DOI: 10.1111/ejed.

12321

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

A review of the research literature on adult

learning and employability

Tove Midtsundstad

Fafo Institute for Labour and Social Research,

Oslo, Norway Abstract
Because of rising life expectancy and declining birth rates,
Correspondence
Tove Midtsundstad, Fafo Institute for Labour reducing early retirement and prolonging employees’ work‐
and Social Research, P.o. Box 2947 Toeyen, ing lives have become major goals on social policy agendas.
0608 Oslo, Norway.
Email: tim@fafo.no In this context, ensuring the adaptability and employability
of the existing workforce has become an important issue.
The aim of this article is to conduct a review of the most
recent literature on employment outcomes of adult learn‐
ing. The review covers literature published in English since
2010.

1 |  I NTRO D U C TI O N

Because of rising life expectancy and declining birth rates, reducing early retirement and prolonging employees’
working lives have become major goals on social policy agendas (Hasselhorn & Apt, 2015; Höfacker, 2010; Walker
& Foster, 2013; Walker & Maltby, 2012). Active ageing has therefore gained widespread currency across Europe
since the beginning of the new millennium (Foster, 2012) and governments are taking more and more policy ac‐
tion to encourage ageing workers to extend their working lives and their employers to retain them (Raemdonck,
Beausaert, Fröhlich, Kochoian, & Meurant, 2015).
Whilst pension reforms have been the primary strategy of governments to date, this approach often fails
to address the real barriers to older adults’ continuing participation in the labour force. Countries worldwide
are therefore experimenting with structural reforms that introduce greater flexibility into work and retirement,
removing softer barriers such as ageism among employers and providing older adults with targeted support to
remain in or re‐enter the workforce. In this context, ensuring the adaptability and employability of the existing
workforce has become an important issue. According to Foster (2012), there are two approaches to active ageing:
a narrow economic and productivist approach focusing on participation in the labour market – advocated by the
OECD (2006) and the European Commission (2012) – and a more comprehensive and multidimensional approach

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
© 2019 The Authors. European Journal of Education published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Eur J Educ. 2019;54:13–29. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ejed  |  13

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14       MIDTSUNDSTAD

advocated by WHO (2002). This article focuses on the narrow approach with an emphasis on employment policy
aimed at extending working life beyond the age of 50.
Different perceptions of the factors impacting older workers’ labour market participation and early retirement be‐
haviour stem from differences in the notion of whether their exit is voluntary or involuntary and whether it is mainly
affected by labour supply or labour demand (Hasselhorn & Apt, 2015; Jensen & Øverbye, 2013; Midtsundstad, 2015;
Nilsson, 2016; Phillipson & Smith, 2005; Poulsen, Fridriksson, Tomasson, Midtsundstad, Mehlum, Hilsen, Nilsson,
& Albin, 2017). The most influential theoretical frameworks in the retirement literature have focused on the retire‐
ment decision and been dominated by economic analyses (Midtsundstad, 2015; White, 2012). Economic theory links
financial opportunities and constraints to labour supply, explaining why pull factors such as payment levels, taxes,
age restrictions, pension scheme eligibility criteria and other welfare arrangements are of critical importance in the
decision to retire or to continue working (Engelhardt, 2012; Midtsundstad, 2015). Another significant part of the
research focuses on involuntary retirement and emphasises the importance of push factors in the labour market and
at the company level, such as structural adjustments, rationalisations and other factors pushing older, less productive
or less skilled workers out of the labour market (Midtsundstad, 2015). Today, there is little doubt that both pull and
push factors influence the timing of retirement (Midtsundstad, 2015; Nilsson, 2016; Radl, 2013).
Early retirement is closely linked to the level of education and skills. Educated people typically continue to work
longer (OECD, 2013). There is also a strong correlation between the level of education and occupation. The level of
education therefore indirectly influences wage levels, pension and retirement options, working conditions, working
environments and opportunities for continued training and development – all factors that influence the decision to
retire (Hasselhorn & Apt, 2015; Midtsundstad, 2015; Nilsson, 2016). It also affects individuals’ health and work ability
(Poulsen et al., 2017) and hence their ability to find a job and keep it. Last, but not least, the level of education impacts
life expectancy and how healthy and thus active one can expect to be when finally retiring (Poulsen et al., 2017).
According to the OECD (2017), lifelong learning opportunities and inclusive labour markets will be essential
to ensure that workers of all educational backgrounds are able to extend their working lives. Some studies also
suggest that competence development and upgrading throughout the professional career (lifelong learning) may
be important for older people to meet job requirements, especially in workplaces where labour and competence
requirements are constantly changing (e.g. Ilmarinen, 2003; Yeatts, Folts, & Knapp, 1999).
The aim of this article is to review the most recent literature on adult learning and older workers’ labour mar‐
ket participation. Because of the scarce literature on the employment outcomes of adult learning found in earlier
literature reviews, this review is not limited to scientific articles, but also includes book chapters and some grey
literature, such as reports and working papers. It covers literature published in English since 2010. Before review‐
ing the publications found, a brief overview is given of the literature discussed in earlier reviews.

