray.

6) Rathnagiri machwa
 Length 10 m, breadth 3 m and depth 1.15 m
 Broad beam, long over hanging bow, round stern and raked stem post
 Open boat with low free board, single mast lateen sail
 Used for deep sea gill net fishing

7) Rampini boat
 Length about 16 m
 Narrow keel, stem and stern
 No mast is carried as the boat is rowed
 Fitted with out riggers to give stability
 Used for operation of Rampini nets.
The Indian teak is commonly used for the construction of fishing boats in Maharashtra. The vessels are very sturdy. One
of the distinguishing features of these boats is their long overhanging bow which gives these undecked boats a reserve
buoyancy and spray deflection in rough water. The planks are joined by tongues and groove fitting.

Bombay machwas are operated from north of Mumbai as far as Jaigarh in the south. Satpati type is used up to Ratnagiri.
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Hodi is operated from Mumbai to Jaigarh, Ratnagiri machwas from Jaigarh to Karnataka border and Rampini boats in
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Southern Maharashtra and Northern Karnataka.

1.4.3. Fishing boats of Goa, Karnataka and Kerala
Fishing boats of Goa
The traditional fishing craft of Goa are dugout canoes and planked boats with large out riggers. There is a rudimentary
keel in the dugouts. The size of the boat varies from 7-8 m

Fishing boats of Karnataka

Rampini boats are popular in Northern Karnataka and dugout in Southern Karnataka.

Fishing boats of Kerala

 Dugout
 Plank built canoe
 Raft Catamaran
1) Dugout:
 Single logs of trees like mango and aini are scooped for its construction.
 Three types of dugouts are found to be in operation. They are
 Large ones known as Odam – 11.6 m length.
 Medium ones known as Thonies – 8 m length
 Smaller ones known as Bepu thoni – 7.5 m length
 They are propelled by paddles and sails. Sails are either square or sprit type. No rudder is used. Steering is
by means of big paddle one quarter side.
 Larger ones operate boat seines and smaller ones gill nets and lines.

2) Plank built canoes (Tonga Vallam / Chemboke)

 Built with planks which are sewn with coir ropes
 Propelled by means of paddles and occasionally sails.
 Two types are distinguished i.e. A larger one– 12 x 1.5 x 0.8 m, B – Smaller one 7 x 1 x 0.6 m
 Used for operation of shore seines and gill nets

3) Raft catamaran (Chalatadi)

 It is constructed by tying 3-5 logs of soft wood with coir ropes
 Propelled by split bamboo oars and sails
 Used in pairs to operate boat seines and individually to operate gill nets and long lines.

1.4.4. Fishing boats of Tamil Nadu

Four regions can be distinguished along the coast of Tamil Nadu, each region having fishing craft with specific features
Colachel to Cape Comorin

1) Boat catamaran
 It is made of three logs, the centre one fitted at a lower level than the other two giving it a boat
 shape.
 The logs are held by means of two blocks of wood on either end and secured by coir ropes
 passing through the grooves on the side of the logs.
 Size varies from 6.5 – 7.5 m
 Small triangular sail is used
 Normally operated in pairs for boat seiners
2) Boat canoe (Vallam)
 Similar to Malabar dugout but spread by wedges and heightened by flared 22-25 cm wash
 strakes.
 Length varies from 9-13 m
 Single mast at amidships with lug sail. In larger ones, mizzen mast is also carried.
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 Large rudder is fitted which descends much below the round bottom.
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 Used for operation of gill nets and long lines.

3) Tuticorin boat
 It measures 9.6 x 2.0 x 0.9 m
 Long, relatively narrow with nearly vertical stem and stern
 Sheer line is almost straight.
 Single mast with lug sail
 Frames are not carried up to the gunwale but cut away at the sheer plank. The upper most
 planks are framed with a separate short piece not fastened to the main frame.
4) Kilakaral boat
 It is similar to Malabar dugout with additional vertical stakes.
 Provided with either one or two out riggers for stability
 Single mast with lug sail
 Use temporary rudder fixed at the sharp curved stern by orthodox pintle and gudgeon
5) Fishing Canoe
 Hull is either a dugout or plank built canoe
 Single mast with square headed lug
6) Adirampatnam fishing canoe
 Hull is a dugout canoe with wash strakes
 There is a pair of quarter steering boards instead of fixed rudder.
 Single mast, occasionally three masts are used
 For steering the boat, quarter boards are manipulated with feet by steer man sitting at the aft
 The balance board is exceptionally long.
7)Three masted plank built canoe
 Three masts are present
8) Kalla Dhoni
 Heavy transom stern
 Carries the largest and heaviest balance board
 Rigged with three masts and lug sails
9) Coromandal coast
 Catamaran
 Masula boat
10) Catamaran
 Made up of 1-1.6 m logs tied together raft wise. The logs are cut square at the stern and
 tapered at the bow with a little raise.
 The logs do not end in one line at the aft
 Bamboo mast is used with triangular sail. Five types are identified mostly depending upon the
 number of logs used.
11) Periyamaram
 8 m long and 1 m wide consisting of 4 logs
 Middle pair project 1.2 m beyond outer logs
12) Irukumaram
 Made up of five logs, middle being the longest
 Used for gill net fishing
13) Kolamaram
 Made up of seven logs
 Two masts are used.
14) Thundilmaram
 Made of five logs without beaked prow
15) Chinnanaram
 Made of three logs
16) Masula boat
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 Size measures 9 x 2.4 x 1.2 m

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 Open boats without ribs

  Planks are sewn with coir rope and inter space is filled with dry straw
 Stem and stern are raked, keel narrow
 High free board
 No mast or sail, long paddles are used
 Used for operation of shore seiners.
Colachel to cape Comorin is a surf beaten coast where boat catamarans are popular. Gulf of mannar is also surf-beaten
coasts with sheltered areas and coral beds. Fishing grounds are far away. In this region, boat canoe, boat catamaran,
Tuticorin and Kilakarai boats are in operation. Though the physical conditions are similar in palkbay fishing craft
operating are different. Popular craft in palk bay are fishing canoe, Adiram patnam canoe three masted plank-built
canoe and kalla dhoni. Coromandel coast is surf beaten without shelter. Here surf landing catamarans and flexible,
masula boats are predominant.
1.4.5. Fishing boats of Andhra Pradesh
Being surf beaten coasts without shelters, the following surf – landing crafts are predominant
1) Catamaran (Teppalu)
 Made of 4 logs, it is 6.6 m long and 1.35 m broad.
 All logs end in a line unlike coromandel catamarans. Wash boards are attached at the sides.
 Triangular sails are used from bamboo mast. Paddles of 1.5 m long are used.
 Used for operating gill nets, lines and boat seines
2) Masula boat
 Similar to the one described under coromandel coast excepting some minor details its planks are made of
mango wood and stitched with palmirah leaf fibre keeping a continuous rope in between the seams.
3) Nava
 It measures 10 x 2 x 0.7 m
 Narrow round bottom boat without keel, heavy framed and carvel
planked with a short fore deck and longer aft deck
 Carries one mast and a lateen sail
 Mainly used for operation of gill nets
1.4.6. Fishing boats of Orissa and West Bengal
Fishing boats of Orissa:
Two regions can be differentiated along the Orissa coast. The southern part is surf beaten,
where as the northern part has sandy bottom extending far out into the sea. The boats used
are
1) Botali
 It measures 7 x 1.5 x 1.5 m
 Vertical and pointed stem and stern with full amidships section
 Both carvel and clinker planking are seen
 Used for operation of gill nets
2) Catamaran
 Five logs are tied in a boat shape, front portion being narrowed to a point and aft part
abruptly truncated.
 Used for the operation of gill nets, boat seines are also operated occasionally.
3) Nava
 An ideal surf landing craft similar to the one described under fishing boats of Andhra Pradesh.
4) Bar boat
 It measured 8 m long and 2.5 m broad
 Similar to masula type
 No ribs or frames and planks are stitched with coir ropes
Fishing boats of West Bengal:
The physical conditions of the coast line are similar to those of northern Orissa. The following two boats are used.
10
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1) Batchari boat
 It measures 13.5 m x 1.3 m x 0.5 m
 The stern is as high as bow and they are sharp and raked.
 They are partly decked without keel
 Propelled by sails and oars
 Used for operation of variety of gears like drift net, bag net,
dip net etc.,

2) Chot boat
 It measures 10.2 x 2.5 x 1.1 m
 It has short overhangs and high freeboard
 Mostly propelled by oars though it carries a sprit sail
 There is only a loose decking of split bamboo rods
 Used for operation of heavier fishing gears like seine nets and bag nets

1.4.7. Fishing boats of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Influence of Australian design is seen in the fishing craft of these Islands. Dugout and out rigger canoes are common.
However, the shape of dugouts is different and the outrigger canoes have more than two out riggers attached in a
different manner. These are described below.

1) Dugout
 Length varies from 2.75 m – 10.5 m
 The bow and stern are prolonged horizontally to form an overhang shelf platform which gives
 footing for the harpooners on look out for fish.
 Propulsion is by means of oars, steering with paddle
 Holes are made in the gunwale on each side and a piece of wood is thrust through them as a sort of thwart. This
is to provide a means of fastening the end of harpoon line.
2) Out rigger canoe
 It is provided with multiple booms varying from 3-12 m. These booms are slender poles secured at their inner
ends by being passed through the holes on the sides of dugout close to the edge. This is similar to the design
found in Australia.
 Floats are connected to the booms by means of three short stanchions.
3) Flat bottom
 It measures 6.5 m Over All Length
 There is no keel and the bottom is shaped into curve
 Carvel planking painted with coal tar
 Small fore and aft deck
 Not suitable for operation during monsoon.
4) Round bottom
 Length ranges from 4.5 – 7.5 m
 Keel is present and the bottom is shaped round
 Carvel planking
 Found suitable for operation even during monsoon.
The out rigger canoe used in Nicobar Islands is different from that of Andaman’s described above. These are better built
and more elegant with not more than two booms. They are fitted with 3-4 vertical bamboo masts each carrying a lateen
sail.
1.4.8. Fishing boats of Lakshadweep Islands
Raft (Kathufathi)
 5-6 logs are tied into raft by means of two coconut poles and fastened
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by coir ropes
 Propulsion is by paddles
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 Used for hook and line operation.

Plank built boat (Kalundhoni)
 Both stem and stern are slightly curved. Stern is broader than the bow.
 Keel is a single piece of coconut palm or wood
 Oars and sails are used for propulsion. Rudder is fixed over the skeg.
 The boat is divided into seven compartments by transverse planks.
 Used for pole and line fishing.
Masodi
 It measures 12.5 m in length and 3 m broad
 The stern is broader than the bow and is provided with a fishing platform
 The boat carries two lateen sails and 18 oars for rowing
 The hull is divided into 12 compartments and two bait tanks are provided
 Used for pole and line fishing.

1.5. Mechanization of fishing craft

Definition
According to Mr. Gurtner, mechanization means the simple addition of motive power to the otherwise unchanged
indigenous boat. The propulsion power would be in the form of an outboard or an inboard marine engine. On the other
hand Mr. Paul B Zeiner has defined mechanization as installation of engine for propulsion and mechanical devices for
handling of fishing gear.

Fishing boat mechanization in India

Till 1945, the traditional craft with sails and oars were the main stay of the fishermen. The mechanization was initiated
by the erstwhile Madras presidency by constructing 6 m hard chine open boat powered by a single cylinder 5 HP diesel
engine. The Government of India took a decision to develop fisheries on modern lines at national level in the early fifties.
National and International agencies actively involved in this programme were Central Institute of Fisheries Technology,
The Fisheries Department of some of the maritime states, FAO and INP (Indo–Norwegian project). Initially the
mechanized fishing vessels were used mainly for the operation of gill nets. Subsequently, with the location of rich shrimp
grounds along the south-western coast, larger and more powerful stern trawlers were developed.
The mechanization of fishing boats in India followed a step by step approach keeping in view the traditional attitude of
the fisher men. Starting from a base (country craft) four stages can be identified in the mechanization programme.
 First stage – Mechanization of country craft
 Second stage – Introduction of simple small mechanized boats
 Third stage–Improvement of newly designed boats and introduction of bigger specialized boats
 Fourth stage – Broadening into fishing fleet
Hornell (1920) has investigated and published a detailed account of indigenous boats in the memoirs of Asiatic society of
Bengal. Technical aspects of these boats were studied by Paul B Ziener, FAO expert who had been in India during 1953-
1958. The suitability of mechanization was studied and the types of boats amenable to mechanization identified.

a) First stage – mechanization of country craft:

A few indigenous boats were found suitable for mechanization with a little modification. They were mechanized
successfully under the supervision and guidance of Paul B Ziener and K. Rasumsson, FAO experts. The fishing boats of
Gujarat and Maharastra especially were found ideally suited for mechanization. The boats to be mechanized under the
programme were,
 Lodhiyas and machwas of Saurashtra coast
 Versova/Satpati boats of Maharashtra
 Tuticorin boats of Tamil Nadu
 Kakinada Navas of Andhra Pradesh
 Batchari boats of West Bengal
By the end of 1969, about 3,000 indigenous boats were mechanized.
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b) Second stage – Introduction of simple small mechanized boats:

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Some of the states like Kerala, Karnataka and Orissa did not have suitable indigenous craft for mechanization. Secondly
the country craft which were mechanized in the first stage were found suitable mainly for gill netting and long lining.
Moreover, their operational range has not increased considerably beyond inshore water. Under these circumstances it
was found necessary to introduce simple small mechanized boats.

Under this programme, a few new types were introduced as well as certain stable craft were developed for full
mechanization. Both yielded encouraging response, many of the country crafts were redesigned by FAO experts. During
1955-58, about 10 new designs 7.5 m Pablo boat was found to be extremely successful and popular.

c) Third stage - Improvement of newly designed boat and introduction of bigger specialized boats:
Large sized specialized boats were introduced to meet the demand of the industry and to extend the operations in
deeper waters. Some of the new designs introduced in the second stage of development were designed on the basis of
operational performance to suit local conditions. Large commercial designs of advanced countries were studied carefully
by the experts and were modified according to Indian requirements. The U.S.A. designs and construction methods were
found most suitable for Indian conditions and hence were adopted with certain modifications. This programme was
initiated by FAO followed by INP which developed 14 m design and C.I.F.T. which developed 15.5 m design. The next
step was the introduction of offshore vessel. During the fourth five year plan, 17.5 m steel trawlers were introduced to
conduct exploratory surveys and commercial fishing in the offshore waters. The experience gained in operating these
vessels paved the way to the next generation of large trawlers.

During the fifth five year plan the Government of India gave permission to private entrepreneurs to import 30 Mexican
double rig shrimp trawlers on the condition that an equal number of craft will be constructed in India. The double rig-
Mexican trawlers were found extremely successful for capture of shrimps. The deep-sea fishing fleet has increased after
the declaration of EEZ up to 200 miles in August 1976. Industrial fishery surveys were carried out by large imported deep
sea vessels. Besides this private entrepreneurs were encouraged to charter and import vessels to carryout commercial
operations. Some of the important mechanized and deep sea fishing boats introduced during various stages of
mechanization programme in India.

d) Fourth stage–Broadening into fishing fleet:

After successful mechanized fishing in inshore, offshore and deep sea waters in EEZ, efforts were made by the
Government of India to increase the number of fishing vessels and broaden as fleet to exploit the available marine
resources. At the end of the eighth five year plan, the strength of mechanized boats and deep-sea vessels stood at
47,000 and 180 respectively.

UNIT 2 - BASIC GEOMETRIC CONCEPT OF THE FISHING VESSEL

2.1. Important terminologies of fishing craft

a) Design Water Line:
The water plane to which the ship is being designed is called the Load Water Plane or Design Water Plane (LWP or DWP).
The plane at which the vessel is in ballast or leaving port or fully loaded condition that plane is called Design Water
Plane. Additional water planes for examining the ships shape
are drawn above it or below it, equally spaced. Usually by
leaving an uneven slice near the keel, that part is examined
separately. It is used for dealing with ship’s resistance.

b) Forward Perpendicular or Fore Perpendicular or F.P:

It is the vertical line through the intersection of bows (stem)
profile and design water line. It is a reference point at the
fore end of the ship and perpendicular to the load water
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plane.
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c) After Perpendicular or Aft Perpendicular or A.P:

There are three different definitions
1) It is vertical line through the centre of the Rudder stock.
2) It is the vertical line through the intersection of stern profile and design water line.
3) It is a vertical line through the 96% of the design water line length behind foreword perpendicular (F.P)

d) Length Between Perpendiculars (L.B.P):

It is the horizontal distance between forward perpendicular and aft perpendicular of the vessel. It is used for calculating
stability and displacement.
e) Port side:
When facing forward, the left hand side of the boat is called portside.
f) Star board side:
When facing forward, the right hand side is called starboard side.
g) Overall length or Extreme length of the vessel (LOA)
It is the distance from the extreme point at the after end to a similar point at the forward end. In most of the ship the
overall length will exceeds by a considerable amount than the length between perpendiculars. The excess amount will
include the overhang of the stern and also that of the stem. Modern ships may have bulbous bows; the overall length
may have to be measured to the extreme point of the bulb.

h) Standard Water Line (SWL):

The water line drawn at 85% of the depth moulded is called Standard Water Line.

i) Mid Ship:
It is the point located at half way between perpendiculars i.e A.P and F.P. Some time it defined as the middle of standard
water line. The ship is usually broadest at this point. All trim, stability and centre of gravity calculations are related to
this point.

j) Moulded draught: (dm):

It is the perpendicular or vertical distance in a transverse plane from the top of the flat keel to the design water line. If
unspecified it refers to a mid ship.

k) Moulded Breadth or Breadth moulded or Beam:

It is the maximum horizontal breadth of the vessel. It is measured to inside of the shell plating for steel and aluminium
plated boats or vessels, to out side of the shell for wood or Fibre Glass Reinforced vessels. Like in the case of length
between perpendiculars the breadth moulded does not represent the greatest breadth of the ship. So that it define this
greatest breadth, the breadth extreme is required. In many ship the breadth extreme is the breadth moulded plus the
thickness of the shell plating on each side of the ship. Breadth extreme is the distance from the extreme over hang on
one side of the ship to a similar point on the other side. This distance would include the overhang of decks. It would be
measured over fenders. Which are sometimes fitted to ships to protect the sides of the ship.

l) Depth moulded or moulded depth (Dm):

It is a perpendicular or vertical distance from the top of the flat keel to the underside of deck plating at the ships side. If
unspecified it refers to this dimension at a mid ship. It is some time quoted as a depth moulded to upper deck or depth
moulded to second deck. Where no deck is specified it can be taken as depth is measured to the upper most continuous
deck. In some modern ship there is a rounded gunwale. In such cases the depth mould is measured from the
intersection of the deck line continued with the breadth moulded.

m) Camber or Round down of beam:

It is defined as the rise of the deck of the ship is going from the side to the centre. The camber curve used to be
parabolic or there may be no camber at all on decks. Camber is use full on the weather deck of a ship from a drainage
14

point of view.
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n) Bidge radius:
In many full cargo ships the section is virtually a rectangle with the lower corner rounded off. This part of the section is
referred to as the “bilge” and the shape is often circular at this position. The radius of the circular arc farming the bilge is
called bilge radius.

o) Rise of Floor:
The bottom of a ship at mid ships is usually flat, but it is not necessarily horizontal. If a line of the flat bottom is
continued outwards it will intersects the breadth moulded line. The height of this intersection, above the base is called
the “rise of floor” or vertical distance between keel line and bilge line or is the distance above the keel that a tangent to
the bottom at or near the keel cuts the line of maximum beam a mid ships. The rise of floor is very much dependent on
the ship form. In a cargo ships the rise of floor may only be a few centimeters.

p) Tumble home:
This is the amount which the side of the ship falls in, from the breadth moulded line. Tumble home was a use full feature
in sailing ships.

q) Free board:
It is the difference between moulded depth at side and moulded draught. It is the perpendicular distance in a transverse
plane from the design water line to the upper side of the deck plating at side.

r) Sheer:
Sheer is the tendency of a deck to rise above the horizontal in
profile. Sheer is the height of the deck at the side above a line
drawn parallel to the base and tangent to the deck line at mid
ship. The sheer can vary along the length of the ship and is
usually greatest at the ends.

s) Rake of stem:
The inclination of the stem to the vertical is called “rake of stem”. Other words is the departure from the vertical of any
conspicuous line in profile such as mast, stem, super structure etc.
2.2. Lines plan
The lines plan is a geometric description of the hull. The hull
surface is described by series of longitudinal and transverse
sections. It is very essential to learn the main parts of a
typical ship together with the terms applied to the principal
parts. Because at first they are of little interest or influence,
super structure and deck houses are ignored and the hull of
the ship is considered as a hollow body curved in all
directions surmounted by a water tight deck. Most of the
ships have only one plane of symmetry called the middle
line plane which becomes the principal plane of reference.
The shape of the ship is cut by this plane is known as the
sheer plane or profile plane.

