Precise Notes on Punctuation

The Basic Sentence

We don't separate the basic parts of a sentence (subject and verb, verb and object, etc.).
The standard of living of the dock workers was slowly improving. (No comma)
(NOT The standard of living of the dock workers, was slowly improving.)
Many of them were able to begin buying their men homes. (No comma)
(NOT Many of them were able to begin buying, their men homes.)

Before the Basic Sentence

If we put long adverbial expressions (saying when, where etc.) before the basic sentence, we often
use a comma (,). Compare:
At that time the standard of living of the dock workers was slowly improving. (No comma)
During the late 1920s and early 1930s, the standard of living of the dock workers was slowly
improving. (Comma before the basic sentence; long adverbial expressions) (With comma)

After the Basic Sentence

We don't usually use commas when adverbial expressions come after the basic sentence.
The standard of living of the dock workers was slowly improving during the late 1920s and early
1930s. (No comma)

Inside the Basic Sentence

When adverbial expressions come between or inside parts of the basic sentence, we usually put
commas before and after them.
The standard of thing of the dock workers, during the late 1920s and early 1930s, was steadily
improving. (With comma)

Noun Phrases
We don't usually separate a noun from the adjectives or other expressions that go with it. Compare:
… the mainly foreign labourers (No comma)
(NOT …the mainly foreign, labourers)
… the mainly foreign labourers in the north-eastern docks (No comma)
(NOT …the mainly foreign labourers, in the north-eastern docks)

We also don't usually use comma separate defining expressions (also known as identifying
expressions). Compare:
… the mainly foreign labourers who made up the work force in the north-eastern docks
(NOT … the mainly foreign labourers, who made up the work force in the north-eastern docks)

However, we do use commas to separate non-defining expressions (also known as non-

identifying expressions) after nouns. See the NOTE below.
Andreas Bergmeister, who established the dock-porkers' union, ... (With comma)

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 Precise Notes on Punctuation
NOTE:
Identifying / Defining relative clauses say who or what we are talking about.
Non-identifying / Non-defining relative clauses do not say who or what we are talking about,
because this is already clear. They just give more information. Compare:
Defining: The US President who followed Abraham Lincoln was Andrew Johnson. (No comma)
Non-defining: President Andrew Johnson, who followed Lincoln, was extremely unpopular.
(President Andrew Johnson alone tells us who.) (With comma)

Defining: The only person that supported my idea was Hilary Mason. (No comma)
Non-defining: Hilary Mason, who supported my idea, didn't manage to convince the others. (With
comma)

Defining: The book that got the prize for best first novel was written by my landlady. (No comma)
Non-defining: `Wild cherries, which got the prize for best first novel, was written by my
landlady. (With comma)

Defining: The flowers Lucy bought yesterday are all dead. (No comma)
Non-defining: The roses in the living room, which Lucy bought only yesterday, are all dead. (With
comma)

Sentences with Conjunctions

We often put commas in sentences with conjunctions, especially in longer sentences. Compare:
The situation changed when the export markets began to contract. (No comma)
The situation changed noticeably for the worse after 1932, when the export markets began to
contract. (With comma)

We usually use a comma if we start with the conjunction.

When the export markets began to contract, the situation changed. (With comma)

Indirect Speech
We don't put commas after verbs of saying, thinking etc. in indirect speech.
Many commentators declared that the economy was in deep trouble. (No comma)
(NOT Many commentators declared, that the economy was in deep trouble.)
No one knew how serious the situation would become. (No comma)
(NOT No one knew, how serious the situation would become.)
We don't put question marks (?) in indirect questions.
Workers asked why they were losing their jobs. (No question mark)
(NOT Workers asked why they were losing their jobs?)
A Useful Rule: no comma before ‘That’
We don't put commas before that (conjunction or relative pronoun).
They did not understand that the economic conditions that had existed earlier had disappeared
for good. (No comma)

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 Precise Notes on Punctuation
Conjunctions VS Adverbs
Conjunctions make grammatical and meaning connections - they join clauses into sentences, and
show the relationship between them.
Some conjunctions: and, but, or, so, before, after, when, as soon as, because, since, although,
if, that
When a conjunction comes between two clauses, there is normally either no punctuation (especially
if the clauses are short) or a comma (,) before the conjunction.
I had supper before I phoned Jean. (No comma)
I was very unhappy, so I decided to change my job. (With comma)

Adverbs can make meaning connections, but they do not make grammatical connections: they
do not join clauses into sentences.
Some adverbs: however, then, therefore, meanwhile, consequently, in fact, also, as a result, on
the other hand, indeed
When an adverb comes between two clauses, there is normally either a full stop (.) or a semi-colon
(;) before it in careful writing, because the clauses are still separate. Compare:
I had supper; then I phoned Jean.
OR I had supper. Then I phoned Jean. (better than I had supper, then I phoned Jean.)