2 |  S U M M A RY O F E A R LI E R LITE R AT U R E R E V I E WS

Myers, Frenette, Sweetman, Dostle, and Langlois (2014) provided an analysis of the empirical evidence on the
outcomes associated with participation in adult learning. They examined the relationship between foundational
learning (basic skills), higher education and workplace learning and a wide range of intermediate and final out‐
comes (financial and non‐financial) for individuals, for companies and for society. According to the review, evi‐
dence on the relationship between adult learning and financial outcomes is mixed. Whilst there is strong evidence
to suggest that, in general, adult learners who engage in higher education experience financial gains, the returns
are roughly the same as when the education is acquired earlier in life. They also found numerous studies investi‐
gating the extent to which individuals benefited financially from participating in workplace learning. This literature
is, according to the authors, consistent in finding positive correlations between earnings and workplace‐related
training, although estimates vary dramatically. However, they found few studies and therefore little evidence of
whether and how adult learning affects older workers’ employability and labour market participation.
MIDTSUNDSTAD |
      15

Another literature review by Field (2012) which examined the financial impact of lifelong learning and its im‐
pact on well‐being (such as health, self‐esteem and confidence) found that much of the research literature (up to
2011) focused on the gains experienced by the individual but less frequently on the benefits for companies and
society. Furthermore, most of the literature concerns work‐related training and not general adult learning and
has mainly focused on training for unemployed people and other vulnerable groups (single parents and the dis‐
abled) and to a limited degree on the impact of adult learning on the extension of working life. According to Field
(2012), the research on returns to adult learning is inconclusive. Some studies find that it leads to a rise in average
earnings, others that it has little or no impact on earnings, or that it only pays off for men, or that it gives negative
wage benefits for relatively low‐level upgrading. Work‐based training is shown in some studies to be associated
with higher wages, Field claims that this finding is not consistent across the literature, although, improvement
in numeracy and literacy seems to increase earnings. The main conclusion, however, is that most studies of the
economic effects of adult learning find that those who invest in new skills tend to be rewarded with higher wages.
In sum, the research in the field can be categorised as follows: 1) studies that describe the variation in partici‐
pation rates among different groups, 2) studies that explore and/or investigate factors that explain the differences
in participation rates in adult learning, adult education, workplace learning, etc., and 3) studies that investigate the
effects or outcomes of different types of adult learning for individuals, companies and society. In addition, there are
studies that discuss and partly evaluate different EU strategies, government strategies and different policy measures
that are implemented in order to increase older peoples’ employability and participation in lifelong learning. In the
following, I focus on studies published after 2009 and articles that investigate the impact of adult learning on older
workers’ employment and labour market participation. However, in order to be able to grasp some of the mechanisms
behind differences in outcomes, I also include some studies which explore other factors that could explain or shed
light on the differences currently found in participation in lifelong learning and its outcomes.

3 |  M E TH O D O LO G Y

The aim of this article is to investigate whether studies on the effects of adult learning or lifelong learning find that
further learning and education have an impact on the employability of older workers, defined here as the ability
to find and maintain employment.
According to Petticrew and Roberts (2006), systematic literature reviews are ways of making sense of large
bodies of information and contributing to answer questions about what works and what does not. Systematic
reviews, however, require a transparent and systematic process where you clearly define a research question,
search for studies, assess their quality and synthesise the findings. As underscored by Armstrong, Hall, Doyle
and Waters (2011, p. 147): ‘this requires an understanding of the literature, including gaps and uncertainties,
clarification of definitions related to the research question and an understanding of the way in which these are
conceptualised in the existing literature’.
According to earlier reviews (Myers et al., 2014; Field, 2012), few studies in the field investigate the connection
between adult learning and employability. In order to unearth relevant literature on this issue, I therefore chose a
broad approach and conducted a scoping review. Scoping reviews map the existing literature or evidence base and
identify research gaps and summarise research findings. They differ from systematic reviews in several ways. The key
phases according to Armstrong et al (2011) are: 1) identifying the research question, 2) identifying relevant studies, 3)
study selection, 4) charting the data, 5) collating, summarising and reporting the results, and 6) optional consultation.
In this review, adult learning and education are defined as formal and informal education and learning obtained
at an age beyond common graduation age. Employability is broadly defined as the ability to find and maintain
employment, including upward and downward mobility. I also include studies that investigate whether further
education and learning increase earnings, because this has been the usual way to measure outcomes from adult
learning in earlier studies. In order to clarify whether adult learning and training seem to have a causal effect on
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16       MIDTSUNDSTAD

labour market participation or not, most studies reviewed are based on longitudinal data or panel datasets. In
order to shed light on possible mechanism and processes, I have also included studies that investigate and discuss
some possible intermediate variables which influence the outcomes of adult learning.
The main strategy used to identify relevant literature was a search in Web of Science for scientific articles,
using the following combination of keywords: lifelong learning OR adult learning OR adult education OR workplace
learning AND older workers AND employ* OR employability. It produced 42 articles. After carefully examining the
articles, I found that only two investigated the effects of adult learning on employment and/or earnings. This
search was combined with a broader search in Google Scholar in order to find not only scientific articles, but
also relevant chapters, reports and papers published in or since 2010 (up to April 2018). When searching Google
Scholar, I used the following combination of keywords: ‘adult learning’ OR ‘lifelong learning’ AND ‘older workers’
AND ‘employability ‘AND ‘effect’. The search produced 711 publications. After carefully examining each publi‐
cation (abstract and summary), only 20 were found to deal with the effects of lifelong learning or adult learning
on older workers’ employability. I also searched for relevant articles in the European Journal of Education. Finally,
I searched for relevant publications in the reference list of the articles found through the Web of Science and
Google Scholar searches. In total, I found 27 articles that investigated the effects of adult learning or adult educa‐
tion on employability or labour market participation that were published after 2009.