The design water plane is a plane perpendicular to the middle line plane chosen as a
plane of reference at design water line. It may or may not be parallel to the keel.

The planes at right angles to the middle line plane and parallel to the design water
15

plane are called as water planes, whether they are in the water or not and they are
usually symmetrical about the middle line. Water planes are not necessarily parallel
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to the keel.
Planes perpendicular to both the middle line and the design water plane are called transverse planes and a transverse
section of the ship does normally exhibit symmetry about the middle line.

a) Sheer plan:
Most of the ships have only one plane of symmetry, called the middle line plane which becomes the principal plane of
reference. The shape of the ship cut by this plane is known as the sheer plan or profile.

b) Half breadth plan:

Half water planes are placed one on top of the other, form a half breadth plan. Water planes looked at edge in the sheer
are called water lines.

c) Body plan:
Transverse sections are laid one on top of the other, form a body plan. Which by convention because the sections are
symmetrical shows only half sections the forward half sections on the right hand side of the middle line and the aft or
after half sections on the left.
The sheer, body plan and half breadth plan are collectively called the LINES PLAN or SHEER DRAWING .

d) Buttock line:
These are another set of intersecting planes parallel to centre lines. Each plane intersects the vessel surface in a curved
form in the sheer plan in its true form. They appear as vertical straight line in the body plan and horizontal straight line
in the half breadth plan.

e) Diagonal plane:
It is an inclined plane; these are inclined to all the above planes. Diagonal planes are usually normal to the surface or
nearly so with determining the character of that surface, vicinity more accurately than in a plane sharply inclined to the
surface.

f) Bilge diagonal plane:

These planes are inclined line to both horizontal and vertical reference planes, but perpendicular to off ward plane. It
appears as a straight line in the body plan and as a curve in the sheer plan and different curve in the half breadth plan.
Which is its true shape these are often use because its plane is perpendicular, normal to ship surface at the burn of the
bilge.

2.3. Form co-efficient

The definition of hull geometry is also specified in the form of certain co-efficient. Which will later prove as the guide
values to decide the fatness or slimness of the hull.
a) Length breadth ratio:
LBP
It is defined as the ratio of length between perpendiculars to the breadth mould of the vessel.=
B
It can be taken as resistance and stability influencing factor.
16
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b) Breadth depth ratio:
B
It is defined as the ratio of the breadth to the depth of the vessel. It can be taken as a stability influencing factor. =
D

c) Breadth draft ratio:

It is defined as the ratio of the breadth to the draught of the vessel. Which influence the resistance and stability of the
B
vessel. =
d

d) Length depth ratio:

LBP
It is defined as the ratio of the length to the depth of the vessel. =
D

e) Block co-efficient (CB)

The block co-efficient of a ship at any particular draft is defined as the ratio of the volume of displacement at that draft
to the volume of rectangular block whose sides are equal to the breadth, the mean draught and the length between
perpendiculars.

Where,
CB = Block co-efficient
LBP = Length between perpendiculars
B = Breadth moulded
d= Mean draught
= Volume of displacement
Mean values of block co-efficient might be 0.88 for a large oil
tanker, 0.60 for an air craft carrier and 0.5 for a yacht.

= L x B x d x CBVolume of displacement =  = L x B x d x CB
Mid- ship section co-efficient (CM):
Mid ships co-efficient to any draft is defined as the ratio of the mid ship section area to the area of rectangle whose
sides are equal to the draught and breadth of the ship.
Its value usually exceeds 0.85 for ships other than yacht.

Where,
CM = Mid ship section co-efficient
AM = Area of mid ship section
B = Breadth
d = Draught
Area of mid ship section = AM = CM x B x d

Co-efficient of fineness of water (Cwp):

17

It is defined as the ratio of the area of water plane to the area of its circumscribing rectangle having the same length and
maximum breadth. It varies from 0.7 to 0.9 for ships.
Page
Area of the water plane (AW) = L x B x Cwp
Where,
CWP = Co-efficient of water plane
AW = Area of water plane
LWL or LBP = Length of load water line
B = Breadth extreme or Breadth moulded

h) The longitudinal prismatic co-efficient or prismatic co-efficient (Cp):

The prismatic co-efficient of a ship at any draft is defined as the ratio of the volume of displacement to that draft to the
volume of Area of the water plane (AW) = L x B x Cwp
prism having a length equal to the length between perpendiculars and cross sectional area equal to the mid-ship
sectional area.

Where,
Cp = Prismatic co-efficient
= Volume of Displacement m3
AM = Area of mid ship section
LBP = Length between perpendiculars
CB= Block co- efficient
Cm = Mid ship sectional co-efficient
Prismatic co-efficient can also defined as the ratio of
block co efficient to the mid ship section co- efficient

Vertical prismatic co-efficient (CVP):

It is defined as the ratio of the volume of displacement to the volume of a prism having depth equal to draught and
cross–sectional area equal to the water plane area.

Where,
Cvp = Vertical prismatic co-efficient
= Volume of displacement
Aw = Water plane area
D = Draught

UNIT 3 - DESIGN PROCEDURE

3.1. Properties of Irregular shapes

a) Properties of irregular shapes:
18

The Geometry of the ship has been defined, it is necessary to anticipate what properties of these shapes are going to be
Page

useful and find out how to calculate them.

(i) Plane shapes (Two dimensional shapes)
Water planes, transverse sections, flat decks, bulk heads, the curve of areas and expansion of
curved surfaces are some of the plane shapes whose properties are of interest. The area of a
plane surface shape in the plane OXY defined in Cartesian co-ordinates is

In which all strips of length y and width /x are summed over the total extent of x. Because y is rarely, with ship shapes a
precise mathematical function of x the integration must be carried out by an approximate method.

There are first moments of area about each axis (x1 and y1 are lengths and x and y are co-ordinates)

Dividing each expression by the area gives the co-ordinates of the centre of area (x, y)

For a plane figure placed symmetrically about the x- axis such as a water x1 y dy = o and the distance of the centre of
area calledplane Mxx = in the particular case of water plane, the centre of Floatation (CF) from the y axis is given by

(ii) Three dimensional shapes:

The ships under water form can be represented by three–
dimensional shape. The volume of displacement is given by

It is the sum of all such slices of cross-sectional area A over the total
extent of “x”.

The shape of the ship can be equally represented by a curve of water

plane areas on a vertical axis, the breadth of the
curve at any height, Z above the keel representing
the area of the water plane at that draught. The
volume of displacement is again sum of all slices of
cross – sectional area Aw over the total extent of Z
from zero to draught.
19

The first moments of volume in the longitudinal direction about OZ and in the vertical d Aw Z dz A X dx and Mv =
0direction about the keel is given by ML =
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Dividing by the volume in each case gives the co-ordinates of the centre of volume. The centre of volume of fluid
displaced by a ship is known as the centre of buoyancy. Its projection in the plan and in sections is known as the
Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy (L.C.B.) and the Vertical Centre of Buoyancy (V.C.B.)

Should the ship not be symmetrical below the water line, the centre of buoyancy will not lie in the middle line plane. The
centre of buoyancy of a floating body is the centre of volume of the displaced fluid in which the body is floating. The first
moment of volume about the centre of volume is zero.
The weight of a body is the total of the weights of all of its constituent parts. First moment of the weights about
particular axes divided by the total weight, define the co-ordinates of the centre of weight or centre of gravity (C.G)
relative to those axes.

Projections of the centre of gravity of a ship in plan and in section are known as the Longitudinal Centre of Gravity
(L.C.G.) and Vertical Centre of Gravity (V.C.G.)

Defining it formally, the centre of gravity of a body is that point through which, for statistical consideration, the whole
weight of the body may be assumed to act.

3.2. The trapezoidal rule

A trapezoid is a plane four sided figure having two sides parallel. If the lengths of these sides are Y1 and Y2 and they are
(h) apart, the area of the trapezoid is given by

20

A curvilinear figure can be divided into number of approximate trapezoids by covering it with ‘n’ equally spaced
ordinates ‘h’ apart, the breadths at the ordinates in order being Y1, Y2, Y3 ..................Yn. Commencing with the left hand
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trapezoid, the areas of each trapezoid are given by

This is termed as TRAPEZOIDAL RULE. The more numerous the ordinates, the most accurate will be the answer. Thus to
evaluate the expression of the shape is divided into evenly spaced section ‘h’ apart, the ordinates measured and
substituted in the rule given above. If the ordinates represent cross–sectional areas of solid, then the integration gives
the volume of that solid.

3.3. Simpson’s Ist rule

These rules are widely applied in Naval Architecture. They are a special case of the Newton’s cotes rule.
Let us deduce a rule for integrating a curve Y over the extent of x. It will be convenient to choose the origin to be in the
middle of the base 2 h long having ordinates Y1, Y2 and Y3. The choice of origin in no way affects the result.

Assume that the curve can be represented by an

equation of the third order.

21
Page
This is the generalized form of the first rule applied to areas. The common multiplier is 1/3 x the common interval “h”
and the individual multipliers are 1,4,2,4,2,4,2,4,1
The rule is one for evaluating an integral. It is equally applicable to any integration using Cartesian or polar co-ordinates.
It is suitable for 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 ... etc ordinates
3.4. Simpson’s IInd rule
Simpson’s rules for four evenly spaced ordinates be
3.5. Displacement
a) Definition
The amount of water displaced or put aside by a
freely floating ship is termed as displacement.
Archimedes principle states that the body wholly
or partially immersed in a fluid loses weight, equal
in amount to the weight of the fluid it displaces.
This is applies whether the body is heavier, lighter
or equal in weight to an equal volume of fluid in
which it is immersed. For a ship to float freely in
water the weight of the ship must equal to the
weight of the amount (volume) of water it
displaces. The amount of water displaced
22

expressed in cubic feet is called the volume of

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displacement. The corresponding weight of this

water is known as the weight of displacement or
displacement and is usually expressed in tons.
A cubic feet of sea water weights 64 lb
35 cubic feet of sea water weights one ton.
A cubic feet of fresh water weights 62.4 lb
36 cubic feet of fresh water weights 1 ton.

This is because of the actual weight of any given material is affected by its density.
Sea water – 1025 kg/m3
Fresh water – 1000 kg/m3
For this reason, a vessel draft alters in going from fresh water to sea water and vice versa.
The displacement of a box shaped vessel is easily obtained by multiplying the volume of displacement by the density of
water in which the body floats.
In metric system Displacement = Volume of displacement x density

b) Displacement curve
Displacement curve can plot as displacement in X-axis and draught
in Y-axis. Displacement curve for a vessel of a box form 100 ft long,
20 ft beam and floating in sea water at a draught of 10 ft. The
displacements may be calculated at series of draughts of say
2,4,6,8 and 10 ft and set off against the vertical scale of draught.
The displacement curve in case of a box-shaped vessel is a straight
line may then be drawn through the points obtained and the
displacement at any intermediate draught can thus be found.
Displacement at draught of

c) Light weight and Dead weight

Light weight: This is generally defined as the weight of the ship
complete and ready for sea but with no fuel, feed, water, fresh–
water, store provisions, ballast, other than permanent ballast –
passengers and baggage or cargo on board.
Dead weight: It is the actual amount of weight in tons that the ship
can carry when loaded to the maximum draft permitted by international law. It is also defined as the total dead weight
of a ship is the difference between the load displacement and the light weight. The latter comprises the net steel, wood
and outfit and propelling machinery consequently the total dead weight includes
1) Cargo 2) Fuel 3) Feed and fresh water 4) Stores and provisions 5) passengers and baggage.
Displacement = Light weight + Dead weight

d) Calculation of displacement of a ship floating at a given water line

Method (1)
 The bottom of the ship is assumed to be flat and the load water line is parallel to it.
 The immersed depth of a ship is divided into equal number of intervals by water planes parallel to load water
plane.
 The area of each water plane is found out by applying Simpson’s rule
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 The areas are treated by Simpson’s multiplier. The sum of the product is multiplied by 1/3 of the common
interval, if the first rule is applied and the result will be the volume of displacement.
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Method (II)
 The immersed portion of the ship is divided by transverse vertical planes or sections into number of equal
intervals suitable for the application of Simpson’s rule.
 The areas of these up to load water line are calculated applying Simpson’s rule.
 These areas are put through Simpson’s multipliers.
 The final result will give the loaded displacement (volume)

UNIT 4 - BOAT BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION OF BOAT

4.1. Materials used for boat construction
General
Several construction materials are available for fishing vessels up to 100ft. For vessels over 100 ft steel is the dominant
material. Each material has its own construction method. In general, a fishing vessel of any material is built up of some
kind of frame and a skin.
Following are the materials available for construction of fishing vessels.
 Wood
 Steel
 Aluminum
 GRP (Glass Fibre Reinforced plastic)
 Ferro–cement
 Composite
Following factors to be considered while selecting a material
 Type of vessel
 Size of vessel
 Speed of vessel
 Shape of the vessel
 Availability of material
 Suitability
 Economic viability
 Environment in which the vessel is going to operate
Wood
The timber is being used as a boat building material since time immemorial. Nearly 5000 species of Indian tropical trees
are known to yield timber though only about 400 species are actually suitable as boat–building material. About 200 of
them can be put to commercial use of which a few have been found ideally suited for the construction of modern
mechanized boats. Hence selection of the timber is very essential.
4.2. Wood
The timber is being used as a boat building material since time immemorial. Nearly 5000 species of Indian tropical trees
are known to yield timber though only about 400 species are actually suitable as boat–building material. About 200 of
them can be put to commercial use of which a few have been found ideally suited for the construction of modern
mechanized boats. Hence selection of the timber is very essential.

General consideration in selection of timber

 Select Seasoned stock: Seasoned timber in which moisture content is within prescribed limits is preferred except
in the case of steam bent frames where green stock is better as it can be bent easily.
 Prefer air dried wood compare to kiln dried wood: In kiln drying, oils of wood having resistance to fungi and
borers leak out or evaporate. Hence they are susceptible to dry rot. As such air-dried wood is preferred.
 Avoid sapwood: Sapwood is softer and less durable than heart wood. It is recognized by its light colours as
compared to heart wood. Hard heart wood is free from natural defects and blemishes and with straight grain is
good for boat construction.
 Prefer radial cut timber than tangential cut
24

 Select timbers having high rot resistance: Rotting is severe problem in tropical areas. High resistance to rot can
also be achieved pressure impregnation of timbers.
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  Choose timbers which have high dimensional stability: A timber that is not stable will shrink and swell
excessively resulting in opening of seams with resulting leaks causing great strain in the fastenings and making
planks buckle. Stability is measured by tangential shrinkage which should be less than 4%.
 Timber must have good strength: The weight of the timber gives an indication of its strength. Moderately heavy
timber with a weight of 562-722 Kg/m3 at about 12% moisture continent is good enough.
 Timbers should be able to take nails and screws without splitting: The problem of splitting, when nailing the
planks can be solved by pre boring the holes for nails and screws.
 Workability of the timber: Cutting, planking and working with wood should not be cumbersome
 Ability to take finish
 Select those timbers which can take preservatives
 Cost and availability

Specific requirements of wood for various components of boat

For hull planking, the wood used is subject to severe conditions of biological deterioration and electro–chemical
degradation. It should be especially durable against marine bore’s attack, stable in shape and size, good nails screw
holding power, easy to work and shape as the planks are butt joined and it should have low swelling, shrinking and
warping.
Decking is subject to alternate wetting and drying. Therefore, timbers should have high dimensional stability, resist delay
and insect attack, should not wear out easily, take polish satisfactorily, easy to shape and work as decking is butt jointed,
should not crack under alternative wetting and drying and good resistance to impact and abrasion . For both hull and
deck planking light weight combined with moderate strength is preferred.
For keel, keelson and Hog keel, heavy timbers with high strength are used. Single piece wood is preferred to avoid joint.
The timber used should have resistance to decay and insect attack. It should not develop severe cracking and splitting as
the timber used in this area is subject to stagnant and humid air conditions.
The wood used for ribs must be very tough stock resistance. Possess good bending qualities, durable as that in keel, it is
subject to stagnant humid air conditions and it should be free from, knots, cross grains etc., which impair the bending
and strength properties. For stringers, transom, beam and floor timbers, the timbers with considerable length should be
available and those must posses resistance to delay and insect attack under humid air conditions prevailing inside the
boat. Light weight with moderate strength is required. Knees require very strong and hard timber having resistance to
decay and insect attacks. Oars, paddles and masts require long length elastic and tough but not heavy timber and it
should be durable against decay and insect infestation.