I was unhappy; therefore I moved away.

OR I was unhappy. Therefore, I moved away.
OR I was unhappy. I, therefore, moved away.

NOTES: but and however

But is a conjunction; however is an adverb.
Note the difference in punctuation before these words. Compare:
It was cold, but it was pleasant.
It was cold. However, it was pleasant.
OR It was cold; however, it was pleasant. (better than - It was cold, however ...)
OR It was cold. It, however, was pleasant.

Note that we also put a comma after however.

Alice was clearly the best candidate, but she did not get the job.
Alice was clearly the best candidate. However, she did not get the job.
OR Alice was clearly the best candidate. She, however, did not get the job.
OR Alice was clearly the best candidate; however, she did not get the job.

The audience was small, but they were clearly appreciative.

The audience was small. However, they were clearly appreciative.
OR The audience was small. They, however, were clearly appreciative.
OR The audience was small; however, they were clearly appreciative.

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 Precise Notes on Punctuation
Position
Conjunctions always begin clauses.
Adverbs can often go in different places in a clause (but not between the verb and the object). If an
adverb interrupts the normal word order of a clause, it may be separated by two commas.
He confessed to 114 murders, but the police did not believe his story.
(BUT NOT ... the police but did not believe his story.)
He confessed to 114 murders. However, the police did not believe his story.
He confessed to 114 murders; however, the police did not believe his story.
He confessed to 114 murders; the police, however, did not believe his story.
He confessed to 114 murders; the police did not, however, believe his story.
He confessed to 114 murders; the police did not believe his story, however.
(BUT NOT ... the police did not believe, however, his story.)

NOTES:
Commas are often used before conjunctions to separate longer or more complicated clauses.
Shorter pairs of clauses are often connected without commas. Compare:
Joseph went home because he was tired. (No comma)
Joseph decided to go home earlier than he had planned, because he was beginning to have trouble
keeping his eyes open. (With comma)

Contrast: Commas are particularly common before conjunctions expressing contrast.

Ann is very sociable, while her sister is quite shy. (a comma before)
He kept shivering, although it was a warm day. (a comma before)

And adverbs expressing contrast often have commas after them.

They were becoming increasingly discouraged. However, they continued walking. (a comma after)
Income is satisfactory; on the other hand, expenditure has increased alarmingly. (a comma after)
Yet, at the beginning of a clause, is a conjunction, and is not followed by a comma. (a comma after)
It was cold, yet it was pleasant. (NOT ... yet, it was pleasant.) (a comma before - conjunction)

Position of Clauses: Clauses that begin sentences are usually separated by commas. Compare:
As soon as it boils, turn down the heat. (With comma)
Turn down the heat as soon as it boils. (No comma)

Punctuation with No Conjunction: When two main clauses are joined without a conjunction, they
can be punctuated with a semi-colon, a colon or a dash, but not a comma. Compare:
We had no idea where he was; he had completely disappeared. (With semi-colon)
(NOT We had no idea where he was, he had completely disappeared.)
She had one basic principle: she was always right. (With colon)
We will send your order as soon as possible – this will probably be in early July. (With dash)

NB. A hyphen (-) is a punctuation mark that's used to join words or parts of words. A dash is longer than a
hyphen and is commonly used to indicate a range or a pause. Two common types of dashes are the ‘en
dash’ (–) and the ‘em dash’ (—).

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 Precise Notes on Punctuation
One-clause Sentences: Sometimes a single clause with a conjunction is written as a separate
sentence. Some people feel this is incorrect, but it is normal in question-and-answer sequences,
or when a writer wishes to give extra emphasis to a clause.
Why are we in financial trouble? Because the banks lent money to the wrong people. (Q&A Sequence)
He was charming. But he was totally without a conscience. (Extra Emphasis)

Adverbs when Function as Conjunctions:

Whoever, whatever, wherever etc. (meaning 'It doesn't matter who/what/where/etc.') can introduce
adverb clauses. Present tenses are used for the future. We do not use comma after these adverbs
Whoever comes to the door, tell them I'm out.
Whatever you do, I'll always love you.
(BUT NOT Whatever you will do…) – Not in Future Tense
Wherever he goes, he'll find friends.
Whichever of them you marry, you'll have problems.
I try to see Vicky whenever I go to London.
However much he eats, he never gets fat.