4 |  R E S U LT S O F TH E R E V I E W (2 010 –2 018)

Staying employable and participating longer in the labour market are important political goals for most European
Governments. This review focuses on studies that investigate adult learning and training‘s impact on employment,
including work‐related earnings and occupational mobility. The studies are presented in Table 1.

4.1 | Returns to formal adult education

Several studies over the last eight years have tried to investigate the effects of formal adult learnings on employ‐
ment and labour market participation using longitudinal data (see Table 1). Although the effects of upgrading seem
to vary according to whether the participants acquired basic skills or a degree from upper secondary school
or tertiary school, the overall effect seems to be positive (Elman & Weiss, 2014; Hällsten, 2012; Kilpi‐Jakonen,
Kosyakova, Stenberg, Vono de Vilhena, & Blossfeldt, 2012; Kristensen, 2012; Nordlund, Stehlik, & Strandh, 2013;
Stenberg & Westerlund, 2013, 2016). Wahler, Buchholz, Jensen, and Unfried (2014) also found that adult educa‐
tion (especially vocational upper‐secondary education) reduced the unemployment risk and increased the reem‐
ployment chances for the unemployed in Denmark, whilst de Vilhena & Gamund (2014) found no such effect in
Spain. Barbieri, Cutuli, Lugo, and Scherer (2014), on the other hand, found that adult education reduced unem‐
ployment in Italy and Csanádi and Csizmady (2014) found that formal adult education shortened the length of
unemployment in Hungary. In addition, a few studies investigated whether educational upgrading had any impact
of the likelihood of exiting precarious work (de Vilhena & Gamund, 2014; Kosyakova, 2014). However, de Vilhena
& Gamund (2014) did not find any such effect in Spain, whilst Kosyakova (2014) found that new tertiary‐level
qualifications increased the likelihood of exiting a precarious labour market position in Russia. Many studies also
studied the impact of formal adult educations on wages, salaries or earnings related to work (often used as a proxy
for employment) and found that, in most cases, it led to increased earnings (Jepsen, Troske & Coomes, 2014;
Hällsten, 2012; Nordlund et al., 2013; Kilpi‐Jakonen & Stenberg, 2014; Kilpi‐Jakonen, Sirnio & Martikainen, 2014;
Stenberg, deLuna & Westerlund, 2012, 2014), although, Elman and Weiss (2014) did not find that additional adult
education affected wages in the US.
Whether formal adult education had an impact on occupational or social mobility, also varied a great deal be‐
tween studies. Some found that further education had a positive impact on upward mobility, but did not prevent
TA B L E 1   Studies reviewed
Author,
publication, year Population
and country (dataset, n, sex, age etc.)
Barbieri, P., Cutuli, The Italian Household
G., Lugo, M., & Longitudinal Survey (ILFI)
Scherer, S. 1997‐2005
(2014)
N vary between analyses
Italy
Buchler, S., The Household Income
Chesters, J., and Labour Dynamics in
Higginson, A., & Australia (HILDA) survey
Haynes, M. (2014) (ten waves; 2001‐2010)
Australia n = 60.660 obs.; 9.908
individuals Aged between
20 and 54 in 2001 (30 to
64 by wave 10)
Buchholz, S., Adult cohort of the National DV = risk of becoming unemployed, chances of
Unfried, J., & Educational Panel Study
Blossfeld, H. P. (NEPS) – panel study,
(2014) retrospective monthly
information for 11 000
individuals (1944‐1988)
N = 8.392 individuals
Germany
Csanádi, G., The Hungarian Household
Csizmady, A., & Panel (HHP) conducted
Róbert, P. (2014) by TARKI (2600 household
surveyed yearly between
Hungary
1992‐1997, follow up a
sub sample in 2007)
DV = dependent variable = outcomes
TV = treatment variable = type of adult
learning
IV = intermediate variables
DV = occupational prestige score, occupational
mobility ( = 5‐points increase or decrease in the
CAMSIS score); employment stability and
unemployment exit
TV = training = attending a course or learning
program in concomitance to employment
DV = AUSEI06 occupational status scale (0‐100;
mean 40.2)
TV = completion of an educational qualification
as adult or not (lagged. time since comp)
exiting unemployment, and chances of direct
mobility (persons CAMSIS scores >5 point =
upward mobility; >0 = downward mobility).
TV = formal secondary schooling = FSS;
vocational preparation courses (offered by
employment agencies) = VPC; certificated
occupational training = COT; uncertificated
occupational training = UOT
DV = length of unemployment; upward and
downward mobility (using the ISCO occupational
codes and ISEI values)
TV = formal adult education (FAE)
(CE = compulsory education; USE = upper
secondary education; HE = higher education)
Design (type and follow‐up
period)
Five waves during the period
1997‐2005, including
retrospective information on
the life course
Individuals born after 1940
(aged between 15‐64 years)
Follow‐up 2001‐2010
Retrospective data; monthly
Follow up 1992 – 2007
Retrospective data merge
with original HHP sources
Statistical analysis
Panel fixed‐effects models, Adult learning and work‐related training reduces
event history piecewise
constant exponential
models
Linear fixed‐effects
regression model
Interaction terms
(5 models tested)
Logistic regression models. Participating in COT reduces the risk of becoming
Include dummy variables
for different’ time pieces’
Standard logistic
regression methods
MIDTSUNDSTAD
Findings
unemployment risks, promote employability, foster
job quality and upward mobility
Com. adult education leads to a 5.4‐point increase in
occ. status (on average); fixed‐term employees benefit
more than permanent and causal employed, those not
employed, and those not in the labour force. Greatest
eff. after 3 years and decrease thereafter
unemployed for men. VPC increases both men and
women risk of becoming unemployed. Participation in
COT increases men’s risk of remaining unemployed.
FSE increases women’s chances of being reemployed
FAE seem to shorten the length of unemployment,
especially for women
Participation in FAE increase the chances of upward
mobility; especially HE for men and USE for women.
FAE also seem to decrease the chances of downward
mobility, but only for men
|
      17
(Continues)
TABLE 1 (Continued)
Author,
publication, year Population
and country (dataset, n, sex, age etc.)
Dordoni, P., Van der Survey data from a large
Heijden, B., Peters, Italian financial institution
P., Kraus‐
n = 2,082 workers aged
Hoogeveen, S., &
55 years and over
Argentero, P.
(response rate = 74.7%)
(2017)
The majority of respondents
The Netherlands
were male, between 55 and
60 years old, held a high
school leaving certificate,
had a managerial role, and
had worked for the bank
for more than 30 years
Elman, C., & Weiss, National Longitudinal
F. (2014) Survey of Youth
1979‐2010 (NLSY79)
Individuals born between
1961‐1964
n = 2.164
United States
Froehlich, D.E. Cross‐sectional survey
(2017) data from 139 Austrian
bank managers Response
Austria
rate 69.5% of which 43%
were females and 43%
were aged between
36 and 45 (41% older)
|
18      
DV = dependent variable = outcomes
TV = treatment variable = type of adult
learning
Design (type and follow‐up
IV = intermediate variables period) Statistical analysis Findings
DV = intentions to retire IV = one organizational The data were analysed The results show that perceived support for learning
factor = perceived support for learning; and one using Structural Equation appears to be negatively related to intention to retire
job‐related factor = perceived negative age Modelling (SEM) (via participation in employability‐enhancing
stereotypes on older workers’ productivity separately for the two age activities), while perceived negative age stereotypes
groups, 55–60 and 61–65 are related positively to intention to retire
DV = wages ( = annual labor income logged at age Follow up from age 25‐45, OLS regression, separate GED and FAS increase wages for women. OJT and FAS,
45), occupational rank ( = socioeconomic index 30‐45, 35‐45, 40‐45 for men and female but not GED, increase occ. rank. for both men and
score at age 45) and employability ( = employment women
for at least 21 out of 24 months after age 43 and
Compared with those not OJT and GED increase women’s employability
44)
attaining education
TV = General education (GED), formal adult
schooling (FAS) = enrollment in reg. school after
leaving initial schooling, and on‐the‐job
training>1 month (OJT)
DV = self‐reported learning outcomes (rate Hypothesized path model, The results indicate that older bank managers are more
themselves against their peers based on their tested using maximum likely to adapt a surface‐disorganized learning
most recent performance appraisal; rate their Likelihood Estimation approach, which in turn, has a negative effect on
learning progress over the last year regarding learning outcomes
technical knowledge, risk‐management, customer
orientation, and willingness to change etc)
TV = learning approach (index’s based on several
questions)
(Continues)
MIDTSUNDSTAD
TABLE 1 (Continued)