Wooden fishing vessel

No single material is ideally suited for all types, sizes and areas of operation. Each material has its own merits and
demerits. There are vast resources of wood available in India. In spite of this factor, good quality timber suitable for boat
construction is becoming scarce and dearer with proper selection, seasoning and treatment by preservatives many
secondary timbers like van teak, mango etc., can be brought to extensive use in boat building.

Properties of wood
Wood consists of hollow fibres, the walls of which are composed of cellulose and lignin. The strength of wood depends
on the direction, size arrangement and appearance of the fibres and also its moisture content. Timber with straight and
close grain with 10 to 15% moisture is the strongest. It is 16 times stronger in direction of grain than across. The specific
gravity of wood is about 1.56 regardless of species. In spite of this, dry wood of most species float because a large part
of it is occupied by all cavities and pores. Since wood decays in normal working condition due to attack of fungi, marine
borers and insects it has to be used in boat building after proper treatment and preservation.
The strength of any wood is closely related to the amount of moisture it contains. Wood in very wet condition and
absolutely dry condition will have poor strength. Usual permissible range of moisture is 12-18% with maximum strength
found at 15%.
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Merits and demerits of wood

Merits : Wood has been used in boat building exclusively from time immemorial. Wood presents certain inbuilt and
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Inherent advantages like positive buoyancy, easy workability, treatability and good strength. Inherent elastic properties
of wood help in bending and shaping when heated and steamed. It can shrink and swells without rupture. Wood can
also stand sudden applied shock. It also has clean and smooth finish apart from being highly durable with proper
treatment. Care and maintenance the life of the wooden boat can be increased. It is good heat insulation. Easy to fit and
drill holes.

Demerits : Wood being a hygroscopic material is subject to rapid changes in physical conditions resulting in dimensional
instability. It absorbs nearly 30% of its weight. Being an organic material it is subject to several types of deterioration.
Though strong, its strength is not uniform as it depends on the orientation of its grains. It is unhygienic as wooden decks
and fish holds harbor millions of micro–organisms. It deteriorates easily due to mechanical wear and tear and is easily
destroyed by fire. Constant protection against fungi, bacteria, insects, borers and foulers is needed. It also requires
careful selection, seasoning and storage sharp curves are not possible and wastage is also considerable.

4.3. Seasoning of wood

Freshly felled timber contains 100% moisture in many cases though in some light timbers, it may even go up to 200%.
Excessive moisture in wood renders it weaker. It is susceptible to fungal attack and it is prone to dimensional instability.
The water is in the form of sap or moisture. Seasoning of timber is the means adopted to reduce the moisture content to
an amount suitable for the purpose for which the timber is to be used.
The objects of seasoning are
 To increase its strength, durability, workability and resistance.
 To reduce the tendency of split, shrink and warp
 To reduce its weight and thus minimize the cost of transport and handling.
 To make it immune from the attack of insects and fungi
 To make it receptive to finish (Preservatives, paints, varnish and polish)
 To make it burn readily, if used as fuel
 To maintain the shape and size of the components of the timber articles which are expected to remain
unchanged in form
 To reduce the tendency of timber to crack, shrink and warp.
Seasoning helps in increasing its strength and service ability and also improves timbers dimensional stability and project
from attack by insects and fungi.

i) Methods of seasoning:
 Natural seasoning
 Artificial seasoning
1) Natural seasoning:
In this method, seasoning of timber is carried out by natural air and hence, it is also sometimes referred to as air
seasoning. Following procedure is adopted in air seasoning.
 Timber is log form is not usually fit for the process of seasoning. Hence, it is cut and sawn into suitable sections
of planks or scantlings.
 Timber pieces can either be stacked horizontally or vertically, the former arrangement being very common.
 The ground, where stack is to be constructed is cleared and it is leveled for good drainage.
 The platform of stack is made slightly higher about 30cm, than the ground level. For this purpose, rows of brick
or concrete pillars are constructed. The pillars may also be made of creosoted wood or wood coated with coal
tar. The tops of pillars should be in the same horizontal plane. The pillars should be durable.
 The timber pieces are sorted out according to lengths and thickness. They are then arranged in layers, one
above the other. Care should be taken to see that all members in a particular layer are of the same the
thickness. If this precaution is not taken, there are chances of timber to become warped or cracked.
 Each layer is separated by spacer of sound dry wood. The usual dimension of spacers varies from 35 mm x 25
mm to 50 mm x 35 mm. The larger dimension of the timber is the width. The spacers are to be carefully placed is
correct vertical alignment.
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 The distance between spacers depends on the sizes of the timber members to be seasoned. It is less for thin
sections and more for thick sections. It usually varies from 45 to 60 cm.
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  Length of stack is equal to length of timber pieces. Width and height of stack are restricted to about 150 cm and
300 cm respectively. A distance of about 25 mm is kept between adjacent layers.
 The stack is to be protected from fast blowing wind, rain and extreme heat of sun. Hence the stack should
preferably be covered by a roof of suitable material.
Advantages:
 Depending upon the climatic conditions, the moisture content of wood can be brought down to about 10-20%.
 It does not require skilled supervision.
 It is uneconomical to provide artificial seasoning to timber sections thicker than 100 mm. As such sections dry
very slowly. Hence such thicker timber sections are usually seasoned by the process of air seasoning.
 This method of seasoning timber is cheap and simple.
Disadvantages:
 As the process depends on natural air, it sometimes becomes difficult to control it.
 Drying of different surface may not be even and uniform.
 If ends of thick sections of timber are not protected by suitable moisture proof coating there are chances for end
splitting because the ends of such timbers dry rapidly in comparison to the central portion.
 If not properly attended, fungi and insects may attack timber during the process of seasoning and may there by
damage it.
 Moisture content of wood may not be brought down to the desired level.
 Space required for this purpose will be more as timber will have to be stacked or stored for a sufficiently long
time.
 The process of seasoning is very slow and it usually takes about 2 to 4 years to make timber fit for the work of
carpenter.

2) Artificial seasoning:
Following are the reasons for adopting artificial seasoning to natural seasoning.
 Defects such as shrinkage, cracking and warping are minimized.
 Drying is controlled and there are practically no chances for the attack of fungi and insects.
 Drying of different surfaces is even and uniform.
 It considerably reduces the period of seasoning.
 There is better control of circulation of air, humidity and temperature
 Wood becomes more suitable for painting, gluing etc.,
 Wood with desired moisture content may be obtained by artificial seasoning
Various methods of artificial seasonings are as follows
 Boiling
 Chemical seasoning
 Electrical seasoning
 Kiln seasoning
 Water seasoning34r5
Boiling:
In this method timber is immersed in water and water is then boiled. This is very quick method. Timber is thus boiled
with water for about three to four hours. It is then dried very slowly. The period of seasoning and shrinkage are reduced
by this method, but it affects the elasticity and strength of wood. In place of boiling water, timber may be exposed to
the action of hot steam. This method of seasoning proves to be costly.

Chemical seasoning:
This is also known as salt seasoning. In this method, timber is immersed in a solution of suitable salt. It is then taken out
and seasoned in the ordinary way. The interior surface of timber dries in advance of exterior one and chances of
formation of external cracks are reduced.
27

Electrical seasoning:
In this method, use is made of high frequency alternating currents. Timber, when it is green, offers less resistance for the
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flow of electric current. The resistance increases as the wood dries alternately which also results in the production of
heat. This is the most rapid method of seasoning. But initial and maintenance costs are so high that is becomes
uneconomical to season timber on commercial base by this method.

Kiln seasoning:
In this method, drying of timber is carried out inside an air tight chamber or oven. The process of seasoning is as follows.
 Timber is arranged inside the chamber such that spaces are left for free circulation of air.
 Air which is fully saturated with moisture and which is heated to a temperature of about 35 0C to 38 0C is then
forced inside the chamber by suitable arrangement.
 This forced air is allowed to circulate round the timber pieces. As air is fully saturated with moisture,
evaporation from the surface of timber pieces is prevented. The heat gradually reaches inside the timber pieces.
 The relative humidity is now gradually reduced.
 The temperature is then raised and maintained till the desired degree of moisture content is attained.
Depending upon the mode of construction and operation kilns are of two types namely stationary kilns and progressive
kilns

Stationary kiln:
A stationary kiln is also known as compartment kiln and in this kiln process of seasoning is carried out in a single
compartment only. Drying operations are adjusted as drying proceeds. This kiln is adopted for seasoning timber which
requires a close control of humidity and temperature. It gives better results.

Progressive kiln:
In a progressive kiln, carriage with timber sections travel slowly from one end of the kiln to the other and in doing it gets
seasoned. The hot air is supplied from the discharging end so that the temperature is less at the charging end and it
increases towards the discharging end.

Water seasoning:
 The timber is cut into pieces of suitable size
 These pieces are immersed wholly in water, preferably in running water of a stream. Care should be taken to see
that timber is not partly immersed.
 The thicker or larger end of timber is kept pointing on the upstream side
 Timber is taken out after a period of about 2 to 4 weeks. During this period, sap contained in timber is washed
away by water.
 Timber is than taken out of water and allowed to dry in free air. Water that has replaced sap from timber dries
out and timber is seasoned.

4.4. Preservation of wood

In view of the limited availability of naturally durable species of timber like teak and Sal there is need to utilize less
durable species of wood. This is commonly known as secondary timbers, which are used for boat construction. These
timbers if properly selected, seasoned and treated with preservatives will be more durable and economical for boat
construction. Treatment of timbers with preservatives is known as timber treatment.

Objectives
 To increase the life of timber structure
 To make the timber structure durable
 To protect the timber structures from the attack of destroying agencies such as fungi, insects etc.
Many timbers used in boat building yards are susceptible to fungal infection, attack by white ants, beetles and marine
fouler and borers unless treated with a suitable preservative. Hence to increase the serviceability, the treatment of
timbers is highly essential. While white ants like fungal infection attack interval timber structures, the marine borers
attack from outside below the water lines.
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1) Requirements of a good preservative
The requirements of good chemical preservatives should be
 High toxicity to fungi, termites beetles, marine borers and fouler.
 Good retention for considerable time.
 Non corrosive to metals
 Should not adversely effect the strength of wood
 Safe and easy to handle
 Free from fire hazards
 Good penetration
 Abundant supply
 Economical to use
 Should not taint fish and free from health hazards for human beings

2) Types of preservatives
There are three types of preservatives
 Oil type
 Organic solvent type
 Water borne type

i) Oil type:
In this group byproducts of oils such as coal tar creosotes, creosote petroleum solutions, creosote coal tar solution and
lignite tar oils are included. The coal tar creosote is specially suited for exterior application. Coal tar is seldom used alone
for preserving wood as with its use good penetration is usually difficult and it is less poisonous to wood – destroying
fungi other than coal tar creosote. Coal tar creosote is normally used with a mixture of petroleum. The petroleum gives
stability to creosote against evaporation and also protects the timber from splitting and cracking.

Advantages:
 Highly toxicity to word – destroying organisms
 Ease of application
 General availability and relatively low cost
 Non-corrosive
Disadvantages:
 Satisfactory painting is difficult
 Unpleasant odour
 Involves risk of fire
 Weight increases
 Taints fish

ii) Organic solvent type

These preservatives are used after dissolving them in suitable organic solvents. The choice of solvent depends on
suitability of the preservative and the use to which the treated timber is to be put. The preservatives prepared by
dissolving toxic chemicals in low cost solvent oils are also included in this group. The solvents may be heavy petroleum
fuel oils, light fuel oils or any other cheap oil. The principal toxic chemicals used are pentachlorophenol, copper
napthenate and tributyltinoxide. Oil solutions of toxic chemicals has an important advantage over byproduct oils in that
their effectiveness is due to definite chemical compound, the concentration of which can be controlled as desired and
determined accurately by chemical analysis.

Advantages:
 Treated timbers can be painted waxed or polished.
29

Disadvantages:
 As some of the solvents are highly inflammable, care should be taken while, handling the solution. In such cases
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the preservatives should preferably be applied cold expensive.

iii) Water borne type:
These preservatives include (a) Acid copper chromate (b) Chromated copper arsenate (c) Chromated zinc chloride. These
preservatives are often employed when cleanliness and paintability of the treated wood are required. Water borne type
preservatives are inorganic salts soluble in water.

Several formulations involving combinations of copper, chromium, arsenic etc., show a high resistance to leaching and
good performance in service. These preservatives consist of a mixture of various salts with the addition of a fixative salt
–usually sodium dichromate or potassium dichromate. The effect of chromium is to fix element, arsenic, copper zinc
etc., is the wood so that the toxic salts are not leached by the action of water. It is however, necessary to allow timber to
dry for 3-6 weeks for the fixation process to be complete.

Advantages:
 Easy to handle
 Available and cheap
 Treated timber can be painted and sheated
 Free from fire and health hazards
 Treated wood light and dry
Disadvantages:
 Unstable at high temperature hence application should be at low temperature
 Treated wood needs re drying
 No protection against weathering and mechanical wear
 Dissolves in course of time.

3) Selection of preservatives:
The type of preservative used depends on the working conditions. Water borne preservatives are best suited when
cleanliness, freedom from odour, low increase in weight and relatively low cost are desired. Tributyl tin derivatives are
found more suitable for fungi, insect attack as well as antifouling paints. Penta chloro phenyl is found to be having more
penetration into wood than the copper napthanate though it may not be as effective as the latter. Organic solvent types
are needed where painting has to be carryout and where cost is not a limiting factor. By products of oil are
recommended where high toxicity is needed, painting is not required and where weight is not a factor.

4) Choice of treatment:
The choice of treatment is governed by the timber species, its sap wood content and the use to which it is to be put. The
treatment is necessary for sap wood of all species of timber heart wood of non-durable species, heart wood of durable
species if the timber members are to be placed on the ground or are required to give long life under severe conditions of
service. In the case of marine structures all timbers should be treated certain timbers are resistant to treatment. Based
on the degree of penetration timbers are classified as follows for the purpose of treatment.
 Easily treatable (100% penetration).
 75-100% penetration (gurjan)
 Partially treatable 50-75% (siris, kindal)
 Difficult to treat – 25-50% (Dhaman)
 Not treatable -0-25% (teak and venteak)

5) Types of treatment
The following are the methods used for treatment for timbers.
 Surface application
 Soaking treatment
 Hot and cold process
30

 Boucheries process
 Pressure process
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 Diffusion process
1)Surface application:
This is done either by brushing, spraying or dipping in the preservative, for a short period. For this treatment the timber
is debarked thoroughly. For oil type preservative the moisture content in timber shall not be more than 14% with
aqueous solutions, moisture content of 20-30% is permissible. At least two coats should be applied; the initial coat has
to dry up before application of subsequent coats. This type is used mostly for treating material at site and for treatment
of cut surface.
2) Soaking treatment:
In this treatment, the timber is debarked thoroughly and the treatment is carried out by submerging the timber in the
preservative solution for a sufficiently long period until the required absorption of preservatives has been obtained.
3) Hot and cold process:
In this process, the timber is submerged in the preservative oil or solution which is then heated to 90oC and maintained
at this temperature for a suitable period depending on the change. It is then allowed to cool until the required
absorption of preservative is obtained. During the heating period, the air in the timber expands and is partially expelled
during cooling the residual air in the timber contracts creating a partially vacuum which causes the preservative to be
sucked into the timber.
4) Butcheries process:
This process is applied for the treatment of sap wood of green timbers soon after felling using any of the inorganic water
soluble preservatives. The treatment is carried out by attaching to the butt end of a pole with back on, a rubber hose
connected to a reservoir containing preservation solution and placed at a sufficiently high level. The pole is held in an
inclined position, generally at an angle of 45oC to the horizontal with the butt end up. Due to hydrostatic pressure the
preservatives displaces the sap in the timber which is then forced out at the narrow end. The treatment is stopped when
the concentrating of preservative in the drip is nearby the same as that of the solution in the reservoir.
5) Pressure process:
This is a process of treating wood in a closed container of preservative. It is forced into the wood under pressure greater
than one atmosphere pressure and is generally preceded or followed by vacuum. The pressure process may be done
either with oil type or with water soluble type preservatives. In the former case a temperature of 80-90oC should be
maintained during the pressure period.

There are two methods of pressure process. (1) Full cell process (2) Empty cell process

The full cell process:

It is used when maximum absorption of the preservative is desired. The timber is introduced into the cylinder. The door
is closed, and then a vacuum at least 56 cm of mercury is created and maintained for half an hour. At the end of the
vacuum period, the preservative is introduced into the cylinder, with the vacuum pump working. When the cylinder has
been filled with the preservative the vacuum pump is stopped and the cylinder is subjected to 3.5–12.5 kg/cm2 pressure
depending on the species and size of timber. After the desired absorption is obtained the preservative is withdrawn
from the cylinder and finally a vacuum of 38-56 cm of mercury for about 15 minutes is once again applied to free the
timber from dripping preservative.

Empty Cell Process:

It is a process for impregnating wood with preservatives or chemicals in which air imprisoned in wood under pressure
expands when pressure is released to drive out part of the injected preservative or chemical. The distinguishing feature
of empty cell process is that no vacuum is drawn before applying the preservative. The cell cavities are only partially
filled.

Diffusion process:
This process is used in the case of timbers which are not easy to impregnate under pressure in dry conditions and also
when there is danger of the timber getting deteriorated during seasoning. The depth of penetration and the amount of
preservatives absorption depends on the concentration of preservative, period of diffusion species of timber and its
31

moisture content. The preservatives are applied in different ways. Momentary dipping of timber in concentrated
solution or prolonged immersion in dilute solution or application of paste over all the surfaces of timber and then these
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are close slacked under cover.

4.5. Fouling and boring organisms
Factors causing deterioration of wood
(1) Rot:
Rotting is natural phenomenon caused by micro-organisms like fungi, which cause decay in wood. Organic material of
wood is absorbed by these fungi, which causes disintegration of the cell walls followed by changes in colour, texture and
strength properties. Wood becomes soft and spongy, due to rotting, besides other changes in the physical and chemical
characteristics. Use of untreated wood together with inadequate ventilation and drainage lead to decay. Most of the
decay in boats in salt water occurs above the waterline where water can enter but not evaporate and at joints where
grain is exposed. In fresh water, interior members below the water line are also often subject to decay.
Some of the preventive measures to avoid rot are usage of heartwood, seasoned and treated wood, allowing proper
ventilation of the wood surfaces possibly at all times and eliminating entry of water into the boat.

(2) Marine borers:

Certain group of animals like teredo, martesia etc., bore into the under part of the wooden hull and destroy the wood in
the long run. They consume cellulose, a constituent of wood. The damage caused by marine borers is not so easily
detectable till it has progressed to a dangerous level. Use of antifouling paints or use of under water sheathing made of
copper, FRP or aluminum act as preventive measurers. Besides, if vessel is moored in fresh water for a few weeks or
taken out of water altogether for about there weeks, they will perish. If the damage caused is not very severe, the holes
could be filled with wooden plugs or with any sealing compound. However it is advisable to replace a member in case of
extensive damage.

