Branch point

In t he mat hemat ical field of complex analysis, a branch point of a mult i-valued funct ion (usually
referred t o as a "mult ifunct ion" in t he cont ext of complex analysis) is a point such t hat t he
funct ion is discont inuous when going around an arbit rarily small circuit around t his point .[1] Mult i-
valued funct ions are rigorously st udied using Riemann surfaces, and t he formal definit ion of
branch point s employs t his concept .

Branch point s fall int o t hree broad cat egories: algebraic branch point s, t ranscendent al branch
point s, and logarit hmic branch point s. Algebraic branch point s most commonly arise from
funct ions in which t here is an ambiguit y in t he ext ract ion of a root , such as solving t he equat ion
w2  = z for w as a funct ion of z. Here t he branch point is t he origin, because t he analyt ic
cont inuat ion of any solut ion around a closed loop cont aining t he origin will result in a different
funct ion: t here is non-t rivial monodromy. Despit e t he algebraic branch point , t he funct ion w is
well-defined as a mult iple-valued funct ion and, in an appropriat e sense, is cont inuous at t he origin.
This is in cont rast t o t ranscendent al and logarit hmic branch point s, t hat is, point s at which a
mult iple-valued funct ion has nont rivial monodromy and an essent ial singularit y. In geomet ric
funct ion t heory, unqualified use of t he t erm branch point t ypically means t he former more
rest rict ive kind: t he algebraic branch point s.[2] In ot her areas of complex analysis, t he unqualified
t erm may also refer t o t he more general branch point s of t ranscendent al t ype.

Algebraic branch points

Let Ω be a connect ed open set in t he complex plane C and ƒ:Ω → C a holomorphic funct ion. If ƒ is
not const ant , t hen t he set of t he crit ical point s of ƒ, t hat is, t he zeros of t he derivat ive ƒ'(z), has
no limit point in Ω. So each crit ical point z0 of ƒ lies at t he cent er of a disc B(z0,r) cont aining no
ot her crit ical point of ƒ in it s closure.

Let γ be t he boundary of B(z0,r), t aken wit h it s posit ive orient at ion. The winding number of ƒ(γ)
wit h respect t o t he point ƒ(z0) is a posit ive int eger called t he ramification index of z0. If t he
ramificat ion index is great er t han 1, t hen z0 is called a ramification point of ƒ, and t he
corresponding crit ical value ƒ(z0) is called an (algebraic) branch point. Equivalent ly, z0 is a
ramificat ion point if t here exist s a holomorphic funct ion φ defined in a neighborhood of z0 such
t hat ƒ(z) = φ(z)(z − z0)k + f(z0) for int eger k > 1.

Typically, one is not int erest ed in ƒ it self, but in it s inverse funct ion. However, t he inverse of a
holomorphic funct ion in t he neighborhood of a ramificat ion point does not properly exist , and so
one is forced t o define it in a mult iple-valued sense as a global analyt ic funct ion. It is common t o
abuse language and refer t o a branch point w0 = ƒ(z0) of ƒ as a branch point of t he global analyt ic
funct ion ƒ−1. More general definit ions of branch point s are possible for ot her kinds of mult iple-
valued global analyt ic funct ions, such as t hose t hat are defined implicit ly. A unifying framework
for dealing wit h such examples is supplied in t he language of Riemann surfaces below. In
part icular, in t his more general pict ure, poles of order great er t han 1 can also be considered
ramificat ion point s.

In t erms of t he inverse global analyt ic funct ion ƒ−1, branch point s are t hose point s around which
t here is nont rivial monodromy. For example, t he funct ion ƒ(z) = z2 has a ramificat ion point at
z0 = 0. The inverse funct ion is t he square root ƒ−1(w) = w1/2, which has a branch point at w0 = 0.
Indeed, going around t he closed loop w = eiθ, one st art s at θ = 0 and ei0/2 = 1. But aft er going
around t he loop t o θ = 2π, one has e2πi/2 = −1. Thus t here is monodromy around t his loop
enclosing t he origin.

Transcendental and logarithmic branch points

Suppose t hat g is a global analyt ic funct ion defined on a punct ured disc around z0. Then g has a
transcendental branch point if z0 is an essent ial singularit y of g such t hat analyt ic cont inuat ion
of a funct ion element once around some simple closed curve surrounding t he point z0 produces
a different funct ion element .[3]

An example of a t ranscendent al branch point is t he origin for t he mult i-valued funct ion
for some int eger k > 1. Here t he monodromy group for a circuit around t he origin is finit e. Analyt ic
cont inuat ion around k full circuit s brings t he funct ion back t o t he original.