DV = dependent variable = outcomes

TV = treatment variable = type of adult

Author,
MIDTSUNDSTAD

learning
publication, year Population Design (type and follow‐up
and country (dataset, n, sex, age etc.) IV = intermediate variables period) Statistical analysis Findings

Hamplová, D., & The Social Cohesion Survey DV = Upward mobility = >five‐points increase on Retrospective, covering the Random effect logit Increases the likelihood of upward prestige mobility but
Simonová, N. from 2005/2006 (SCS the CAMSIS scale; downward mobility = period 1989 to 2005/06 models does not protect against downward mobility. The
(2014) 2006) <five‐point decrease on the CAMSIS scale effect on upward mobility seem to be stronger among
women than among men
N = 3460; 1654 men and TV = last formal educational upgrading
The Czech Republic
1806 women

Hannekam, S. Cross‐sectional survey DV = career success ( = self‐reported salary level), Mixed method approach Multile regression analysis The quantitative analysis showed that older workers
(2015) among older workers career satisfaction (previously validated scales) who possess social skills and are able and motivated
Content analysis was
(50+) – all registered and wish to continue employment to continuously develop themselves throughout their
used to analyse the
with a job agency careers experience more career success and are more
The Netherlands TV = social and interpersonal skills (previously qualitative data
specialized in older satisfied with their career, which then leads them to
validated scales) and continuous learning ability
workers and currently in wish to continue employment
work

N = 920

The average age = 61 years; The qualitative analysis showed that the older workers
62% were male and 38% were aware of the need to stay up‐to‐date. However,
female; 49% had higher the need to constantly stay informed about the
education, 32% had newest, mainly technological, developments was
intermediate education and sometimes perceived as a threat, and therefore
18% lower general pushed older workers into retirement, since it
education negatively affected their career satisfaction
In‐depth interviews with 11
respondents

Hällsten, M. (2012) STAR‐collection of DV = employment ( = income in fixed prices incl. Follow up Matching technics Late degree increased employment rate with 18% and
administrative social transf. related to employment above ½ of combined with fixed earning while employed with 12%
Compared with those not
register data median earnings of those 40‐46 year olds) earning effect panel data
attaining education
( = log of earning above this cut‐point) methods