(3) Marine foulers:

Certain organisms settle on the submerged part of the hull there by affecting the propulsions and efficiency of under
water acoustic devices. These organisms otherwise called foulers include microscopic ones like bacteria, fungi, diatoms
rotifers and macroscopic ones like coelenterates flatworms, tubeworms, branacles and molluscs. As the settlement of
foulers affect the propulsion the speed of the boats is reduced and fuel consumption gets increased. This forms a
negative aspect in the economical operation of boats. If the affected boat is kept in fresh water for a considerable time,
many of the foulers are cleared. However, adherent shells of organisms like branacles and bivalves remain attached. For
complete removal of foulers, they have to be scrapped during dry docking. Metallic sheathing like copper or application
of antifouling paints on the submerged portions also prevents settlement of foulers.

(4) Corrosion:
Corrosion is the gradual disintegration of metal due to chemical or electro – chemical attack by atmosphere moisture or
other agents. This phenomenon is prevalent in steel vessels and also wooden vessels having metallic sheath to the
underwater part of the hull. The corrosion results in thinning of plates and reduction of speed of vessels due to
roughness caused on the surface of boat.

Control of corrosion:
The corrosion can be controlled by the following means.
(a) Material selection and design:
Metals that show potential differences should be positioned in such a way that the anodic area is large as compared to
cathodic area. For example, iron screws in a brass plate will be quickly attacked but brass screws in an iron plate would
be acceptable.
(b) Use of alloys which resist attack:
Alloys immune to all corroding media are preferred. However, no single alloy satisfies this condition. Copper base alloys
and stainless steel alloys are resistant to corrosion.
(c) Galvanic or sacrificial system:
Sacrificial plates are used to protect the structure. Normally Zn is used to protect steel, cast iron, brass and bronze.
(d) Efficient paint system:
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Adequate coating of anticorrosive paints affords protection against corrosion. The affected parts are chipped, brushed
and cleaned to remove rust and mill scale. Subsequently the surface is painted with anticorrosive paints. In case of
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severe corrosion, the affected plates are replaced by new ones.

(5) Mechanical damage:
The hull of a vessel gets damaged after collision with other boats, structures and jetties. This kind of damage shortens
the life of the boat besides posing a threat to the lives of the crew and others on the vessel. Careful handling of the
vessel by competent crew would help to avoid collisions. Mechanical damage should be attended to immediately.

4.5. Hull Protection method

There are different methods of hull protection is use in India.
1) Oils:
Oils like sardine oil, cod liver oil, cashew nut shell liquid oil etc., are used either singly or in combination with others to
protect the hulls. This is a common practice for indigenous boats on the east and west coast of India. These oils are
smeared periodically.
2)Dammar batu:
Dammar batu is a glossy organic substance extracted from certain selected trees. It differs from gum in that it is not
soluble in water. Solid pieces of this resin are powdered and mixed with ground nut oil with continuous stirring. Damma
batu hardens the surface of wood and retards moisture changes. The application of this resin is common in all types of
boats in Sothern Gujarat and Northern Maharashtra. The fishermen in South Gujarat apply lime plaster and Maharashtra
fishermen use antifouling paints over the resin to make it effective against marine borers.
3) Coal tar:
It is used for protection of indigenous boats on the eastern coast of India.
4) Copper Sheathing:
This is commonly used on mechanized boats in India.
5) Aluminium alloy sheathing:
It is becoming popular in India for protection of mechanized boats.
6) FRP sheathing:
It has been introduced in India for the protection of mechanized boats. All these methods have their own merits and
demerits. The oils and Dammar batu are cheaper and are easy to apply. However, they are not effective against borers.
Coal tar though easily available, cheap and effective against borers and foulers makes that boat heavy and its surface
becomes sticky, creating problems in painting. Aluminum alloy is light and cheap but prone to corrosion in seawater.
Hence anticorrosive paint has to be applied. FRP sheathing does not corrode, is impervious to rot and does not leak at
the seams. But constant abrasion is likely to cause thinning out of sheathing. Moreover, the method of sheathing
involves special techniques and the hull needs preparation in a specific way. Copper sheathing is the most ideal for
protection of underwater part of the hull as anticorrosive and antifouling paints are not required. However, because of
the exorbitant cost, fishermen are looking for alternative material.

Steel:
Steel as a boat building material came to general use during the period between 1845 and 1880. Steel was the first
material considered to replace wood. The first steel ship was built in the year 1878. The adaptability of steel as
construction material for large vessels is well known all over the world. It is one of the most remarkable materials with
many advantages if used intelligently.
Basically steel is an alloy of Iron and carbon. The categories of steel vary from soft and malleable, which can be easily
bend and twisted, to hard and brittle as glass. The plain low – carbon steels containing from about 0.10 to 0.20% carbon
are more than adequate for most of the boat construction needs. Stainless steel is not good as boat building material
but it has excellent uses for rigging fittings, fastenings, propeller shafts and other applications. They are not always at
their best in salt water though they are strong, tough and most corrosion resistant.

(i) General properties of steel:

The strength is the first and greatest attribute of steel. On strength weight basis steel is excellent. By alloying with
metals like manganese, its strength could be increased but then they are difficult to handle due to stiffness. High tensile
steel made by alloying with metals like manganese has strength of about 2.6 – 3.1 kg/cm2.
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However because of its stiffness, it needs special techniques of welding. These are not used extensively because of the
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cost factor except occasionally for the sake of speed, manoeurability etc., in naval vessels. A majority of steel in ship is
medium steel. Although some parts of the structures may be of high tensile steel. The specific gravity of steel is 7.84. On
the basis of weight alone, steel would be at a considerable disadvantage. It is heavier per cubic meter than wood,
aluminum or FRP.
The mild steel is ductile, will elongate to 30-40%. Its ductibility and strength are the opposite sides of the same coin. The
mild steel which is commonly used for boat construction has the advantages of cheapness, high mechanical properties
and ease of cold working. However it is more prone to corrosion against which it needs efficient protections. It weighs
64-1445 Kg/m3 and has a tensile strength of 4735 kg/cm2. The effect of high temperature is negligible as its melting
point is around 1150 – 1200oC.
Steel is fire resistant and it can survive a fire that would be catastrophic to hulls made with other materials. Because of
the relatively small frames and other structural steel members and the wider spacing possible, coupled with the
feasibility of building water and fuel tanks integral within a steel hull, a considerable gain in living or working space is
available in steel hulls.

(ii) Merits:
Steel is a highly versatile material. It offers significant savings in the construction of standard designs in large numbers.
By adopting latest techniques in welding, larger sections of steel can be fabricated with maximum efficiency and
minimum wastage of material particularly for the construction of bigger boats beyond 20 m length. Steel offers high
uniform strength. It is possible to make all shapes by cutting, bending, welding and riveting. It can even be bent to
double curves but this is expensive and requires special skill and time. A special advantage of steel craft is that they can
be easily lengthened.
Steel is an ideal material to cope with ice afloat where other materials usually fail. Another attractive feature of steel is
the ease with which they can be altered. It works out cheaper for size above 18 m. Construction of steel vessel is much
faster than other materials. In comparison with wood, repair, cost is less in steel vessels. Moreover, steel is readily
available in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. It is easy to fit out and easy to make strong connections.

(iii) Demerits:
The main disadvantage of steel is its corrosion because of marine environment. Hence constant maintenance is needed.
As the specific gravity of metal is high, vessels constructed with steel is heavy. It is brittle adjacent to the weld. Another
disadvantage with steel hulls is the difficult to getting the compass to work well. A skilled worker is necessary.

Aluminium:
Use of aluminum in construction of boats and ships is not new and in fact dates back as far as 1890. Earlier attempts did
not meet with success because right type of material and method of construction were not well known. The first sea–
going hull of aluminum was built in France in 1892. The advancement in metallurgical science together with latest
techniques in welding has made the extensive use of aluminum possible in fishing vessels since 1930.
(i) Properties:
 Aluminum becomes harder and stronger with time
 It’s melting point is as low as 600oC
 Extremely ductile and malleable. It will bend or deflect more easily than steel.
 Alloys used in boat construction are called marine alloys like Al–magnesium alloy. Al- silicon alloys etc. Both
these alloys are resistant to sea water corrosion.
 Pure aluminum is rather soft and weak and has yield strength of approximately 2,273 kg, but alloys have yield
strength of about 40,000 Kg.
 It has ultimate tensile strength of 17,273 kg/cm2 and weight of 2,713 kg/m3
 Special quality alloy used is very light with specific gravity of 2.7 as against 7.8 for mild steel.
 It is tough and resilient.
 Pure aluminum is a white metal with a bluish tinge and has good resistance to corrosion on account of formation
of a protective film of oxide. However, pure metal is too soft for construction value.
 Modulus of elasticity is more or less constant for all aluminum alloys i.e. 6960
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 Kg/mm2
 Properties deteriorate at high temperature as it has low melting point (600oC)
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 Easy to work with, can be formed, welded, riveted or bolted into any form.
ii) Merits:
The greatest advantage of aluminum is its light weight. The savings in weight when aluminum is used can result in an
increased carrying capacity in a cargo vessel. Its use in super structures lowers the centre of gravity of a vessel. Its use in
hull construction often results in the saving of fuel due to reduced displacement. It resists sea–water corrosion without
water absorption. As regards its corrosion resisting properties, it is better than copper, zinc, steel etc., It is impervious to
worms, rotting and rusting. Due to its good elastic modules, aluminum has a greater impact resistance than steel. It
requires very little maintenance. Welding of aluminum is extraordinarily fast. The welding speed is three times that of
steel though aluminum requires pre-welding preparation for cleaner surfaces.
Aluminum is non- porous and non-peeling and provides most desirable hygienic conditions for fish handling. Aluminum
has a much better scrap value than steel. This is very little wastage material. Aluminum vessels have better
manoeurability due to less weight. Greater speed is also possible. They have greater load carrying capacity if the same
design is used as that for wood or steel.

iii) Demerits:
Aluminum is not compatible with other conventional metals, more so in sea – water due to electrolysis. This can be
prevented by coating the surface with insulating materials as neoprene, p.v.c, rubber etc. These non-absorbent
materials prevent the flow of galvanic current necessary to sustain attacks. Zinc chromate coat also prevents galvanic
corrosion in salt water. Fire near an aluminum vessel is dangerous. It will seriously reduce the strength of the boat,
because of its low melting point. Aluminum requires surface preparation prior to painting. Antifouling paints have to be
carefully selected for aluminium vessels because those containing mercury should not be used, as mercury destroys
aluminium by forming an amalgam. The surface needs thick barrier paints like zinc chromate prior to painting. The initial
cost of aluminium vessel is much higher than steel. However, about 50-60% can be saved in weight which reduces the
cost difference. It lacks the stiffness of steel. The thickness of hull must be 1½ to 2 times than that of steel for the same
stiffness or the same strength.
Aluminium welding is a tricky business. As the metal oxidizes rapidly, oxygen must be excluded from the weld during
fusion process. This calls for skill in welding. Construction of aluminum boats requires a greater technical knowledge and
skill than is required for any other vessel.

Ferro cement:
Ferro cement was first introduced as a boat–building material in 1847 in France by Joseph Louis Lambot. However it
took professor Pier Luigi Nervi of Italy in 1940 to successfully develop a Ferro cement boat. Since then it is finding
application as a boat building material in many countries. Ferro cement is a highly versatile form of rein forced concrete
made of wire mesh, sand, water and cement which possess unique qualities of strength and serviceability. It consists of
a reinforcement of a number of layers of galvanized iron chicken wire mesh over an arrangement of mild steel rods and
fully plastered with a mortar mix of sand and cement combination. The American Bureau of shipping defines Ferro
cement as “A thin, highly reinforced shell of concrete in which the steel reinforcement is distributed widely throughout
the concrete so that the material under stress acts approximately as a homogeneous material.
(i) Properties:
 The specific gravity of Ferro cement is 2.4 to 2.6
 The steel content works out to be 22-25% (562 Kg/m3) while the mortar mix is about 70-75% (2409 Kg/m3),
water is added (by weight) in the water–cement ratio 0.22 – 0.4. Water is added to give it the required plastic–
like consistency. Construction involves curing after mixing one part cement in two parts of sand and then water.
 Ultimate thickness of shell after careful use of mortar mix will range between 18 mm and 38mm.
 Like concrete, its properties are those of (i) Mortar (ii) Reinforcement (iii) Special arrangement of the
reinforcement in the member (iv) Absolute dimensions of the member.
 The reinforcement averages about 385 Kg/m3 i.e., good tensile strength in all directions.
 High steel quality and concrete gives better strength/weight ratio.
 The boat consists of layer of wire from 1.25 to 2.5cm plus 5 gauge steel rods laid fore and aft and athwart the
job. These rods are the main strength. Pins made of 16 gauge U shapes are used with the arm of the U about 8
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cm long. A pin has to be placed wherever rods intersect.

 FC is essentially RC but it exhibits different behavior from conventional RC in performance strength and
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potential application that it must be classed as completely separate material. It differs from conventional
 reinforced concrete in that its reinforcement consists of closely spaced multiple layers of steel mesh completely
impregnated with cement mortar.
 It differs very much from the reinforced cement concrete in making greater proportional use of steel over
cement.
 Ferro cement can be formed into section less than 2.5 cm thick with only fraction of an inch of cover over the
outer most mesh layer. The conventional concrete is cast into sections several cm thick with about 2.5 cm of
concrete cover over the outer most steel rods.
(ii) Merits:
 Easy to fabricate into complex shapes without the use of moulds.
 It has good strength.
 It is water proof and rust proof.
 Has corrosion resistance.
 A unique feature of FC is that it becomes stronger with increasing age especially under constant contact with
water.
 FC boats, if properly built will have the longest life in water.
 Cost of FC boats is much less than the conventional wooden hull.
 Construction procedures are simple require simple tools and ordinary manual labour.
 Basic materials like cement, steel, sand etc., are readily available throughout the world.
 Easy to repair, repaired by cleaning the damaged part and then plastering with an epoxy binding agent.
 Resistance to fire and marine borers.
 Hull does not need any protection; paint is given only for aesthetic reasons.
 Highly resilient.
 High energy–absorbing property compared to other materials.
 Only short training is required for the labour, if a skilled supervisor is present. Construction needs only unskilled
labour.
(iii) Demerits:
 Not well suited for light displacement vessels less than 10 m long.
 Low impact resistance.
 Slightly heavy.
 Needs more HP to propel the vessel.
 The weakest feature of FC is low resistance to penetration by a sharp object which is called punching. This is
different from impact.
 It cannot be readily adapted to mass production.
 Difficulty in making the holes after construction. Holes in the hull for water inlets are best moulded in, when the
hull is constructed.
 Diesel cannot be used in FC hulls as it attacks concrete and cement mortar. To prevent this interior of tanks must
be coated with epoxy or diesel–resistant tar, some time steel tanks are to be used.
 Corrosion occurs inside, if adequate mortar is not applied inside wire mesh over the reinforcement. When
mortar is forced through many layers of mesh, it is difficult to ensure complete and uniform penetration. It voids
or holes are left behind, it can result in corrosion of mesh after entry of water. Special care is needed to see that
steel reinforcement is not exposed. If so, quick repairs are necessary.
 As with GRP hulls it is very difficult to assess the quality of a FC hull once it has been built. Hence careful quality
control and inspection is needed, if the finished hulls are to be of an acceptable standard.
 Heat transfer into fish hold is more than wood and hence an insulation of 1½ times, the thickness used in
wooden boats is needed.
 Noise transfer is more. Problem is overcome by using sound– proof insulating material in bulk heads.

Fibre glass rein forced plastics (FRP Fishing Vessels):

GRP was used for the first time in USA in 1946 in boat construction. GRP is a combination of two basic materials
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consisting of reinforcing agent like glass fibre in the form of thin fibre and a plastic resin capable of impregnating fibres.
The resulting material is known as GRP. The term reinforcement plastic materials refers to any plastic material (Polyester
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resin) whose physical properties have been upgraded by the addition of some auxiliary material, fibres of glass etc., In
fact reinforced plastics are analogous in several respects to reinforced concrete where the low tensile strength of
concrete is upgraded with steel rods. This material is ideally suited for mass production.
The raw materials used in GRP boat building are (a) Fibre glass (b) Plastics (c) Catalyst (d) Accelerator
(e) Other substances which includes (i) Thixotrophic paste (ii) Fillers (iii) Pigments

There are different resins – Polyester, epoxy vinyl etc., but polyester is in common use. It is a colour less liquid which can
be stored for a considerable period in a cool place. It can be activated by addition of small quantities of two other
chemicals known as accelerator and catalyst.
Although a number of thermosetting resins such as phenolics, melamine, silicones and epoxies are used, polyester resins
have found the widest use in reinforced plastics today.
Unmixed polymer resins will have shelf life of at least three months when kept closed at 300C but once activated it
should be used within 15-60 minutes based on mixing ratio. Polyester resin when activated goes through five stages
before it is regarded as fully cured.
They are (i) Liquid stage (ii) Gel stage (iii) Set stage (iv) Cured stage and (v) Final cured stage.
The whole process is mainly influenced by the activators, their properties of mix and working temperature. Under
tropical Indian conditions this period may be extended for 10-15 days. Preparation of polyester with glass reinforcement
is in the ratio of 3:1 i.e., 67% resin by weight and 33% of glass fibre by weight. Polyester is a thermo hardener, a thermo
setting plastic material which, after the initial action of required heat and pressure cannot be changed by the application
of more heat or high pressure. It is an ester formed by the reaction of an acid and an alcohol. Complex esters are known
as polyesters which are cheaper, serviceable and more popular. Epoxy though stronger is tricky to handle and is more
expensive.
Glass fibres are made from a basic product of “continuous filament” produced by special technique of mechanical
drawing of molten glass. They are available in different forms like unidirectional, bidirectional and random directional.
The most widely used fibre glass is chopped strand mat consisting of strands about 50 mm long held together in random
mat form, using adhesive binders. This binding agent dissolves on contact with resin allowing the resin to penetrate the
fibres to the full depth of the mat. Glass fibre serves purely for reinforcement, while the thermosetting resins help in
proper binding of the material. Greater strength of laminate can be achieved by using woven glass mat called woven
rovings.
The process of converting polyester resins from liquid to solid state involves chemical reaction with the addition of
catalyst (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide) and an accelerator (cobalt nephenate) to polymerization at room temperature.
Polymerization generates its own heat so that the lamination work with fibre glass reinforcement is cured at room
temperature. Quantities of catalyst and accelerator added vary in relation to the weight of the resin, thickness of
laminate and working temperature. Normally 1% accelerator and 4% catalyst are added by volume.
Other substances which can be added to the resin are thixotrophic paste, fillers, pigment and release agent.
Thixotrophic paste is added to prevent run of resins on a vertical surface. Fillers are the powders such as china clay,
chalk or alumina which make the resin opaque, reducing its cost, improving abrasion resistance surface hardness and
also reducing exotherm which is the liberation of heat due to chemical reaction during manufacture. Pigment is added
to the first layer on the whole layup to give the desired colour. A suitable release agent must be applied over the
working surface of the mould to prevent sticking of the resin.