Between Separate Sentences

Between separate sentences (with no conjunction), we use a full stop (.) or a semi-colon (;), but not a
comma. Compare:
Orders began to dry up, and most firms stoned to reduce their work force. (Comma and Conjunction)
Orders began to dry up. Most firms started to reduce their work force. (With full stop)
OR Orders began to dry up; most firms started to reduce their workforce. (With semi-colon)
(BUT NOT Orders began to dry up, most firms started to reduce their workforce)

Conjunctions and Adverbs

Note that some linking scores (e.g. consequently, however, therefore), are adverbs, not conjunctions.
A sentence beginning with an adverb is separate from a sentence before it; a full stop or semi-colon
is necessary between the sentences. Compare:
Orders began to dry up. Consequently, most firms started to reduce their work force.
(NOT Orders began to dry up, consequently, most firms...)
Orders began to dry up; however, some firms tried to carry on as before.
(NOT Orders began to dry up, however, some firms...)

Commas between Adjectives

Before a noun, we use commas mostly to separate adjectives that say the same kind of thing.
Compare:
… a tall, impressive figure (Similar adjectives with comma in between)
… gloomy economic forecasts (No comma)
… a long, boring speech (Similar adjectives with comma in between)
… surprising new developments (No comma)

NB. After a noun, adjectives are punctuated like a list.

His speech was long, detailed, boring and irrelevant.
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 Precise Notes on Punctuation
Lists: We use commas to separate the different things in a list (but not usually before ‘and’ unless the
last item is long). Compare:
The developing crisis affected manufacturers, distributors, marketing organisations, banks and
credit agencies. (No comma before ‘and’ as the last item is short)
... marketing organisation, hanks, and some of the major credit agencies. (A comma before ‘and’
as the last item is long)
Direct Speech: Quotation marks (‘…’ or “…”) are used to show direct speech (somebody's actual
words). Commas arc generally used to introduce direct speech; colons (:) are sometimes used in
official reports.
Mrs Otago said, 'It is essential that we work together.'
(NOT Mrs Otago said It is essential that… OR Mrs Otago said – ‘It is essential that…’)
The Prime Minister said: ‘The Government is doing everything possible…’

Figures: We use commas after thousands and millions, and full stops in decimal fractions.
… losses of £5,500,000
… losses of £5.5m (= 'five and a half million pounds’)

Colons (:): Colons are sometimes used to introduce direct speech, and to introduce details and
explanations.
Manufacturing industry was in crisis: in particular, textiles and shipbuilding.
British firms were no longer competitive: labour costs had priced them out of the market.

Dashes (–): Dashes are common in informal writing. They can be used in the same way as colons,
semi-colons or brackets; they can also introduce afterthoughts.
I really don't know what we're going to do – Joe's out of work, and there's no money coming in.
Harry might get a job at the market next month – at least, that's what he says.

Abbreviations (short forms of words)

We use full stops after some abbreviations, like e.g. (meaning 'for example). Mr and Mrs have full
stops in American English, but not usually in British English.
A high-level meeting between some of those most concerned, e.g. Mrs Otago, the Industry
Secretary, Mr Bergmeister, and other union representatives, ...

Apostrophes in Possessives
We use the possessive structure most often to talk about something that belongs to, or is a
characteristic of a person, group, organisation, country or animal. The first noun is often like a
subject.
my boss's car (My boss has a car.) Mary's kindness (Mary has been kind.)
Ann's idea (Ann had an idea.) The cat's milk (The cat drinks the milk.)
We don't so often use possessives to talk about characteristics or parts of things that are not alive.
(There are some exceptions.) Instead, we use a preposition structure.
… the top of the page (NOT … the page’s top)
… the bottom of the hill (NOT … the hill’s bottom)
… the reason for the decision (NOT … the decision’s reason)
… the interest on the loan (NOT … the loan’s interest)
… the difficulty of the questions (NOT … the question’s difficulty)
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