TV = attain tertiary education obtained between

(Statistics Sweden)
1988‐2003
Sweden Individuals age above 30
(born 1940‐1965) with
|

upper‐secondary schooling
      19

n = 36.233

(Continues)
TABLE 1 (Continued)
|

DV = dependent variable = outcomes

20      

TV = treatment variable = type of adult

Author, learning
publication, year Population Design (type and follow‐up
and country (dataset, n, sex, age etc.) IV = intermediate variables period) Statistical analysis Findings

Kilpi‐Jakonen, E., Different longitudinal DV = labour market outcomes = probability of Find that educational upgrading tends to increase
Kosyakova, Y., datasets being employed employment opportunities, although effects depend
Stenberg, A., Vono (country specific) on the labour market status of those studying. The
TV = educational upgrading
de Vilhena, D. & effects also vary between men and women and
Blossfeldt, H‐B. between countries. According to the authors, this is
(2012) probably due to differences in institutional and
labour market contexts
Sweden, Great
Britain, Spain and
Russia

Kilpi‐Jakonen, E. & Population register data
Stenberg, A. from Statistics Sweden
(2014)
cohorts: 1952, 1957, 1962
and 1967
n = 270.000
DV = incidence of employment = annual earnings Follow up 1994‐2010 Regression analysis Increased employment probabilities and increased
above 100.000 SRK; and annual earnings = earnings. Least likely to benefit are older men, and
natural logarithm of annual earnings>100.000 benefits are greater for tertiary adult education. In
Compared with those not
SEK. All measured in 2010 general, benefits are most consistent for women
enrolled in education in
1994‐1995

Male = 55.6% TV = upgrading = increase in schooling by at least

Sweden
1 year between 1994 and 2010

Kilpi‐Jakonen, E., Longitudinal register DV = average number of months of Follow‐up 1987‐2007. Repeated measures linear Adult learning slightly reduces the experience of
Sirnio, O., & dataset from Statistics unemployment per year, and annual income regression and the unemployment. Mainly graduation at the tertiary
Separate analysis for men and
Martikainen, M. Finland. Individuals born relative to others (divided in deciles by calendar method of generalized level that improves income, but less for adult than for
women, for those who
(2014) between 1931 and 1981. year) estimation equation with younger graduates, and less for women than men
graduated during and after
Graduating at age an exchangeable
TV = year of graduation (upgrading) = reference recession and for different
Finland
31 or later in the period correlation structure
point educational levels. Comparing
1993‐1995 (under the
DV before and after upgrading,
recession) or 19999‐2001
and adult graduates with
(after the recession)
young graduates
N = 51.916 individuals

(Continues)
MIDTSUNDSTAD
TABLE 1 (Continued)

DV = dependent variable = outcomes

TV = treatment variable = type of adult

Author, learning
MIDTSUNDSTAD

publication, year Population Design (type and follow‐up

and country (dataset, n, sex, age etc.) IV = intermediate variables period) Statistical analysis Findings

Kosyakova, Y. The Russia Longitudinal DV = self‐reporter changes in occupational class Follow‐up 2000‐2010 Event history analysis FAL pay offs for the employed and for those in
(2014) Monitoring Survey (mobility) based on ESeC class scheme; and technics. Separate models precarious labour market situations. Employer‐spon‐
– household panel move from precarious jobs/unemployment for men and women sored NFAL do also have a positive eff
(RLMS‐HSE) to a good job

Up to age 55 for women and TV = adult learning in the year prior to transition;
Russia
age 60 for men formal (FAL), tertiary and non‐tertiary and
non‐formal adult learning (NFAL) – employer
sponsored or not

Kristensen, N. Danish employer‐employee DV = timing on retirement Option Value model The results indicate no significant effects of
(2012) register data post‐secondary vourses on the timing of retirement,
TV = government co‐sponsored training (hybrid
and significant but small effects following basic
Denmark Individuals born 1936‐1944, between formal education and on‐the‐job‐
education or vocational courses
all being active in the training) (1980‐2004); basic courses, vocational
labour market in 2001 and technical courses and post‐secondary
(when 57‐65 years old) courses

Jepsen, C., Troske, Administrative data from DV = earning returns Following 20‐60‐year‐old Finds substantial heterogeneity in returns across fields
K. & Coomes, P. Kentucky students who entered the study. Degrees, diplomas, and for women, certificates
TV = completing community college certificates,
(2014) state’s community college – correspond with higher levels of employment
diplomas or associate degrees
system during the 2002‐3 and
US
2003‐4 school years
Nordlund, M., LISA Longitudinal register DV = income Follow up 1992‐2003 OLS regression separately Increased earnings on both short and long term
Stehlik, T. & data for each 12 years
TV = increase in formal education 1992‐1997
Strandh, M.
n = 263.841 (change in recorded level of education) Compared with those not
(2013)
attaining education
Male

Age 21‐34 in 1992

Sweden

McMullin, P., & British Household Panel DV = upward and downward prestige mobility and Follow up 1991‐2008 Discrete event history FAL has strong positive eff on prestige mobility, but not
Kilpi‐Jakonen, E. Study (BHPS) 1991‐2008 the absolute level of prestige (CAMSIS scores) analysis for repeated so much with regard to mobility. Highest return for
Separate models for men and
(2014) events and fixed‐effects tertiary degree, and relative stable and high returns
TV = formal adult learning (FAL); obtaining a new women
linear regression models for A‐level and equivalent qual. Fewer return for
Great Britain degree, a new tertiary diploma, a qual. equiv.
NFAL
|