(i) Properties:
 Minimum tensile strength of FRP is 1050 Kg/cm2
 Specific gravity is 1.6
 Weight per cubic meter 1717 Kg/m3
 Modulus elasticity is 1.2 x105 Kg/m2
 Quality and performance of GRP depend to a large extent on the skill and care employed during its manufacture.
In this respect it differs from other construction materials like steel or aluminium, where the quality of the
finished product depends on the nature of raw materials themselves.
 Humidity and temperature control are essential while working with FRP. Low working temperature increases the
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curing time and high temperature reduces the pot life of resin. Pot life of resin is its storage period after the
catalyst and accelerator are added. Normal optimum ambient temperature of FRP processing is about 28OC. The
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 relative humidity should be as low as possible, not above 68% because the moisture carried by the glass fibre on
the resin can affect the quality of the end product.
ii) Merits:
 Light weight.
 Highly durable.
 High strength to weight ratio.
 Can be fabricated to any desired shape and size.
 Material is free from corrosion both in air and water.
 No deterioration due to fungi and borers.
 Speedy construction.
 Due to light weight, it is possible to achieved greater speed; increased fish hold capacity and lesser H.P.
 Very little surface finishing required after moulding.
 Excellent quality control possible.
 Impervious to moisture.
 Being homogeneous structure, there is no leakage. Hull is one piece without seams and joints
 High chemical resistance.
 High weathering resistance.
 In case of any accident, the damage caused will be mainly localized resulting in easy repairs.
 Smooth glossy surface finish results in minimizing frictional losses and there by resulting in fuel economy.
 FRP lends itself ideally to mass production.
 The low modulus of elasticity of FRP is beneficial in absorbing energy from impact loads such as slamming.
 Due to the incorporation of the pigment in the gel, painting of the hull can be avoided. The plastics used to form
FRP laminate can be provided with a variety of colours which eliminates the need of paint for many seasons.
 Though initial investment is high, because of minimum expenditure on maintenance and prolonged service life,
FRP ultimately proves to be the most economical material for fishing boats.
(iii) Demerits:
 Higher initial cost. Moulds needed in the manufacture work out to be quite expensive, because of the utmost
perfection that is required
 Unlike other yards, the concepts of FRP boat yard is elaborate and complicated besides being expensive.
 Fabrication needs special technical knowledge.
 Environmental controls are necessary to achieve maximum results.
 Some of the essential raw materials have low storage life and hence require storage under strict environmental
control
 The resistance of FRP to abrasion is poor, considering its use in conjunction with wire ropes, otter boards etc.,
but this can be solved by incorporating additional weather plates wherever necessary.
 FRP boats have significant hull deflection adversely affecting the engine and shafting.
 Greater fire danger.
 If the defects are not seen while laminate is laid up, this will reflect at later stage of use when it is difficult to
rectify. Water or oil finds their way into laminate if the edges of the laminate are not sealed.
 The material lacks stiffness as the modulus elasticity of conventional FRP is less than 1.4 x 105 Kg/cm2 compared
to 2.1 x 106 Kg/cm2 for steel and 7x105Kg/cm2for aluminium
 Needs protection against foulers.
 Low modulus elasticity may lead to vibration.

4.6. Construction of wooden boat

1) Requirements for wooden boat construction
During construction of wooden boat the following plans are required
(i) The construction plan:
This will give the details of the plan, section and profile also relevant structural details.
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(ii) Lines plan:

The lines plan is a geometric description of the hull. The sheer, body plan and half breadth plan are collectively called
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the LINES PLAN. This plan also gives an idea about the water lines, buttock lines, diagonals and sheer line and also
showing the shape of the boat at each station with diagonals.
(iii) The table of offsets:
This is a table draws up by the designer so that the plans can be used off without inaccurate scaling of the line plan. All
these lines are used to make a complete picture of the shape of a boat which the designer wishes the builder to
reproduce. To assist the builder to draw the shape of a boat in full scale size, all measurements necessary to draw the
various lines are gathered together in a table called the offset table. In order to obtain a fair and true shape of hull for
building purpose, a full scale drawing of a boat is drawn on the boat construction yard, which is called as mold lofting.
For mould lofting, offset table is necessary. This table will show the value of keel, water lines, deck, sheer from the half
breadth line of boat and keel, deck and sheer from heights above from the base line for making easy drawings. The
measurements on the table are normally expressed in feet, inches and sixteenths eg. Half breadth at LWL on station 6, 8
ft 6¼ in would be appear as 8-6-4.
(iv) The sail and spar plan:
This plan is to enable these parts to be made
(v) The specification:
This is a complete schedule of all the materials etc., to be used in the construction of the boat.

2) Wooden boat construction

The following are the different stages of boat construction

i) Mould lofting:
This is the process of transferring the plans or blue prints into full-size interpretation on a floor or services of boards.
These boards are usually painted matt black to provide a good contrast with the chalked lines. Laying out the plans to
full size enables accurate patters and templates to be made; it also shows up any discrepancy in lines thus enabling the
loft man to fair there off. The first step in boat building is making the mould lofting which is the full scale drawing of
construction profile and plan view and drawn in floor of construction yard. This helps the builder to see the pre view
details of construction before setting up the hull.

ii)Building stocks
Building stocks are the group of members
arranged to provide the seating
arrangement of the backbone assembly.
These members should have enough
strength to bare the load of the boat and
its structural members and to serve till the
complete construction is over.

Generally good quality, hard wood timbers

are used for making the building stocks.
The size normally varies from 20 to 30 cms
in width, 35 to 65 mm in thick and more
than 1 to 2 m in length depending upon
the type of boat to be constructed. Initially
at one end of the stock, a slot to the size of
the keel is being cut and in the other end is
made to sharp to enable the builder to
drive it on the ground. This type of stocks can be erected at any uneven ground with loose soil. These stocks are driven
on the ground to the maximum possible by leaving enough height from the ground to the keel.
During the setting of the building stocks all the stocks are made ready and positioned on the ground. Since, the ground is
uneven, a base line is extended by means of a string or a twine tied, at both ends of the perpendiculars erected on
39

either ends of the boat length. This line can be checked by means of a spirit level. As per the rake indicated in the lines
plan, a second line is extended from the base line to indicate the keel line. At this stage the builder can drive the stocks
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in their respective positions by maintaining the rake of the keel.

Preparation of mould :
Moulds or station templates are made from cheap timber about 25 to 35 mm thick and 15 to 20 cm wide. The finished
shape of each mould can be got from the body plan drawn to full scale on the mould loft. Making the mould is to make a
wooden pattern or shape that fits this outline. The best way to do this is to make the mould with different pieces of
timber marked 1,2,3,3,4, etc., using the body plan on the lofting platform and assemble the pieces as shown in the
sketch.
The opposite piece of timber should be exactly the same shape that 1,2 and 3 are the same shape of either side of the
mould. The top stay (cross piece) No.4 will hold the top of the mould together at its correct widths No.5 is another cross
piece of batten which helps to strengthen the mould and it is parallel to No.4 piece. No.6 is another strengthening piece
at the bottom of the mould and must be placed on the same side of the mould as No.4 &5. The different piece of the
mould can be nailed or screwed together and it is important that the finished mould should be true in shape and made.

In the lofting platform, the body plan or the section lines are drawn including the thickness of hull plank. Hence, before
starting to prepare the mould it is necessary that the plank thickness should be deducted. The thickness of the planking
is given in the specification. The thickness is taken in a pair of dividers and arcs are drawn on each station line. All these
arcs are joined together by using a batten and pencil and thus the line drawn parallel to the body plan. This is the outline
for the preparation of the mould. This is done for the transom board also. The centerline of the boat should be marked
on the top cross pieces which is half the width of the boat at whatever position the mould is designed. Each mould
should be properly numbered. The waterline, the deck at side, and the sheer are marked on either side of the mould. In
the body plan on the lofting platform only half widths of the body from the centerline are given. While passing
templates or mould they are made for the half section, which has already been drawn on the platform (after deducting
the plank thickness.

Mounting the mould on backbone

The moulds can now be mounted on the backbone of the boat. The position of each mould is marked as sections in the
lines drawing has been transferred to the mould loft and in turn. The positions are already marked on the top of the hog
keel and properly numbered while preparing the backbone assembly. The edge of the mould is placed exactly on this
mark in such a way that all the moulds at the aft of midship with the back edge on the mark and the forward of midship
are placed with front edge on the mark. The position of the uprights can be fixed at this stage. The cross pieces and
battens are made to the upright so that the upright is 25mm above and behind the mark for moulds, aft of midship and
about 25mm above the front mark of the forward moulds. Thus the bottom can be fixed. All uprights are erected and
the moulds are nailed or bolted to the uprights

iii) Setting the backbone assembly:

The back bone consists of the stem, Apron, stem knee, keel hog, dead wood, stern post and/or transom. These parts are
shaped and sided before forming together. At first, cut the solid wood from thick wooden log at desired length and lay
as a keel over the keel post. Over this, place longitudinally a false keel known as hog keel. Note how the various
interlocking timbers are assembled to produce the structure. Particular attention must be given to the fastening of the
various components such as knees, horn timber, transom post, stern post. Stop waters should be fitted in all joints that
cross rabbet lines (lines where the planking joins the backbone structure). These are round dowels of soft wood, which
swell in contact with water to prevent water leaking along the line of the joint. When the rabbet (the cut-out joint into
which the planks fit) has been roughed out the backbone structure is set up on convenient foundation blocking ready to
receive the frames.
1) Keel: The principal fore and aft component of a vessels framing, located along the centre line of the bottom and
connected to the stem and stern frames. Floor or bottom transverses are attached to the keel.
2) Hog keel: It is a false keel or extra keel which is in the upper part of the keel.
3) Stem knee: A triangular piece of wood which connects the stem and the keel.
4) Stern: The aft end of a vessel, the farthest distance part from the bow.
5) Stern knee: A triangular piece of wood which connects the stern and the keel.
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6) Transom frame: Transom frame is the part which is connected to the horn timber. Transom planks are fixed in the
transom frame.
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7) Transom knee: A triangular piece of wood which connects the transom frame and the horn timber.
8) Horn timber: A timber extending aft from the stern post to the transom of a vessel and forming the central support of
the stem.
9) Dead wood: It is a member of the backbone assembly connecting the keel with the stern post where the strong back
passes over the deadwood, where great strength is required.
10) Shaft log: Shaft log is the member through which the propeller shaft passes.
11) Skeg: The extreme aft part of the keel of a vessel, the portion that supports the rudder post.

Setting up of keel:
It is usual to set the keel up on blocks of suitable building height so that the declivity is correct is so that the bulk heads
would be upright and the waterline level in the position the boat is intended to assume when afloat. The top of the stem
and stern post or transoms and may be the moulds, if necessary are braced by temporary fixings to a building or other
convenient place. The whole backbone structure is carefully checked for being upright with level and plumb line.

Setting up of moulds and bulkheads:

Moulds are built up with pieces of soft wood, joined together. Deal is a good material for this purpose. The moulds are
to be set up on the keel at the number of station required. They can be held on the keel with a small block or blocks
screwed on each side and screwed down. The upper side is held up by braces from any convenient part of the building
and then squared up with the keel and plumbed to upright with the centre line.
The actual number of moulds will depend on the shape and type of vessel. If the vessel is to have a number of
bulkheads, these can be erected in their finished condition to advantage. The moulds or bulkheads are fitted to the hog.
The moulds are usually fixed by a small removable block screwed to the hog. Check each mould carefully for being
upright and true.

Setting up of planking:
It is usual for the boat builder to set out the planking by eye using a true flexible batten by marking along the moulds in a
fair curve. The planks will be about the same width at the stem but will vary from the gar board strake from fairly wide
depending on the shape of the ends of the boat, to narrower in the turn of bilge and widening again on the flatter
section of the top sides to the sheer strake. The narrowing of the turn of bilge planking is necessary to prevent distortion
of the planks on the sharper curve of the mid-ship section. It is necessary to spend a good deal of time and trouble
offering up the batten and sighting through before an acceptable curve is found. The sheer and the whole of the
planking must be perfectly proportion for a clincher boat of look good.
The keel and hog are either glued or beaded together and can be fastened with screws, clenched rods or bolted with
nuts and bolts. If the keel or hog are long and have a joint, this should be in the form of a scarf preferably of the hooked
type and in a keel joint there should be a stop water fitted in the line of the rebate which will be covered by the planking
this stop water is often omitted of the joint is glued. The stem having been carefully shaped will now be scarfed to the
keel. There are several methods of doing this. This stem knee is now fitted having first been sided. If there is to be an
apron a scarf is cut at its upper end. The stem knee is fastened right through the stem, keel and hog scarf with bolts are
clenched rods arranged. Dead words are fitted on the top of the keel is good construction. If the boat is to have a stern
post it must be scar fed or half jointed to the aft end of the keel. A transom stern is jointed to the keel. This joint may
run right through but it will be a neater and better job checked half way through. It is usual to build the wood keel and
the structures of the boat direct into the metal keel resting on its blocks.

Template fixation:
The first stage of construction work is to make the templates for all the members from the mould loft. The templates are
refer to the pattern of waste wood, arranged over the keel to give the required shape of hull.
Framing:
Frames are either sawn or laminated are then assembled and raised at the correct position on the keel structure. Once
the frames are fixed then it should fastened with side planking through copper nail. When clamped in position they are
through¬ bolted in place. As the frames are raised they are held in position by wooden battens. At the bow and stern
41

there will be a number of frames that do not cross the keel but have their heels notched into the deadwood or horn
timber. These are known as half frames, while the frames that cross the keel are known as square frames. In this case
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the heels of the frames should be notched into the deadwood, sternpost and horn timber.
Planking:
In very small craft, where for instance the planking runs the full length of the hull, it is possible to mark off and spiel
planning like clincher building. If the boat is larger it more usual to steam bends the timbers into the place before
planking commences. In the case of sawn or grown frames. These are erected fully beveled and faired.
Setting up of planking:
It is usual for the boat builder to set out the planking by eye using a true flexible batten by marking along the moulds in a
fair curve. The planks will be about the same width at the stem but will vary from the gar board strake from fairly wide
depending on the shape at the ends of the boat, to narrower on the turn of bilge and widening again on the flatter
section of the top sides to the sheer strake. This narrowing of the turn of bilge planking is necessary to prevent
distortion of the planks on the sharper curve of the mid ship section. It is necessary to spend a good deal of time and
trouble offering up the batten and sighting through before an acceptable curve is found. The sheer and the whole of the
planking must be perfectly proportioned for a clincher boat to look good.

4.7. Construction of steel boat

Steel hulls are constructed according to one of three systems viz., Longitudinal, Transverse and Transverse-longitudinal.
The longitudinal construction is characterized by member stiffening the plating in the fore and aft direction. In
transverse system of construction, the main stiffening of shell and deck plating is arranged in transverse planes. The
transverse elements such as floors, frames and beams are connected by brackets. Fishing vessels are constructed mostly
by this method. The rigid transverse structure gives a firm and stable basis for shell plating during erection of hull
section.
Bottom structure:
The bottom of a steel ship may be constructed as a single or double bottom. The latter is not required vessels over 24 m
lengths. The single bottom consists of a centre line girder welded to the keel (generally a bar-keel), side girders,
transverse floors (flanged at the top) interconnected by a keelson.

Side shell:
The side shell starts at the upper edge of the bilge strake and ends with the sheer strake. This shell is stiffened with
frames connected to the bottom structure and deck beams by brackets.

Deck:
The deck is covered by plates running (like the shell plating) in the longitudinal direction. The deck strake adjoining the
sheer strake is called the stringer plate and both strakes form a vital structure from the point of view of longitudinal
strength. Deck plating is stiffened by means of deck beams and in way of large openings (engine-room, trunks, and hatch
openings) additional longitudinal supported on bulkheads are fitted.