If t he monodromy group is infinit e, t hat is, it is impossible t o ret urn t o t he original funct ion
element by analyt ic cont inuat ion along a curve wit h nonzero winding number about z0, t hen t he
point z0 is called a logarithmic branch point.[4] This is so called because t he t ypical example of
t his phenomenon is t he branch point of t he complex logarit hm at t he origin. Going once
count erclockwise around a simple closed curve encircling t he origin, t he complex logarit hm is
increment ed by 2πi. Encircling a loop wit h winding number w, t he logarit hm is increment ed by
2πi w and t he monodromy group is t he infinit e cyclic group .

Logarit hmic branch point s are special cases of t ranscendent al branch point s.

There is no corresponding not ion of ramificat ion for t ranscendent al and logarit hmic branch point s
since t he associat ed covering Riemann surface cannot be analyt ically cont inued t o a cover of
t he branch point it self. Such covers are t herefore always unramified.

Examples

0 is a branch point of t he square root funct ion. Suppose w = z1/2, and z st art s at 4 and moves
along a circle of radius 4 in t he complex plane cent ered at 0. The dependent variable w
changes while depending on z in a cont inuous manner. When z has made one full circle, going
from 4 back t o 4 again, w will have made one half-circle, going from t he posit ive square root of
4, i.e., from 2, t o t he negat ive square root of 4, i.e., −2.

0 is also a branch point of t he nat ural logarit hm. Since e0 is t he same as e2πi, bot h 0 and 2πi are
among t he mult iple values of ln(1). As z moves along a circle of radius 1 cent ered at 0, w =
ln(z) goes from 0 t o 2πi.

In t rigonomet ry, since t an(π/4) and t an (5π/4) are bot h equal t o 1, t he t wo numbers π/4 and
5π/4 are among t he mult iple values of arct an(1). The imaginary unit s i and −i are branch point s
of t he arct angent funct ion arct an(z) = (1/2i)log[(i − z)/(i + z)]. This may be seen by observing
t hat t he derivat ive (d/dz) arct an(z) = 1/(1 + z2) has simple poles at t hose t wo point s, since t he
denominat or is zero at t hose point s.

If t he derivat ive ƒ ' of a funct ion ƒ has a simple pole at a point a, t hen ƒ has a logarit hmic branch
point at a. The converse is not t rue, since t he funct ion ƒ(z) = zα for irrat ional α has a logarit hmic
branch point , and it s derivat ive is singular wit hout being a pole.
 Branch cuts

Roughly speaking, branch point s are t he point s where t he various sheet s of a mult iple valued
funct ion come t oget her. The branches of t he funct ion are t he various sheet s of t he funct ion. For
example, t he funct ion w = z1/2 has t wo branches: one where t he square root comes in wit h a plus
sign, and t he ot her wit h a minus sign. A branch cut is a curve in t he complex plane such t hat it is
possible t o define a single analyt ic branch of a mult i-valued funct ion on t he plane minus t hat
curve. Branch cut s are usually, but not always, t aken bet ween pairs of branch point s.

Branch cut s allow one t o work wit h a collect ion of single-valued funct ions, "glued" t oget her
along t he branch cut inst ead of a mult ivalued funct ion. For example, t o make t he funct ion

single-valued, one makes a branch cut along t he int erval [0, 1] on t he real axis, connect ing t he
t wo branch point s of t he funct ion. The same idea can be applied t o t he funct ion √z; but in t hat
case one has t o perceive t hat t he point at infinity is t he appropriat e 'ot her' branch point t o
connect t o from 0, for example along t he whole negat ive real axis.

The branch cut device may appear arbit rary (and it is); but it is very useful, for example in t he
t heory of special funct ions. An invariant explanat ion of t he branch phenomenon is developed in
Riemann surface t heory (of which it is hist orically t he origin), and more generally in t he
ramificat ion and monodromy t heory of algebraic funct ions and different ial equat ions.

Complex logarithm
A plot of the multi-valued imaginary part of the complex logarithm function, which shows the branches. As a complex
number z goes around the origin, the imaginary part of the logarithm goes up or down. This makes the origin a branch point
of the function.

The t ypical example of a branch cut is t he complex logarit hm. If a complex number is
represent ed in polar form z = re iθ, t hen t he logarit hm of z is

However, t here is an obvious ambiguit y in defining t he angle θ: adding t o θ any int eger mult iple of
2π will yield anot her possible angle. A branch of t he logarit hm is a cont inuous funct ion L(z) giving
a logarit hm of z for all z in a connect ed open set in t he complex plane. In part icular, a branch of
t he logarit hm exist s in t he complement of any ray from t he origin t o infinit y: a branch cut. A
common choice of branch cut is t he negat ive real axis, alt hough t he choice is largely a mat t er of
convenience.