A‐level, and lower sec qual.; non‐formal adult

learning (NFAL)
      21

(Continues)
TABLE 1 (Continued)
|

DV = dependent variable = outcomes

22      

TV = treatment variable = type of adult

Author, learning
publication, year Population Design (type and follow‐up
and country (dataset, n, sex, age etc.) IV = intermediate variables period) Statistical analysis Findings

Picchio, M. and van Data from Netherland from DV = reemployment prospects later in life Follow up 1996‐2001 Multivariate discrete Found that firm‐provided training significantly
Ours, J. C. (2013) the European Community (the probability of remaining employed) response model for panel increases future employment prospects (training leads
Household Panel (ECHP) data to retaining). This also holds for older workers,
TV = firm‐provided training
suggesting that firm‐provided training may be an
Individuals older than 26 and Using semiparametric
The Netherlands important instrument to retain older workers at work
younger than 64 years, technics to control for the

either employed or endogeneity of training

unemployed participation

n = 7.257 individuals

Saar, E., Unt, M., & The Estonia Family and DV = occupational mobility = mobility between Life‐coarse approach which Logistic regression analysis Women are more likely to experience upward
Roosmaa, E. L. Fertility Survey 2004‐2005 first and second job after compl. highest contains retrospective event (with repeated events in occupational mobility after participation in formal
(2014) (FFS). Individuals 20‐79 educational level. Upward mobility = International histories on major life careers the case of latter) adult education than men
Socio‐Economic Index (+6.5‐point); downward – competing risk model
mobility = any change downward

Estonia TV = attainment of highest education in adulthood

Stenberg, A., de Swedish population register DV = average annual earnings The method used is The findings imply positive effects for women, but no
Luna, X., & data 1982‐2007 difference‐in‐difference significant average earning effects for men. Authors
TV = formal education
Westerlund, O. propensity score matching underlines the importance of long follow up periods
42‐55‐years‐olds who
(2014)
enrolled 1994‐1995
Sweden

Stenberg, A., de Individuals with eleven or DV = the likelihood of postponing retirement Follow‐up over a The result was that adult education does not seem to
Luna, X., & fewer years of schooling 20‐25‐years period have any effect on the inclination to postpone early
TV = adult education
Westerlund, O. retirement
Compared people who
(2012)
completed adult education
Sweden at 42‐ and above with
people of the same age
who did not complete such
an education

(Continues)
MIDTSUNDSTAD
TABLE 1 (Continued)

DV = dependent variable = outcomes

TV = treatment variable = type of adult

Author, learning
MIDTSUNDSTAD

publication, year Population Design (type and follow‐up

and country (dataset, n, sex, age etc.) IV = intermediate variables period) Statistical analysis Findings

Stenberg, A. & Swedish longitudinal DV = timing of retirement Follow up 1994‐2010 Control for endogeneity Finds that higher education increases labour market
Westerlund, O. population register data using propensity score survival rates when aged 61‐66 by about 5% points
TV = first time enrolment in higher education at age
(2013) 1982‐2010 matching; robustness – and if enrolment occurs at age 42 the effect is about
42 or later
checks 1% earnings return per year
Sweden Aged 42‐55 (time of
enrolment) (60‐73 in 2010)
N = 159 760

Stenberg, A. & Swedish population register DV = annual earnings Follow up 1994‐2011 Difference‐i‐difference Finds substantial long run earnings returns on higher
Westerlund, O. data 1982‐2011 set‐up that accounts for education, but these only fully emerge after
TV = first time enrolment in higher education
(2016) individual time invariant approximately ten years
29 to 55‐years‐olds who
(fixed) unobserved
enrolled 1992‐1993 Calculations indicate that benefits for society exceeds
Sweden
characteristics correlated
cost
with earnings (checking for
potential ability bases)

Triventi, M. & The International Adult DV (micro‐analysis) = gross personal income from Cross‐sectional data Two‐stages strategy: First Adult learning experiences are positively rewarded in
Barone, C. (2014) Literacy Survey (IALS) wages, salary or self‐employment stage, estimating a the labour market across a large set of industrialized
1994‐1998, covering regression models for each countries, and the magnitude of economic returns to
DV (macro‐analysis) = estimates for the wage
25.903 individuals in 22 individual country (using non‐formal training is systematically larger in the
returns to formal education and non‐formal
different countries interval regression), then short run than returns to formal adult education
training
use the estimated
Employees with upper
22 different TV (micro analysis) = whether respondent had any coefficient to assess Returns to adult learning vary considerably across
secondary school between
industrialised adult learning experience; if the experience was whether they are related to industrial countries probably due to the institutional
22‐64 years old and
countries job‐related or attended only for personal interest; a set of macro‐variables or differenced, especially the formal adult educational
employees with tertiary
formal adult education upgrades and non‐formal not (using estimated system. However, the effects of macro‐economic
education between
training dependent variables variables appear small, with the exception of
28‐64 years
TV (macro‐analysis) = institutional regression) unemployment rates

variation: unemployment rate, index of economic

development (GDP per capita, expenditure in
Research & development as percentage of GDP,
mean years of education attained in the
population), and proportion of small firms (<20
employees) in each country
|
      23