Bulkheads:
Transverse and longitudinal - consists of flat plating with bulkhead stiffeners. The plates are mainly assembled in the
transverse direction for transverse bulkheads and in the longitudinal direction for longitudinal bulkheads, as lower
strakes of the bulkhead plating have greater thickness than the upper ones (due to the pressures experienced in flooding
the compartment).
Keel, stem and stern: The keel of small steel vessels is usually made of a bar connected at the fore end to the stem,
which is shaped in accordance with the profile of the vessel. The stern frame is important, as it has to allow the drive
shaft and the rudderstock to pass through it and be able to transmit safely the forces due to action of the propeller and
the rudder. Its construction may differ depending on the stern arrangement provided in the design.
Deck erections:
Deck erections may be superstructures or deck houses which have lesser breadth than the vessel and take no part in
transmitting main stresses of the hull structure. Superstructures are a continuation of the main hull structure.
Engine seating:
The seating for main engine and other machinery must be of sufficient strength to transmit with appropriate safety the
42

forces due to their action such as the propeller thrust, the winch forces at the front power take off, etc. Opening of
engine room and hatch- additional longitudinal supports to bulk heads.
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4.8. Construction of FRP boat
There are two types of FRP boat construction methods prevail through out the world. They are female mold and split
mould technique method. Among these later method is popular in western countries. Hull moulding to be two piece
structures laid up using split mould technique as follows:
 Two gel coats all over, applied by hand using “mohair” rollers and 100 mm paint brushes. Nominal thickness 0.5
mm gel type isophthalic. The whole of one side to be laid in one operation with no break, one gel after the
other.
 One layer of 225 g/m2 chopped strand mat emulsion bonded, laid with isophthalic resin. Resin to glass ratio
1.8:1 by weight laid by hand using “wolly rollers” and aluminium “paddles” rollers.
 Operations (a) and (b) is to be carried out in one shift of work, i.e., within 24 hours. Cure time of 30 minutes
minimum between gel coats and cure time of 60 minutes for 225 g/m2 layer.
 Main hull laminate has to commence not more than 24 h after application of 225 g/m2 layer.
 Three layers of 600 g/m2 chopped strand mat (CSM) emulsion bonded lay with resin all over. Resin to glass ratio
2:1 by weight. All three layers laid simultaneously in mat width strips transversely applied; stepped back by 50
mm steps from previous layers on the keel stem and transom join edges.
 One complex of 600 g/m2 (CSM) and 600 g/m2 woven roving and 600 g/m2 CSM laid simultaneously in mat
width strips transversely applied, stepped back by 50 mm steps from previous layer on keel, stem and transom
join edges.
 Three layers of 600 g/m2 CSM emulsion bonded lay with resin all over. Resin to glass ratio 2:1 by weight. All
three layers laid simultaneously in mat width strips transversely applied, stepped back by 50 mm steps from
previous layer on keel, stem and transom join edges.
 Bring mould halves together, bolt up all round, and arrange internal access and staging as required.
 Apply one layer of resin proof tape to join line all round.
 Repeat operation (a) to (f) throughout length of join line ensuring 50 mm overlaps increasing by 50 mm for each
layer. Mark off hull with chalk or wax pencil for position of hull frames maximum spacing longitudinally 900 mm.
 Insert frames constructed of low density closed cell polyurethane foam, trapezoidal section base size 150 mm,
tapering over 100 mm to top face of 100 mm. Frames to be contact adhesive bonded to hull.
 Over laminate frames with three layers of 600 g/m2 CSM with resin. Layers to lap over frame and onto hull with
50 mm, 250 mm and 400 mm laps each side.
 Frames to be extended through keel in way of bulkheads, fish hold, forefoot where practical frame to stop short
in way of engine to allow fitting of engine bearers.
 Insert hull lifting blocks/plates for release from mould.
 Insert two main bulkheads constructed of 19 mm thick marine grade plywood vertical to datum and square to
centerline. Plywood to be butt strapped on joints and glued and screwed. Bond bulkheads to frames on both
sides with three layers of 600 g/m2 CSM with laps as per (1).
 Hull moulding is now ready to release from mould provided lifting blocks/plates have cured for 48 hours since
insertion. Section refers.
 On release from mould hull to be placed in fit out cradle or suitably chocked to prevent any distortion.
 Construction to be taken place by protected from sun, rain and in well ventilated dust-free atmosphere. All
materials to be stored in similar conditions and to be suitable for use in tropical environments if appropriate and
to be marine grade.
 Ballast to be located in the keel and bilge section in the form of steel punching set in resin and over laminated.
Final trimming to be carried out after launch and inclining test.
 Hull protection to be included to stem shoe, keel iron and skeg.
 Galvanized steel strips to be fitted to bilge keels.
Deck:
The main deck to be constructed of cambered, hardwood, transverse beams nominally 150 mm × 75 mm
and 60 mm as required and sheathed with 19 mm plywood over laminated with 1800 g/m2 of chopped
strand mat, and to incorporate a non-slip finish. The deck also incorporated an engine removal hatch and
43

access hatches to fish hold. All hatches to be fitted on coamings of at least 300 mm. Freeing ports to be cut
in the bulwarks to allow free drainage of water overboard from deck. Bulwark height to be 610 mm
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minimum at side.
 Gunwales:
Gunwales to be constructed in hardwood as outer section is 50× 50 mm and inner section is 150× 38 mm.
Outer to be bolted to inner at approximately 900 mm centres using spacer blocks 120 mm deep × 100 mm
thick.

4.9.Construction of aluminium boat

Fabrication of aluminium hulls is carried out in the same manner as for steel construction. Forming and shearing of plate
are carried out with presses and sheers as for steel, while cutting is accomplished with saws in a similar manner to
wood, although knife blades and saws require special setting and teeth with gullets to clear chip dust. Bend radii are
higher than those for steel and for most marine applications range from 2 to 5 the thickness of the plating depending on
the alloy and temper used.

The keel is made of mild steel and over this a rubber coating is needed. As per the template design, Aluminium
magnesium alloy pipes are fixed over the keel as a mould station (skeleton). The space between the pipes covered with
aluminium magnesium alloy sheets by using argon arc welding unit. Te sheets that are attached to the framework
should always overlap one another.

Two welding processes are used for the joining of aluminium such as the MIG (Metal Inert Gas) process and the TIG
(Tungsten Inert Gas) process. This inert gas, shielded-arc processes are used exclusively for non¬ferrous metal
fabrication. Small boats are usually constructed upside down over jigs with the relatively lightweight of the material
facilitating the turn over process for outfitting and completion. Larger vessels are built upright and jigs can be used to
facilitate the fitting and welding of hull plate:

Painting is not essential and hulls of fishing vessels are frequently left unpainted except for underwater, antifouling to
prevent marine growth, aluminium to steel or wood joints for increased resistance to electrolytic corrosion, non-slip
paint on decks, and internal surfaces in accommodation for aesthetic reasons. Where painting is required, the alloy
surface is etched primed and painted with zinc chromate or chromate-phosphate chemical conversion coatings as a base
coat. Selection and application of antifouling paints require special care. Anti fouling paints containing mercury in any
form must not be used.

4.10.Construction of Ferro-cement boat

As various methods of construction are available to the builders, no detailed construction method should be taken
mandatory standards to be followed. Methods which have given satisfactory result is the use of construction of a
reinforce armature of rods and mesh over mesh covered span frames (By making reinforcement using the pipes and
wire mesh over this cement is applied).
 As per the loft measurement the station moulds are prepared by suitably bending the iron or GI water pipe of
half to one-inch diameter.
 In the outside of the mould frames, the mild steel rods (¼” to 3/8”) will be attached at 2” –3” center space with
help of either welding or by using 19-20 Steel Wire Gauge (SWG) iron wire.
 Attach four layer of machine woven half inch mesh size of GI chicken wire mesh (20 SWG) with a both side of
frame work of reinforcement. For fastening purpose use 19 – 20 SWG GI wire.
 Plastering is done on both sides with special pozzolena cement in combination with good quality fine and sharp
river sand and uncontaminated fresh water at the ratio of 1:1.5:0.4-0.5. If the pozzolena cement is not available
then with the combination of ordinary Portland cement with fly ash at the ratio of 85:15 to get the required
pozzolena effect at cheaper rate.
 The finished hull thickness should be in between ¾ inch to 11/2 inch.
 Once a plastering is complete it should be allowed to set hard, 15-20 days are required for curing under shade
condition with frequent sprinkle of coldwater. Hull must be kept fully wet condition.
 The hull must be thoroughly dry and clean before painting. Use epoxy cold tar or heavy-duty bituminous paint to
44

fill if there is any depressed holes.

 Apply one or two coat of antifouling paints above the load water line before launching the vessel.
Page
4.11.Deck fittings and equipments

(i) Mast and derricks:

Mast is a vertical spar primarily meant to carry sails but it is also used to carry radar, satellite aerials and navigational
lights. The masts are of different types. They are made either wood or steel. Derrick is a large spar fixed to mast by
goose neck and is used like a crane for hoisting heavy weights. The length of derricks should be adequate to bring the
cod end aboard. It is fixed in such a way that the derrick swings through a wide area. These are commonly found in all
types of fishing vessel. These are probably the oldest and most basis installation on boats. Mast or masts like structures
are vital if all the necessary lifting operation is to be performed. Wooden masts are still perfectly acceptable or if
available, steel pipe may be used.

(ii) Block and pulleys:

These are common in all types of fishing vessels and these are used for a variety of purpose like leading the ropes to
convenient position for handling or as towing points for the warps in trawling. A block is a wooden or metal case in
which one or more sheaves are fitted. Blocks and pulleys are attached to strong points on the mast and derricks. Good
quality blocks are expensive but the investment is worthwhile. Cheap blocks will break or seize up or create unnecessary
friction, good blocks will last for a long time. They should be made of best hard woods, nylon or steel and should have
proper bearings or bushes that are self lubricated or can be lubricated. For boats with small winches or limited power –3
fall and 4 – fall blocks can enable the crew to lift heavy loads on board provided the mast and rigging have the
appropriate strength.

(iii) Power take-off and winch drives:

Power take-off is the units to take the power from the main engine for the winch drive. From the power take-off point,
belt drive is preferable to chain drive as it has more flexibility. Hydraulic drive may prove cheaper than mechanical drive
in the long run, provided that expertise and spare parts are locally available. On small fishing boats, the most usual
power take off is for winch or Hydraulic oil pump for line hauler or power blocks in purse seiners.

(iv) Gallows and davits:

Gallows are used in trawlers and purse seiners. Trawl gallows are used in hitching up of heavy otter boards as well as for
passing of towing warps. Though inverted “U” shape is the most common one for trawl gallows, other types like bipod,
tripod etc., also exist. The positioning of gallows is important as they must be forward of the rudder axis to allow the
vessel adequate manoeuverability but not so forward that the warps foul the stern when turned sharply. Purse seine
gallows are used to lead the purse line and tow line to the winch in larger vessels. The gallows is of strong construction
with three blocks. In smaller vessels, this function is carried out by davits. Davits are used in purse seiners, gill netters
and pots. In smaller purse seiners, single portable davit with blocks is fitted on to mountings at the bulwark for passing
of purse liners. It also supports a snatch block for tow line handling. American gill netters haul the nets by power blocks
mounted on the davits.

(v) Winches:
Different types of winches are used for different fishing methods. They may be placed in the fore and after direction or
athwart ship depending on the requirement. They are used commonly in trawlers, purse seiners and Danish seiners to
haul the net and the catch on to the board. Trawl winches can be single drum (split type) two – drum on one shaft or
two or more drums on parallel shafts. The last type is most suitable for double rig trawling and purse seining.
A winch may or may not have warping heads. When, present warping heads are used for auxiliary hauling requirements
such as hauling sweep lines, wings etc., Split winches are common in large trawlers as they enable straight lead from
winch drum to gallows/gantry. Winches can be driven either mechanically from the main engine or electrically or
hydraulically or direct drive by a separate engine. Mechanical drive is preferred in small vessels as it is simple, reliable
easy to maintain and repair and less expensive. Electric drive is confined to large vessels due to the necessity of a large
capacity generating plant and auxiliary diesel. However, electric winch offers good flexibility of operation and control.
45

Hydraulic drive is popular due to its many advantages but is used only in large vessels. Direct diesel drive has not
become popular due to problems like requirements of more space fuel supply and exhaust arrangements.
Page
4.12.Rules and regulations of fishing vessel fabrication
There are statutory regulations for all sea–going vessels including fishing vessels. The object of these regulations is to
promote safety of life at sea and efficient maintenance of vessels. Important regulations are Life Saving Appliances (LSA),
Fire Appliances (FA), Manning and Prevention of Collisions at Sea. Other regulations like loading, stability etc., are
however not applicable to fishing vessels.
Every country has different regulations prescribed by its Government. However, most of the regulations are
international in nature. Inter-governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) came into existence in 1959
after the advent of United Nations Maritime conference at Geneva in 1948 which coordinates among maritime
governments to have uniform pattern among all nations. It holds conventions, draws uniform regulations and forwards
them to Member–Governments for implementation by statutory rules.
In India, the regulations are covered by Merchant Shipping Act (44) of 1958. There are various classification societies in
different countries. The purpose of classification societies is to ensure seaworthiness of the vessels. Also, an unclassified
vessel has less value and the underwriter may or may not accept or demand very high premium. Classification is granted
when ship is built under surveillance and in accordance with their standards. Alternatively, the ship is surveyed after
construction.
Important classified societies are
 Lloyds Register of Shipping, UK
 American Bureau of Shipping, USA
 Bureau veritas, France
 Det Norske veritas, Norway
 Register of Shipping of the USSR, USSR
 Poland Register of Shipping, Poland
Classified societies operate throughout the world and their rules and regulations are published, making travel in the seas
safe. Regulations for smaller and bigger vessels differ. Vessels above 25 GRT and 15 NRT fall under Merchant Shipping
Act (MSA). Vessels below 25 GRT and 15 NRT fall under two categories – (i) Coasting vessels Act, 1938 as in Maharashtra
and (ii) Harbour Craft Rules framed under the Indian Ports Act (xv) of 1908 for Ports of India other than Maharashtra.
A great deal of effort has been made by IMCO in introducing measures and policies designed to increase the safety of
navigation. Among them the most important are the compulsory carriage of navigational equipments and the principle
of ship’s routing and separation of traffic at sea. The other areas where IMCO has made a contribution include measures
for regulating traffic in the areas of high density and international regulations for preventing collisions. It has developed
standards for testing and approval of life-saving equipments. A guide containing specific instructions on the actions to be
taken by the vessel in distress has been prepared for Masters and others involved in distress incidents at sea. The IMCO
has also prepared a code of safety for fishermen and fishing vessels. A study has also been made on fire safety in ships.

Merchant Shipping Act:

The Merchant Shipping Act (44) of 1958 has been formulated to ensure efficient maintenance of Indian Mercantile
Marine in a manner best suited to serve the national interests. As per the act, a “fishing vessel” means a ship fitted with
mechanized means of propulsion which is exclusively engaged in sea fishing for profit. Ships exceeding 15 tones net and
employed solely in navigation on the coast of India are registered.
The manning requirements are given in section 76 (4) of the Act, Prevention of Collision at Sea in 285 (1), life–saving
appliances in 288 (1), rules relating to fire appliances in 289, inspection of life–saving and fire–fighting equipment in 290
(1),information about ship’s stability in 298 (1) and seaworthiness of the vessel in 335 (1). Fishing vessels are exempted
from load – line regulation in section 310 (2).
A classed ship is required to carry out periodical surveys and the societies are represented throughout the world to
enable the surveys to be carried out wherever it is most convenient. Classification enables the underwriter to accept the
ship as a good risk against marine accident. Besides, the owner can readily affect the insurance. Nearly all sea–going
vessels are built under rules of one of the great classification societies. Vessels intended for inland waterways are often
built under Bureau veritas classification, as this society has special rules for this type of service.
46

Life Saving Appliances (LSA):

Life saving equipments are the appliances used to save the lives in case the vessel is in danger. The vessels may be in
Page

distress due to various misfortunes like fire, cyclone, leaks, collision, running around, hitting against iceberg, etc. Though
the vessels are constructed taking all the safety factors into consideration, emergency befalls the vessels on the seas. To
meet such contingency and to save the lives of all men on board, life – saving appliances are provided on the vessels.
These will enable the men to keep alive for a few days till they are rescued by other ships.

Rules and regulations about LSA on fishing vessels:

There are rules and regulations for the provision of these equipments on board the fishing vessels. These provisions
depend on the Acts under which the vessels register.

LSA under Merchant Shipping Act:

According to the Merchant shipping Act, vessels of all types are classified into 15 classes. Fishing vessels come under
classes XIII and XIV. Mechanized fishing vessels are covered under class XIII while sailing fishing vessels come under class
XIV. The following is the brief description of LSA equipment used in fishing vessels registered under the Merchant
Shipping Act of 1958.

Class C boat:
Class C boats are used in smaller vessels of size below 35 m. The purpose of class C boat is the same as life – boat for
providing shelter to all the men on board the vessel in case of distress. The general requirements of class C boats are
given in First Schedule of Merchant Shipping (LSA) rules 1978. Salient features are that
 It shall be an open boat constructed with rigid sides
 It shall have good stability in a seaway and sufficient freeboard when loaded fully with equipment and persons.
 It shall have length varying with the length of ship and is in the range of 4.3 to 5.5m.
 It shall be fitted with internal buoyancy appliances and shall be so placed as to secure stability.
 Its internal buoyancy appliances shall consist either of air cases or any other suitable material.

Inflatable life–raft:
This is a folded cylindrical–shaped appliance which inflates on pulling a string. It provides shelter to people on board in
case of distress. The main advantage of these rafts is that they occupy less space on storage. The raft is equipped inside
with first– aid kit, cans of water, food, signal lamp, tools, knife, life–buoys, a line of about 26 m long, 2 sea anchors, raft
repair kit, bellows for additional filling of the raft, instruction charts, etc. All the above rations are sufficient for about
three days.
The walls are made of double waterproof fabric and linen–collapsible tent protects the crew from wind, rain or sun. The
launching is by throwing it overboard with a container and the operating cord is pulled. The pull of cord releases the
valve of bottle containing CO2 gas so that its contents are released into various chambers which make up the raft
thereby automatically inflating the raft.
The sizes of life–rafts vary with their carrying capacity. They are stowed in places where they can be easily put
overboard. The requirements of inflatable life–rafts are furnished in the part I of second schedule of Merchant Shipping,
LSA.
 They shall be so constructed as to be stable when fully inflated
 They shall stand drop test into the water from a height of 18 m.
 Their construction shall include cover of highly visible colour.
 Their cover shall be capable of protecting the participants.
 They shall be fitted with a lamp on the top of the cover and another inside the raft.
 Their total unit weights including container shall not exceed 180 Kg.
 They shall be inflated by a gas which is not injurious to the occupants.

Life–Buoy:
This is for assisting men while in distress at sea. It is thrown for retrieving the person quickly and helping him board the
rescue vessel. The person in distress holds the life – buoy while trying to board the vessel. It is circular in shape with
distinctive visible colour. The requirements for life-buoys are given in the 11th schedule of Merchant Shipping (LSA)
47

Rules, 1978.
 The life–buoy shall be constructed of cork or other equally efficient buoyant material which shall not be
Page

adversely affected by oil or oil products.

  It shall be capable of floatation in water for at least 24 hours.
 The inside diameter of a life–buoy shall be 45 cm and outside diameter 76 cm.
 It shall be of highly visible colour.
 It shall be fitted with grab lines secured at four equidistant points
 The weight of life–buoy shall not exceed 6.1 Kg.

Buoyant apparatus:
This is used in vessels up to 45 m size. Its purpose is the same as that of life–boat, class C boat and inflatable life–raft. It
is least preferred as it does not provide adequate protection to the men on board. The requirements of the rigid
buoyant apparatus are given in the 10th schedule of MSA (LSA) Rules 1978. Its salient features are:
 It shall be of such a fabrication that it retains its shape and properties when exposed to varying weather and
water.
 Buoyant material shall not be adversely affected by oil or oil products.
 It shall be effective and stable when floating either way up.
 Grab lines shall be fitted all around the apparatus in such a way that the number of loops correspond to the
number of persons which the apparatus is fit to support.

Self– igniting light:

Self – igniting light shines automatically on throwing into water and in erect position. It works on batteries. It is meant to
mark the position of life– buoy in water during night so that a man in distress could reach the spot and get hold of life–
buoy and also the vessel can return to the spot to pick up the person. At least half of the total number of buoys required
to be carried shall be fitted with a self– igniting light which shall be capable of remaining in water and burning for not
less than 45 minutes.

Life jacket:
It is one of the important life–saving appliances worn round the shoulder of each person in distress. This will help the
person to keep afloat in water. The requirements for life – jackets are furnished in the 5th schedule of MSA (LSA) Rules
1978.
 It shall be marked on both sides in letters not less than 1.27 cm in size with words “For Adults” and on one side
only with maker’s name or other identification mark.
 It shall be capable of lifting the face of an exhausted or unconscious person out of water.
 The buoyancy required to provide the foregoing performance shall not be reduced by more
 than 5% after 24 hours of submersion into fresh water.
 It shall not be affected by oil or oil products
 It shall be of a highly visible colour.

Parachute distress rocket signals:

These rockets are fired from the vessel or life–boat in distress to attract the attention of nearby vessels. On firing, these
rockets release bright red stars with parachutes at predestined height. The requirements of these are given in the 16th
schedule of MSA (LSA) rules 1978.
 It shall consist of single bright red star which is projected to the required height by means of a rocket and which
burns while falling, its rate of fall being controlled by means of a parachute.
 The star shall burn with minimum luminosity of 30,000 candle power for not less than 40 seconds.
 The rocket may be ignited by any suitable method.
 The rocket shall be capable of functioning even after immersion in water for about one minute.
 The components shall have a shelf life of at least two years
 It shall be packed in a container and effectively sealed.

Fire Appliances:
48

Fire on board the vessel is the most dreadful hazard. In spite of best small or big are treated as big fires and are to be
reported to Mercantile Marine Department (MMD) for investigations.
Page

Fire prevention at sea is best effected by cleanliness, tidiness, correct supply and maintenance of fire fighting appliances,
carrying out fire drills and by keeping the compartments well ventilated.
There are various ways to detect fires and whatever the means employed, it should be done immediately. The most
modern system of fire detection is automatic electronic fire detection and fire alarm to indicate the presence and
location of fire. It should be installed in the main machinery spaces and in all unattended spaces. Similarly there are
ways of detecting fire by visual or smelling means.
The rules regarding fire detection are furnished in Rule 43 Fire Appliances Rules, 1969. According to these rules every
fire– detecting system fitted according to rules shall be capable of automatically indicating the presence of indication of
fire and its location. There are certain areas or spaces in the vessel which are more vulnerable to fire. These include
engine compartment where it may be due to overheating of engine, wheel house where it may be due to short circuit in
electronic equipments or partly from smoking, crew accommodation where smoking is the major cause and galley in
which the risk can be due to flames from the stove or the risk of oil or cooking fat being spilled.
All fires are not of the same type. Depending on the type of material involved, fires are classified as :
 Dry/solid fires
 Inflammable liquid fires
 Electric Fires
Fire extinguishers used for these fires are different.
Dry or sold fires are those in which the materials involved are wood, paper, textiles, upholstery etc. They usually
originate in the galley. Inflammable liquid fires involve inflammable liquids like diesel, petrol, kerosene etc. These are
caused by an explosion when refilling. Electric fires are caused by short circuit in electrical wiring or fittings.

Fire appliances:
A brief description of various fire appliances statutorily provided for FA Rules is given below

Fire pump:
These draw water for fire fighting. Every fire pump shall be operated by means of power other than the ship’s main
engine. A hand pump is essential as the engine stop due to fire in the engine room.

Fire hydrants:
Hydrant is a controllable outlet flow of the water main through which water flows either under pressure from a pumping
station or from an elevated source. Hydrants must be so placed that fire hoses can be easily coupled to them.

Fire hose:
The fire hose is a pliable cotton or flax length of piping usually in 15-16 meter pieces with coupling at both the ends for
joining lengths together or connecting to fire pumps and hydrants.
 Every fire hose together with tools shall be kept in a conspicuous position near the fire hydrants.
 They shall be suitable for the intended use and shall not exceed 20 m in length. They shall be made of leather,
closely woven flax canvas or any other suitable material
 The fire hose should be capable of reaching all parts of the boat
 It shall not be used for any purpose other than for extinguishing fire.

Nozzle:
These are detachable gunmetal fittings used at the end of delivery hose to reduce the size of the outlet by means of a
tapering inner surface. These are made in various sizes according to the output of the pump and to deliver water over
the fire from the hose pipe. The nozzles are either for jet or water or for spray of water. Special nozzles are available
which can be changed from jet to spray or spray to jet as required. For solid fires, jet spray is needed while for oil fires
fine spray must be used.

Fireman’s outfit:
The fireman’s outfit is meant for use by fireman to approach the places of fire with fire extinguisher.
49

 Every fireman’s outfit shall consist of breathing apparatus as specified in the rules.
 Portable self–contained electric battery operated safety lamp capable of functioning efficiently for a period of at
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least three hours

  Fireman’s axe
 Where more than one such outfit is provided they shall be kept in places readily accessible and widely
separated.
FA for vessels registered under Harbours Craft Rules
 One GI bucket
 One fog horn
 One hand pump with suitable rubber hose pipe at least of 5 m in length

Fire prevention:
Fire prevention at sea is best affected by
 Cleanliness
 Tidiness
 Correct supply and maintenance of FFA
 Carrying out fire drills
 Keeping the compartments well ventilated.
 Living quarters and other places of possible fire starting are kept clean and tidy. FFA should be periodically
checked to ensure that they are in good condition.
Precautions for fire prevention:
 Maintain pressure stoves, lamps in good order and secure them so that they cannot adrift due to motion of
vessel.
 Lighted stove should not be kept unattended.
 Gas cylinders should be installed and connected up so that there is no possibility of leakage.
 Use deep ash trays with a little water
 No smoking while refueling
 Regular inspection for possible leaks in the pipeline, etc.
 Engine room lined with fire – proof material and painted with fire– resistant paint
 Maintain insulation of electrical leads for wiring
 All fire extinguishers to be kept at appropriate places, ready to use at any moment
 Ensure that the bulkheads of engine compartment are fire proof on wooden boats. Steel
 bulkheads are fitted and on FRP, special fire proof resins are used. Steel boats present no problem.

b) Manning Regulations/Requirements:
There are regulations as per MSA (44 of 1958) with respect to crew certified hands needed in fishing vessels which are
Skipper grade I
Skipper grade II
Mate of a fishing vessel
Second hand of a fishing vessel
Engineer of a fishing vessel
Engine driver of a fishing vessel
Certificate of proficiency
Requirements:
 If the vessel is of 24 m or more in length and is operating beyond the contiguous zone, with a certificated
skipper grade I and a certificated mate of a fishing vessel.
 If the vessel is of 24 m or more in length and is operating within the contiguous zone, with a certificated skipper
grade II and a certificated mate of a fishing vessel.
 If the vessel is of less than 24 m in length and is operating beyond the contiguous zone, with a certificated
skipper grade II and a certificated mate of a fishing vessel.
 If the vessel is less than 24m in length and is operating beyond the contiguous zone, with a certificated skipper
grade II.
50

 If the vessel has a propulsion power of 750 KW or more, with at least one engineer of a fishing vessel who shall
be designated as Chief Engineer and one engine driver of a fishing vessel.
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  If the vessel has a propulsion power of 350 KW or more but less than 750 KW with at least one engineer of a
fishing vessel who shall be designated as chief engineer.
 If the vessel has propulsion power of less than 350 KW with at least one engine driver of a fishing vessel who
shall be designated as engineer–in–charge.

Regulations for prevention of collisions at sea

Regulations for prevention of collision at sea also known as Rules of Road were revised and redrafted by the Inter-
governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) and approved by a conference conveyed by IMCO in 1972.
These rules came into force on 1st January, 1977.
There are 38 rules in the new regulations under parts (A to E). Part A deals with application, responsibility and general
definitions. Part B deals with steering and sailing rules. This refers to conduct of vessels in restricted visibility, in sight of
another and any condition of visibility. Part C pertains to lights and shapes to be exhibited during night and day for
identity. Part D is concerned with sound and light signals. It gives (i) definitions about whistle, short blast, prolonged
blast etc. (ii) equipment for sound signals (iii) maneuvering and warning signals (iv) sound signals in restricted visibility,
(v) signals to attract attention (vi) distress signals. Part E deals with exemptions, i.e., vessels exempted from rules as
these were constructed prior to the introduction of rules.
There are 31 rules under various heads.
 Preliminary definitions - Rule 1
 Lights and shapes – rule 2-14
 Sound signals and conduct in 15-16 restricted visibility
 Steering and sailing rules – 17-27
 Sound signals for vessels in sight 28 of one another
 Miscellaneous – 29-31
Important rules
Rule 3 d (Fishing vessel)
A vessel engaged in fishing means any vessel fishing with nets, lines, trawls or other fishing apparatus – but does not
include fishing with troll lines or other fishing apparatus which do not restrict maneuverability.
Rule 9 (c)
A vessel engaged in fishing shall not impede the passage of any other vessel navigating within a narrow channel.
Rule 10 (i)
A fishing vessel shall not impede the passage of any vessel following traffic lane under traffic separation scheme. A
vessel other than crossing a vessel shall not enter a separation lane. However, in case of emergency, a vessel for fishing
can enter separate zone.
Rule 18 (a)
A power-driven vessel under way shall keep out of the way of a vessel engaged in fishing.
Rule 18 (b)
A sailing vessel underway shall keep out of a vessel engaged in fishing
Rules 18 (c)
A vessel engaged in fishing when underway as far as possible keep out of the way of Vessel not under command
A vessel restricted in her ability to maneuver

Marine Fishing Regulations of Mari time States of India

Due to the intensive concentration of different classes of fishing vessels in the shore area, State Governments felt the
necessity of legislative measures to regulate the operation of coastal area traditionally exploited by small fishermen.
There is no uniformity in the distance limit of territorial water area for traditional sectors in the west or the east coast of
India. The Government of Gujarat and that of West Bengal have so far not enacted any regulation of fishing in its
territorial waters.

Maharashtra:
51

Maharashtra has enacted the Marine Fishing Regulation Act (MFRA) 1981. The following restrictions on fishing
operations have been imposed:
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  Prohibition of operation of trawl gear by mechanized fishing vessel up to 5 fathoms from shore and 10 fathoms
depth in the specified area.
 Banning of fishing by mechanized fishing vessels from 1st June to the Narali Purnima.
 Prohibition of operation of trawl gear by mechanized fishing vessels between 6.00 PM and 6.00 AM
 Prohibition of fishing by mechanized fishing vessels of any type with more than six cylinder engines within the
territorial waters of Maharashtra up to 12 nautical miles.
 Restrictions of operation of purse seine gear were imposed form December 1987 and according to this purse
seine gear will not be operated by any mechanized fishing vessel within the territorial waters.

Goa:
Marine Fishing Regulation Act 1980 and Rules 1982 are followed by Goa, Daman and Diu which specifies the 5 km
stretch from the coast–line as the area for traditional fishermen. Mechanized fishing vessels can operate only beyond
this 5 km limit. Government of Goa has imposed restrictions in mesh size of nets, 20 mm for prawn and 24 mm for fish
with a view to conserving younger fish.
Karnataka:
The Karnataka Government has enacted Marine Fishing Regulation, 1986.
 Area up to 6 km from the shore is reserved for traditional craft
 Mechanized boats up to 16 m in length are allowed to operate beyond 6 km.
 Deep sea vessels of 16 m and above are required to operate beyond 20 km.
Kerala:
The Kerala Marine Fishing Regulations Act, 1980 and the Rules (1980) framed empower the Government to regulate,
restrict, prohibit and specify the use of such fishing gear and craft as may be in any notified area in the territorial waters.
 An area of 10 km from the shore is reserved for traditional fishermen operating traditional fishing craft.
 Vessels above 25 GRT are prohibited in the territorial waters
 Mechanized boats wishing to move from the area of one port to another are required to obtain permission from
an authorized officer.
 All bottom trawls which have less than 35 mm mesh size are prohibited for fishing in territorial waters along the
entire coast line
 The use of bottom trawl has been prohibited between sunrise and sunset in the specified area.
 Trawling is banned throughout the territorial waters during the monsoon period.
Tamil Nadu:
The Tamil Nadu Marine Fisheries Regulation Act 1983 and Rules (1983) framed provide for regulation, restriction and
prohibition of fishing by various categories of fishing vessels along the coast line of the state.
 Areas up to 5.5 km are reserved for traditional non-mechanized boats.
 Mechanized boats are permitted to use areas beyond 5.5 km
 Fishing within 100 meters below a river mouth is prohibited
 No fishing gear of less than 10 mm mesh in respect of nets other than trawl nets shall be used.
 The number of mechanized fishing vessels which may be used for fishing in any specified area shall be decided
by the authorized officer.
Andhra Pradesh:
Andhra Pradesh has not yet enacted the Marine Fishing Regulations Act. However, the executive orders issued in 1983
demarcate operational areas of fishing vessels of different types.
 Non-mechanized traditional fishing craft should be allowed to operate exclusively up to 10 km from the shore
and no other type of vessel should be allowed to operate within that area.
 Mechanized fishing vessels should operate beyond 10 km from the coast
 Large mechanized vessels 20 m and above should operate beyond 23 km from the coast.
Orissa:
According to Orissa Marine Fishing Regulation Act (1982) and Rules (1983) framed there under.
 Non–mechanized traditional fishing craft shall be allowed to operate freely without restriction. Waters up to 5
52

km from the shore have been exclusively reserved for such fishing craft.
 Mechanized fishing vessels up to 15 m in length shall be allowed to operate beyond 5 km from the coast.
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  Mechanized fishing vessels of 25 GRT and above or 15 m length shall be allowed to operate beyond 10 km from
the shore.
 No fishing vessel shall ordinarily be allowed to interchange the base of operation without permission of the
authorized officer.
 There is no restriction for trawlers from outside the state for fishing in offshore areas beyond 10 km provided
they register and obtain valid licenses to operate in the coastal waters of Orissa.

Maritime Zones of India Act:

The maritime Zones of India (Regulations) or (Fishing by foreign vessels) Act, 1981 and Rules 1982 provide that no
foreign fishing vessel shall undertake fishing operations within the territorial waters of India. According to the provision
of the rules, charter vessels shall fish beyond 44.5 km from the shore on the western coast and 22.2 km on the eastern
coast as a general rule, subject to certain restrictions.
Maintenance of wooden fishing vessel: For the proper upkeep of wooden fishing boats a regular maintenance schedule
is necessary. Dry docking is done at least once a year preferably during the monsoon when fishing is normally not done.
The following schedule has been recommended by the C.I.F.T
The boat is made as light as possible by removing stores, masts, derricks etc.,
The boat is kept at certain height above the ground so as to permit free air movement on all sides. It should be
protected from white ants, sun and rain.
Bottom foulers are removed by scrapers.
Hull sheathing is examined carefully particularly at the stem, keel and rudder. The hull has to be checked for leakage.
The seams and joints have to be checked, recalled and filled with putty wherever necessary. The underwater part of the
hull has to be checked for marine borers. The borer holes are either filled with wooden plugs or with any sealing
compound. In case of extensive damage as may be evident from large number of holes the affected members need
replacement. The entire wooden hull below water line should receive two or more coats of coal tar or its derivative like
creosote. A thick layer of insulation tar felt underlay is fixed over the coal tar coatings prior to the fastening of metal
sheathing. Painting is needed over the sheathing to prevent corrosion and settlement of fouler’s through copper
sheathing does not need any coats of paint, aluminum sheathing needs two coat of anticorrosive and antifouling paints.
FRP sheathing needs two coats of antifouling paints. The antifouling paints coats are to be applied a few hours before
launching the boat when the paint is still wet.
The deck is checked for leaks. Frequent application of linseed oil keeps the deck plants free from splitting and
weathering.
The frames, shelves, beams, bulkheads etc., are regularly checked for presence of rot. Affected parts have to be
replaced. Application of fungicides like pentachlorophenol, good ventilation and hygienic conditions prevent the fungal
infection.
The old paint on the outside of hull above water line has to be scrapped and the hull is cleaned and allowed to dry. Two
coats of good quality marine grade paints are given. There is no need to paint the inside of the hull.
All ferrous structures should be chipped, brushed and cleaned to remove rust and mill scale. One coat of anticorrosive
paint is given.
Check all the external fastenings for slackness and corrosion. Badly corroded fastenings should be replaced. Rudder and
stern gear fittings are to be checked for possible failures.
All major and minor repairs of engine and machinery to be attended by competent hands.
Check the propeller for dents, wear and tear. Minor dents are cleaned up with a file and finally treated with emery
paper. Propeller has to be replaced if it is severely damaged.
Zink blocks are to be fitted at approximate places for cathodic protection.
53
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 UNIT 5 - MARINE ENGINE AND PROPULSION SYSTEM
5.1. Introduction to marine engine
Engine: Engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and uses this energy to
produce mechanical work.
Heat engines are divided into two broad classes.
 External Combustion Engine
 Internal Combustion Engine

(a)External Combustion Engine:

In an external combustion engine the product of combustion of air and fuel transfer heat to a second fluid which is the
working fluid of the cycle as in case of steam engine or a steam turbine. Plant where the heat of combustion is employed
to generate steam which is used in a piston engine or turbine. In all steam engine, the steam is used as the working
substance. (Steam is a vapour of water e.g. it is invisible when pure and dry when dry vapour is further heated in
superheated or so it will become superheated vapour which behaves more or less like a perfect gas.) These steam
engines operated on the principle of first law of thermodynamics. i.e., heat and work are mutually convertible. In a
reciprocating steam engine, as the heat energy in the steam in converted into mechanical work by the reciprocating (to
and fro) motion of the piston it is called reciprocating steam engine. turbine moreover as the combustion of fuel taken
place outside. The engine cylinder, it is so called as external combustion engines.
External combustion engines “advantages or external combustion plants advantages are – use of cheaper fuels including
solid fuels, and high starting torque (Internal combustion are not self-starting). The steam turbine plant which is the
most important external combustion engine is mainly used for large electric power generation.

b) Internal Combustion Engine:

In an Internal combustion engine, the products of combustion are directly the motive fluid, petrol, gas and diesel
engines, wankel engine and open cycle gas turbines are examples of internal combustion engines. Jet engines and
rockets are also internal combustion engines.

Historical Development: Hygiene Gunpowder Engine (1680)

It consists of a vertical cylinder having a sliding fit type of piston. Explosion of a charge of gunpowder in the cylinder
drawn the piston on its upward stroke and the returns stroke was censed by atmospheric pressure acting as the piston
and arising from the drys in pressure in the cylinder as the gas products of the explosion began to cool. The useful pone
products on the downward stroke and by an arrangement g-ropes and pullys applied to arise loaded platform. He finds
difficult to produce means for delivering the sequences of charges necessary for continuous operation and controlling
the rate of explosion.

The free piston Otto – Larges Engines (1866):

This consists of a piston which was not connected to any crankshaft but was free to move vertically outwards during the
explosion and expansion strokes. After expansion, the product cooled down and piston fills. Under gravity causing
downward stroke. During the downward stroke, piston rod was connected by a ratchet and a rack and pinion device to
the flywheel, doing useful work on fly wheel shaft on the downward stroke. The piston opened as exhaust valve of the
sliding type. The inertia of the flywheel thus raised the piston from the bottom position and inducted a fresh air gas
charge. The charge was ignited by a flame after about 300 of gear angle travel for the pistons from the bottom position.
The connection between the frame and the combustion chamber was provided by means of an eccentric drives valve.
The thermal efficiency of this was greater than of Lenoir (other) engines, the gas consumption being about 1/3 / h.p, but
the operations was noisy. He got gold medal in historic Paris Exhibition.
54
Page
5.3.Components of Engines
Cylinder:
It is the heart of engine. Here only fuel is burnt and power is developed. The inner side of cylinder is formed by liner or
sleeve, made of nickel chromium alloy steel. The inner diameter of cylinder is called bore of cylinder.