(Continues)
TABLE 1 (Continued)
|

DV = dependent variable = outcomes

24      

TV = treatment variable = type of adult

Author, learning
publication, year Population Design (type and follow‐up
and country (dataset, n, sex, age etc.) IV = intermediate variables period) Statistical analysis Findings

de Vilhena, D. V., & Panel Survey on Inequalities DV = leaving unemployment ( = move from Follow‐up 2002‐2009 Discrete‐time event‐history Significant and positive effect of formal adult upgrading
Gamundi, P. M. in Catalonia (PaD) unemployment in wave 1 to employment in wave models for repeated on mobility, but only for men. Negative effect for
(2014) 2002‐2009 2); occupational class upgrade between waves; events. Separate models non‐formal education (both employer‐sponsored and
and leaving precarious jobs ( = jobs without for the different types of non‐employer‐sponsored) on downward mobility, but
Spain N = 9544 individuals,
contract, part time jobs, fixed term contracts, learning only for men. No effect on precarious jobs and leaving
excluding those <25 years
self‐employed without employee, full‐time unemployment of neither formal education or
and those above the
working poor etc) non‐formal learning
retirement age
TV = increase in formal educational attainment
(FAE) and finishing employer or not employer
funded non‐formal adult learning during the last
12 months (NFAL)

Wahler, S., Administrative register data DV = risk of becoming unemployed, chances of Follow‐up 1981‐2009 Regression models with All adult learning except NFAL substantially decreases
Buchholz, S., from Statistics Denmark, exiting unemployment, and chances of direct robust standard errors and the risk of becoming unemployed, and increases the
Jensen, V. M., & including the Integrated mobility (10% increase of salary = upward and 5% clustered by the individual. chances of (re)entering the labour market for
Unfried, J. (2014) Database for Labour decrease = downward mobility) Separate models for men unemployed. Participating in VUSE increases upward
Market Research (IDA), and women and decreases downward mobility, whereas TE
TV = six different measures of adult learning, both
covering employees and increases both upward mobility and the risk of
non‐formal (NFAL) and formal FAL (VUSE =
employers downward mobility; GUSE affect men’s income
vocational upper secondary education; GUSE =
chances negatively
Denmark Cohorts from 1955‐1980 general upper secondary education = tertiary
education)
N = 1.949.781 individuals
MIDTSUNDSTAD
MIDTSUNDSTAD |
      25

downward mobility (Hamplová & Simonová, 2014; McMullin, & Kilpi‐Jakonen, 2014), whilst others found that
educational upgrading had a positive impact on upward mobility, and likewise, reduced the chances of downward
mobility (Buchler, Chesters, Higginson, & Haynes, 2014; Wahler et al., 2014), or that formal upgrading as adults
only impacted women's upward mobility(Csanádi, Csizmady, & Róbert,2014; Saar, Unt, & Roosmaa, 2014).
All in all, the effects of formal and non‐formal education seem to be greatly influenced by the labour market
status of those who upgrade their skills (whether they are employed, unemployed, have a fixed‐term contract or
are permanently employed) and their level of education (whether primary, general or vocational upper‐second‐
ary, or tertiary education) (Kilpi‐Jakonen et al., 2012). Most studies also found gender differences in outcomes.
In general, women seemed to gain more from educational upgrading than men (Hällsten, 2012; Elman & Weiss,
2014; Kilpi‐Jakonen et al., 2014; Bucholz et al., 2014; Csanádi et al., 2014; Saar et al., 2014; Stenberg, de Luna, &
Westerlund., 2014). The effects also depended on whether it was a short–term or a long‐term effect. Stenberg
and Westerlund (2016), for example, found that the positive effect of obtaining higher education late in life first
emerged about 10 years after enrolment. Last but not least, the effect of adult learnings on employment varied
considerably between countries (Blossfeld, Kilpi‐Jakonen, de Vilhena, & Buchholz., 2014). The divergent effects
observed were influenced by differences in data and methodologies used, but it is also reasonable to attribute
some of the differences to institutional differences and differences between the educational systems, the welfare
systems and the labour markets, as well as the population‘s level of education (Kilpi‐Jakonen et al., 2012; Triventi
& Barone, 2014; de Vilhena, Kilpi‐Jakonen, Schührer, & Blossfeld, 2014).

4.2 | Returns to non‐formal adult learnings

Whilst formal adult learning on average seems to increase employment outcomes, the impact of non‐formal learn‐
ing and training is mixed (Blossfeld et al., 2014; de Vilhena & Gamundi, 2014; Wahler et al., 2014). Picchio and
van Ours (2013) found that firm‐provided training for older workers significantly increased future employment
prospects in the Netherlands and Elman and Weiss (2014) found that on‐the‐job training increased women's em‐
ployability in the US. Unlike what one might expect, however, non‐formal adult learning in Denmark seemed to
increase the risk of becoming unemployed and decrease the chances of (re)entering the labour market for the
unemployed (Wahler et al., 2014). A similar result was found in Spain: both non‐formal and formal education had
a negative effect on the chances of being reemployed among those who were unemployed in the first place (de
Vilhena & Gamundi, 2014). However, in Italy, non‐formal adult learning seemed to reduce the risk of unemploy‐
ment (Barbieri et al., 2014). Furthermore, one study showed that the economic returns to non‐formal training were
on average systematically greater in the short run than returns to formal adult education (Triventi & Barone, 2014).