Cylinder head:
It is usually a single piece of casting made of alloy iron, bolted to the top of the engine. It covers the top end of cylinder
and has provision for fitting inlet and exhaust value arrangement.

Piston:
55

It is fast moving part inside the cylinder which converts thermal energy into useful mechanical energy.
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Piston ring:
These are rings fitted to the body of the piston. Piston rings are classified into compression ring and oil ring according to
their purpose. Compression rings are fitted to the top of the body provides a seal to maintain power developed. Oil rings
are used for circulating lubrication oil over the entire body of the piston and cylinder to reduce wear and tear.

Connecting rod:
This is tapering rod with small end connected
to the piston and big end connected to the
crankshaft. The small end is connected to the
piston by means of piston pin. The big end is
split in two halves to facilitate fixing with the
crankshaft. This connecting rod converts
reciprocating motion of piston into rotary
motion of crankshaft.

Cam shaft:
It consists of cams arranged on it with suitable phase
difference in order to control the opening of the
valves at different times as and when required. It gets
its drive from the crankshaft by suitable gear and
chain mechanism.
Cam:
These are the parabolic projections machined on a
cam shaft or ellipsoidal metal pieces attached to the
cylindrical shaft in such way that there is parabolic projection. This projection lifts the cam follower thereby opening the
corresponding valve.
Cam follower:
This is flat piece attached to end of push rod which transmits the motion from cam to push rod.
Push rod:
This is rod which transmits motion to the rocker arm assembly by a suitable ball and socket arrangement.
Rocker arm:
This is actuated by the suitable lifting of push rod which in turn opens the valve.
Valve spring:
When the cam is released, the opened valve is closed back into position by the tension in the spring.
Crank shaft:
This is output shaft, which delivers the useful work to the driven shaft. It is supported by two bearings fixed in the crank
case. To one end of the shaft a fly wheel is attached.
Fly wheel:
It takes care of fluctuation of the cyclonic vibration in speed. It stores energy during power stroke and release during
other stroke, thus giving fairly constant output torque.
Cooling water jackets:
To cool the cylinders head and wall a jacket is provided to circulate the cooling water.
Fuel nozzle:
Fuel is delivered by this nozzle in a fine spray under pressure in diesel engine. This is an optional part of diesel engine.
Spark plug:
At the end of the compression stroke, the air fuel-mixture supplied to the engine cylinder is ignited by an electric spark,
produced by spark plug. This is an optional part in petrol engine.
Inlet Valve:
To supply air at the suction stroke.
56

Exhaust Valve:
To remove the exhaust gas at the exhaust stroke.
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5.4. Systems of diesel Engines
The desired result, i.e., the development of useful power by the engine is achieved only when these parts function as a
group only. Some parts have similar functions to perform or some parts assist other parts in carrying out their respective
functions. In other words a diesel engine’s performance or operation can be easily understood if the different functions
are grouped together into “Systems of operation”. These operating systems of a diesel engine can be broadly classified
as:
 Frame System
 Energy Generating System
 Power Transmission System
 Intake Exhaust System
 Valve Mechanism System
 Fuel System
 Lubrication System
 Cooling System
 Starting System
Frame System:
The heaviest system of the diesel engine which supports all the vulnerable part is the frame system. Cylinder, crankcase,
bed plate, main bearing etc., are some fo the important parts of this system. One of the main function of the frame
system is to hold the dead load of all the components, the inertia load of the moving parts, the forces arising due to the
combustion pressure etc., So utmost care has to be taken not only in designing but also in the material used for
manufacturing these components which should have sufficient strength and stiffness to bear all the above said loads.

Energy generating system:

This system develops the energy. In a diesel energy is developed by the burning of fuel inside the combustion chamber.
The lower part of the cylinder head, top part of the piston and the cylinder liner form parts of this system.

Power Transmission System:

The generated energy has to be transmitted outside the engine where it can be utilized. The power transmission system
consists of piston pin, connecting rod, crankshaft, flywheel which performs this task. The parts of this system are all
movable and also subjected to torsional and transverse forces. Hence they have to be abrasive resistant and able to
withstand high torsional forces.

Intake and Exhaust System:

Suction and exhaust ports, manifolds, silencers etc., form the main parts of this system which is responsible for giving
oxygen for combustion inside the cylinder as well as scavenge the unwanted gases outside the cylinder.

Valve Mechanism System:

Valve mechanism system works in conjunction with the intake and exhaust system. Controlling the timing, quantity of
air admitted and expelling burnt gases out are performed by the intel and exhaust valves, cam, push rod, rocker arms
and these parts constitutes this system.

Fuel system:
Like the heart of a human being fuel system can be termed as the heart of S for combustion. It has various parts which
are explained in the detailed study.
Lubricating and Cooling and Starting System: These are auxiliary systems but for which the smooth starting and
operation of the engine cannot be affected. Like the fuel system all these systems have a series of accessories as well as
various methods of operation which are elaborately explained in the specific chapters.

5.4.Estimation of engine power for fishing

57

Power estimation for small fishing vessels are determined by empirical means and also tank tests is utilized for some
vessels’ power calculation. Free running speed is generally estimated from Shaft Horse Power of Brake Horse Power
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curves drawn for a number of displacements on a common length. The power of trawlers in a certain fleet of fishing
vessels does not normally vary much, although there is a distinct tendency to increase the power in relation to the size
and to an 'inflation' in the rating of engines. The power is expressed in 'HP' which, according to the metric system,
denotes the work of lifting 75kg/m/s. Although this definition is a simple one, many different HP are used to determine
the size of propulsion of vessels. The most important different horse powers are given below

Power:
Rate of doing work is called power.

Horse power:
It is a unit of measurement of power. It is given as
1 HP = 75 Kg-m/s or 745 watts
1 HP = 4500 Kg-m/min
1 Watt = 1 J/s = 745.5 Nm/s
1 J = 1 Nm = (745.5/9.8) Kgm/s
N = (1/9.8) Kg

1. Thermal Horse Power (THP):

It is a horsepower produced by the combustion of fuel
THP = [Fuel consumption x calorific value of fuel (Kcal/min) x J ] / 4500
Where, J = Mechanical equivalent of heat.

2. Indicated Horse Power (IHP):

It is the power generated in the engine cylinder and available at the top of the piston.
IHP = [P L A Np] x n / 4500
Where, P = Mean effective pressure( Kg/cm2)
L = Length of the piston stroke ( m)
A = Cross section area of piston ( cm2)
n = number of cylinder
Np = number of power stroke (for two stroke engine the rpm of engines is N and for four stroke engine Np is N/2)

3.Brake Horse Power (BHP)

It is the horsepower delivered by the engine at the end of the crankshaft. It is measured by dynamometer fitted at a
suitable position, just near the end of the crankshaft.
BHP = (2 π NT/4500)
Where,
N = rpm of engine; T- Torque (kg-m) = (r x f), r is the radius of flywheel and f is force exerted on the periphery of
flywheel.

4. Friction Horse Power (FHP):

It is the power required to run the engine at a speed with out producing any useful work. It represents the friction and
pumping losses of the engine.
FHP = IHP – BHP

5. Shaft Horse Power (SHP):

It is the power delivered to the propulsion shafting. It is sum of the power required to overcome the resistance of the
vessel, losses at the propeller and the losses in the shaft bearings and stuffing boxes
SHP =0.94 x BHP

6. Effective Horse Power (EHP):

58

In addition to these main definitions, the naval architectures also work with the effective horse power (EHP), which is
the power that would be required to tow the vessel (thrust movement of vessel). It is calculated by the tank test through
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model vessel
EHP = 0.23 X SHP
By considering 20% sea margin for fishing vessel
EHP = 0.23 x0.80 x BHP ≡ 0.25BHP

7. Break Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP):

The pressure, which is developed in side the cylinder to work the system effectively.
For four stroke, BMEP = [BHp x 4500 / L x A x N x n/2].
For two stroke, BMEP = [BHp x 4500 / L x A x N x n]

8. Thermal efficiency:
It is the ratio of the horsepower out put of an engine to the fuel horse power.
Brake thermal efficiency (ηB)
ηB= BHP x4500/ (fuel consumption per hr x calorific value of the fuel)
or
ηB = (BHP/THP) x100

9. Mechanical efficiency (ηM)

It is the ratio of the BHP to IHP of the engine and is expressed as
ηM = (BHP/IHP) x 100

5.5. Outboard and In board Engine

Outboard Engine
Out boards Engine (OBE) is a machine which is fixed outside of the hull of the boat and which drives the propeller and
moves the boat. They are integral mechanism, which has an internal combustion engine and the propeller unit coupled
together as a compact unit. These easy and compact mechanisms give the following advantage for an out board motors.
 It is easy to maneuver.
 It is easy to maintain the boat fitted with OBE as the OBE can be removed from the boat and the boat can be
beached anywhere.
 It is easy to handle the boat fitted with OBE.
 It can be fitted on any restricted space.
In India when the motorization of the fishing crafts have been started just after independence the traditional
artisanal fishing crafts of India like canoes, catamarans etc were fitted with out board engines. The out board
engines are powered with internal combustion engine run by petrol/ kerosene. Of late diesel engines were also
used.

In board Engines
Because of its capacity an OBM can be utilized only on smaller
crafts. For bigger vessels more power is required for
propulsion. This is met by installing inboard engines. These
inboard engines are mainly internal combustion engines
installed inside the vessel hull, or bed plates which serve as the
prime movers for navigating the vessels. The power developed
by these prime movers has to be transmitted to the propeller
for navigating the vessel. For this purpose a series of
transmission machinery are used in a vessel. The propeller
should be able to give both ahead and astern movement to the
vessel. It should also give enough thrust for pulling the fishing
gear.
5.6.Stern tube arrangement
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Stern tube is a pipe which extends from the stern post of the
hull below the transom of the vessel. The position of the stern
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tube in vessel is given as below. The purpose of the stern tube

is to support the shaft with the help of stern tube bearings and to make a water tight joint on the hull where the shaft
enters the hull. It also keeps the propeller shaft on the centre line of the vessel.

The stern tube is made up of steel in modern vessels.

Brass or steel bushes are fitted on the forward and aft
ends of the tube. These bushes are called stern tube
bushes. The bushes are locked to the stern tube. The
bushes are lined inside with soft material like lignum
vitae, cutlass rubber and white metal. This complete
part is called stern tube bearing. The propeller shaft or
the tail end shaft rotates inside the stern tube or these
stern tube bearings.

5.7. Care and Maintenance of engine

Performance of an engine degrades with time as its components deteriorate or wears out. Cleaning, inspection and
maintenance of various parts have to be carried out periodically for the purpose of smooth engine operation and to
avoid engine troubles.
Maintenance can be classified as
 Routine/ scheduled maintenance.
 Preventive maintenance.
 Breakdown maintenance.
1) Preparations before starting
The following points need to be checked for starting any engine
 Check batteries for specific gravity, loose terminal connections, and proper battery voltage for an electrically
started engine.
 Check the air pressure in the air bottles and fill it to 30 kg/cm2 for air started engines
 Check lubrication oil level of engine gearbox, turbo charger and replenish if low.
 Remove water from fuel service tank, strainers, fuel pumps and also purge air from fuel system (if overhauled)
 Pre lubricated the engine either manually, hand pump or electrically driven pump as the case may be and also
run the cooling water pumps.
 Check and oil the valves if they are hand lubricated.
 Preheat the cooling water in cold weather or cold temperature places.
 De clutches the engine from propeller shaft.
 After all the above checks are performed before start the engine, observe its performance for sometime and
then the load to the engine can be given

2) Precaution for stopping the engine

 Make sure the air bottles have sufficient air for next starting. It is advisable to keep air bottles always with the
maximum of 30 kg/cm2 Pressure
 Lubricate manually the valves etc if required to prevent sticking.
 Run the engine at no load before stopping
 Check the condition of bearing, crank pin etc. by opening side cover if engine is overhauled recently.
 Drain out the cooling water for long shut downs.
 Operate the auxiliary cooling water pump and lubrication oil pump for larger engines so that the engine is
cooled effectively.
 For supercharged engines observe the rotation and stopping supercharger. The speed of supercharge should
reduce gradually. Abrupt reduction of speed means defective supercharger.
 List out the repairs to be carried out before next operation.
The maintenance cycle varies according to the type of engine, service conditions purpose etc. and to greater extent
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determined by each manufacturers. However the following may form a guideline or reference for the maintenance
specially the routine and preventive maintenance of an engine.
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 Daily inspection
  Inspection at every 100hrs. Or 10 days
 Inspection at every 500hrs. of operation or 1.5 months
 Inspection at every 1000hrs. of operation or 3 months
 Inspection at every 3000hrs. of operation or 6 months
 Inspection at every 6000hrs. of operation or 1 year.

i) Daily inspection
 Inspect the quantity of lubricant oil in the sump of the engine gearbox & super charger and make up if
necessary.
 Inspect quantity of cooling fresh water in the tank make up if necessary.
 Remove water if present in fuel system.
 Grease or oil the parts, which require manual lubrication.

ii)Inspection at 100 hours

 Cleaning of lubricant oil, fuel oil filters, air filters.
 Inspection of V-belts for tension.

iii)Inspection at 500 hours

 Cleaning of exhaust valve and capping
 Testing of injection pressure and atomizing conditions of injector valves
 Replace of engine and super charger lubrication oil

iv)Inspection at 1000 hours

 Inspection of tightness of cylinder head bolts and connecting rod bolts
 Checking of valve taper clearances and fuel timings
 Cleaning air filters for superchargers

v)Inspection at 3000 hours

 Decarbonisation or top over hauling
 Inspection of reverse gear thrust bearing
 Inspection at 6000 hours
 Major over hauling

5.8. Propulsion system

a) Propeller:
A marine propeller is a propulsive device which converts the power transmitted from the engine
into a thrust force to propel the vessel. The purpose of the propeller is to convert the torque
horse power provided by the engine attached to the propeller shaft (delivered horse power) into
thrust horse power to propel the vessel.

It consists of number of identical twisted blades usually 3-5 equally spaced around the hub or the boss. The hub or boss
is mounted on the propeller shaft. The hub of the propeller is fitted at one end of the propeller shaft by means of a nut.

b) Types of propeller:
The types of propeller used in a fishing vessel are fixed pitch propeller and variable pitch propeller. The propeller is
made up of manganese bronze and stainless steel.
Fixed Pitch Propeller:
Fixed pitch propeller has fixed blades which are integrated with the propeller boss. The blades are fitted at an angle
which gives a permanent pitch for the propeller. Pitch of the propeller is the apparent distance moved by the propeller
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on its axis on one rotation of the propeller. The boss of a fixed pitch propeller is seated on the tapered end of the
propeller shaft with the help of the key and nut. The pitch of the propeller is measured at the maximum width of the
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propeller, normally at 2/3rd of its diameter.

Variable pitch propeller:
The variable pitch propeller is provided with detectable propeller blades. The propeller blades are mounted on a
triangular slotted sliding block.

The triangular block is housed inside a hollow hub, which can be separated into two halves. A pitch control rod is
attached to the triangular block. The triangular block on the base of the propeller blades are connected by means of a
sliding block. When the pitch control rod is moved to and fro the axial movement of the rod is converted into an angular
motion of the propeller blade by the movement of the sliding block inside the slot of the triangular block. Thus the pitch
of the propeller blades is changed. Because of the changing of the pitch of the propeller blade, the direction of the
movement of the vessel (ahead or astern) and the quantity of thrust applied on the propeller are varied. Thus the vessel
is able to get ahead and astern motion and also a varied thrust on the propeller.

c) Factors in propeller selection

A common misconception in selection a propeller is that it is only necessary to specify diameter and pitch. Although
these factors are the most critical, there are many other characteristics that must be considered.
The following are the some of the important points to be considered for selection of propeller.
 Diameter
 Pitch
 Number of blades
 Hand (Left or right hand turning)
 Propeller shaft diameter and keyway
 Blade area
 Cupped or un cupped blades
 Super vavitating or standard non cavitating blades
 Blade section shape
 Skew
 Rake
 Blade thickness
 Hub diameter
A propeller must satisfy two basic requirements. It needs to match the engine’s power and shaft speed and it must
match the size and operating speed of the boat. But the size of the engine effects boat speed and the type of hull affects
the choice of engine.

d) Parts of the propeller

Hub:
The hub or boss of a propeller is the solid center disc, bored for the propeller shaft, to which the propeller blades are
attached. Since the hub generates no drive the ideal would be to eliminate it. As a practical matter, though the hub can
seldom be much less than 14 percent of the diameter in order for it to have sufficient strength.

Keyway:
Most propeller shafts transmit the torque from shaft to propeller through a key. The key is a long, slender rectangle of
metal along the shaft that fits into a slot or key way milled (cut away) into the interior at the hub.

Blades:
The propeller blade is the twisted fins or foils that project out from the hub. It is the action of the blades that drives a
boat through the water.

Blade face and blade back:

The blade face is the high-pressure side or pressure face, of the blade. It is the side facing aft, the side that pushes the
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water when the boat is moving forward. The blade back is the low pressure side or suction face of the blade, the side
facing ahead.
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Blade root and blade tip:
The blade root is the point at which the blade attaches to the hub. The blade tip is the extreme outer most edge of the
blade, as far from the propeller shaft enters as possible.

Leading and trailing edges:

The leading edge of a blade is the edge of the blade that cleaves the water. The trailing edge is the edge from which the
water streams away.

Rotation or hand
A critical aspect of propeller shape is its hand. A propeller that drives a boat forward when it rotates clockwise, as
viewed from astern is called a right– handed propeller. By the same token a propeller that rotates counter clockwise, as
viewed from astern, is left handed. If the leading edges are to your right, the propeller rotates clockwise and is right-
handed propeller. If the converse is true, it is a left handed propeller.
Right handed propellers are almost, but not quite universal on single-screw vessels. In twin screw installations,
propellers and engines of opposite hand are used port and starboard. A single right handed propeller will tend to push
the stern of a vessel to starboard when going forward (to port going astern). The reason-in simple terms is that the
water at the bottom of the propeller is a bit denser and freer to flow (there’s no hull above it) than at the top of the
propeller. This makes the lower blades a bit more effective, so the propeller and the stern “walk” sideways in the
direction of rotation. On a twin-screw craft the propellers should be out-turning. The starboard or right propeller should
be right-handed and the port or left propeller should be left handed. This gives the best propeller efficiency.

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