4.3 | Intermediate factors that influence the outcomes

In addition to the above mentioned studies, three cross‐sectional studies emphasise the importance of the organi‐
sational environment and the individuals’ learning strategies and how they may impact on the outcomes of adult
learning. Although they do not measure the direct effects of adult learning, they focus on individual and workplace
factors that could help to better understand the processes and mechanisms that influence differences in partici‐
pation in adult learning and why the outcome is not always what we expect it to be.
Dordoni, Van der Heijden, Peters, Kraus‐Hoogeveen, and Argentero (2017) studied the impact of older work‐
ers’ participation in employability‐enhancing‐activities on their intentions to retire in relation to perceived support
for learning and negative age stereotypes on older workers’ productivity. The results indicate that having a sup‐
porting and non‐age‐discriminatory work environment could be important for employment‐enhancing activities to
promote longer working careers.
Froehlich (2017) investigated whether the approach to informal learning at work was an important mediating
variable in the relationship between age and learning outcomes (broadly defined as any gains in skills or job and
 |
26       MIDTSUNDSTAD

career performance) and found that the older managers became, the more they seemed to adopt a surface‐dis‐
organised learning approach which, in turn, decreased their learning outcomes. Hannekam (2015), who examined
how social skills and continuous learning ability influenced the career success and career satisfaction of older
workers, found that older workers who possessed social skills and were able and motivated to continuously de‐
velop experienced greater career success and were more satisfied with their career and, hence, wished to con‐
tinue to be employed. As underscored by the author the need to constantly stay informed about technological
developments was, however, sometimes perceived as a threat which pushed older workers into retirement, since
it negatively affected their career satisfaction.
The data in these three studies are cross‐sectional and cover small and select groups of older workers. No
causal interference can therefore be drawn.

5 |  D I S CU S S I O N

The studies reviewed here found some evidence that adult learning increased older workers’ employability and
work‐related earnings. The quality of the data and methodologies in the studies reviewed do, however, vary con‐
siderably and few document a causal effect between adult education and learning and subsequent employability.
We therefore still need to study in more detail how and why formal and non‐formal adult learning contribute to
employability, i.e., the ability to find and maintain employment. There is also a need for more longitudinal studies
based on population registered data in order to determine whether there is a causal interference between adult
learning and training and older workers’ labour market participation, using advanced statistical methods. In other
words, we still need to answer the question whether adult learning and training increase the number of years in
employment amongst older workers or not and if it contributes to postponed retirement.
Moreover, the positive outcomes of lifelong learning observed cannot always be generalised across time pe‐
riods. Although some studies could find a positive effect of lifelong learning on employability in one period, the
same effects might not be seen in later periods. As Hällsten (2012) mentions, the risk of over‐education and edu‐
cational inflation has risen over the years and this could have a negative impact on the returns of lifelong learning
in the future. Studies also show different effects of different types of adult learning and training.
The studies reviewed also highlight the importance of conducting separate analyses for different types of
adult learners and considering how outcomes could vary between groups of older employees according to gen‐
der, age, initial education level, labour market status, etc. As the comparative study by Kilpi‐Jakonen et al. (2012)
shows, the outcomes will in most cases also vary between countries because of different institutional and labour
market contexts. The results based on data from one country cannot therefore always be applied to others. There
is therefore a need to examine the effects on employment of different types of adult learning and training, and for
whom and in which situation and context they have an effect.

6 |  CO N C LU D I N G R E M A R K S

Although adult learning is often described as one of the main strategies to increase the labour market participation
of older workers, surprisingly few studies have examined whether adult learning actually increases the employ‐
ment possibilities of older workers, although the number of relevant studies have increased lately. The number
of current studies is also too small and the quality of the data and methodology used in most studies too weak to
conclude that adult learning (formal or informal) has a causal effect on older workers’ employability.
The most promising studies investigate labour market outputs for adults who enrol in education and/or finish
a formal education late in life (e.g., after 40) using longitudinal register data and advanced statistical methods and
tests, like Stenberg and Westerlund (2013, 2016). They find that adult learning (tertiary upgrading after 42) both
MIDTSUNDSTAD |
      27

increases older workers’ earnings (and employability) and the likelihood of postponed retirement. It is, however,
unclear whether these results can be generalised to other countries with different educational systems, levels of
education, labour markets and welfare states.
However, although educational upgrading late in life may increase the likelihood of longer working lives, there
are still some unsolved problems. Today, there is a social gradient in adult learning leading to increased rather than
decreased social inequalities in skill, labour market participation and earnings over the life course (Blossfeld et al.,
2015). Those in most need of educational upgrading in order to be employable, such as low skilled individuals with
health problems who need to change jobs and those at risk of losing their jobs, participate least in educational
upgrading. There are different explanations to this paradox linked to differences in cognitive/intellectual abilities,
learning problems, different experiences with the educational system earlier in life, lack of suitable educational
options, problems with financing further education, etc.
Thus, if adult learning and upskilling late in life should lead to prolonged working lives for all, the most vul‐
nerable groups of older workers must be motivated and find it profitable to invest in further education (i.e., their
expected profit or advantages must exceed the expected cost) and there must be appropriate adult education/
learning options available. In other words, there has to be easy access to education and skill upgrading and it must
not be too expensive to enrol in courses or classes. Furthermore, there must be ways to finance one‘s lives while
studying. And last, but not least, we need to know more about how to motivate the less skilled older workers;
those who are most vulnerable to labour market exclusion in old age.

AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S

This work was funded by The Research Council of Norway as part of the project “Silver lining – a study of employ‐
ability and learning trajectories of Late Career Learners” grant number 255210.

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How to cite this article: Midtsundstad T. A review of the research literature on adult learning and
employability. Eur J Educ. 2019;54:13–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12321