The logarit hm has a jump discont inuit y of 2πi when crossing t he branch cut . The logarit hm can be
made cont inuous by gluing t oget her count ably many copies, called sheets, of t he complex plane
along t he branch cut . On each sheet , t he value of t he log differs from it s principal value by a
mult iple of 2πi. These surfaces are glued t o each ot her along t he branch cut in t he unique way t o
make t he logarit hm cont inuous. Each t ime t he variable goes around t he origin, t he logarit hm
moves t o a different branch.

Continuum of poles

One reason t hat branch cut s are common feat ures of complex analysis is t hat a branch cut can
be t hought of as a sum of infinit ely many poles arranged along a line in t he complex plane wit h
infinit esimal residues. For example,

is a funct ion wit h a simple pole at z = a. Int egrat ing over t he locat ion of t he pole:
defines a funct ion u(z) wit h a cut from −1 t o 1. The branch cut can be moved around, since t he
int egrat ion line can be shift ed wit hout alt ering t he value of t he int egral so long as t he line does
not pass across t he point z.

Riemann surfaces

The concept of a branch point is defined for a holomorphic funct ion ƒ:X → Y from a compact
connect ed Riemann surface X t o a compact Riemann surface Y (usually t he Riemann sphere).
Unless it is const ant , t he funct ion ƒ will be a covering map ont o it s image at all but a finit e
number of point s. The point s of X where ƒ fails t o be a cover are t he ramificat ion point s of ƒ, and
t he image of a ramificat ion point under ƒ is called a branch point .

For any point P ∈ X and Q = ƒ(P) ∈ Y, t here are holomorphic local coordinat es z for X near P and w
for Y near Q in t erms of which t he funct ion ƒ(z) is given by

for some int eger k. This int eger is called t he ramificat ion index of P. Usually t he ramificat ion index
is one. But if t he ramificat ion index is not equal t o one, t hen P is by definit ion a ramificat ion point ,
and Q is a branch point .

If Y is just t he Riemann sphere, and Q is in t he finit e part of Y, t hen t here is no need t o select
special coordinat es. The ramificat ion index can be calculat ed explicit ly from Cauchy's int egral
formula. Let γ be a simple rect ifiable loop in X around P. The ramificat ion index of ƒ at P is

This int egral is t he number of t imes ƒ(γ) winds around t he point Q. As above, P is a ramificat ion
point and Q is a branch point if eP > 1.

Algebraic geometry

In t he cont ext of algebraic geomet ry, t he not ion of branch point s can be generalized t o
mappings bet ween arbit rary algebraic curves. Let ƒ:X → Y be a morphism of algebraic curves. By
pulling back rat ional funct ions on Y t o rat ional funct ions on X, K(X) is a field ext ension of K(Y).
The degree of ƒ is defined t o be t he degree of t his field ext ension [K(X):K(Y)], and ƒ is said t o be
finit e if t he degree is finit e.
Assume t hat ƒ is finit e. For a point P ∈ X, t he ramificat ion index eP is defined as follows. Let
Q = ƒ(P) and let t be a local uniformizing paramet er at P; t hat is, t is a regular funct ion defined in a
neighborhood of Q wit h t(Q) = 0 whose different ial is nonzero. Pulling back t by ƒ defines a regular
funct ion on X. Then

where v P is t he valuat ion in t he local ring of regular funct ions at P. That is, eP is t he order t o which
vanishes at P. If eP > 1, t hen ƒ is said t o be ramified at P. In t hat case, Q is called a branch
point .

Notes

1. (Ablowitz & Fokas 2003, p. 46)

2. Ahlfors 1979

3. Solomentsev 2001; Markushevich 1965

4. "Logarithmic branch point - Encyclopedia of Mathematics" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.

php/Logarithmic_branch_point) . www.encyclopediaofmath.org. Retrieved 2019-06-11.

References

Ablowit z, Mark J.; Fokas, At hanassios S. (2003), Complex Variables: Introduction and
Applications, Cambridge Text s in Applied Mat hemat ics (2nd ed.), Cambridge Universit y Press,
ISBN 978-0-521-53429-1

Ahlfors, L. V. (1979), Complex Analysis, New York: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-000657-7

Arfken, G. B.; Weber, H. J. (2000), Mathematical Methods for Physicists (5t h ed.), Bost on, MA:
Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-059825-0

Hart shorne, Robin (1977), Algebraic Geometry, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-
387-90244-9, MR 0463157 (ht t ps://www.ams.org/mat hscinet -get it em?mr=0463157) ,
OCLC 13348052 (ht t ps://www.worldcat .org/oclc/13348052)

Markushevich, A. I. (1965), Theory of functions of a complex variable. Vol. I, Translat ed and

edit ed by Richard A. Silverman, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prent ice-Hall Inc., MR 0171899 (ht t ps://
www.ams.org/mat hscinet -get it em?mr=0171899)
 Soloment sev, E.D. (2001) [1994], "Branch point " (ht t ps://www.encyclopediaofmat h.org/index.ph
p?t it le=Branch_ point ) , Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press

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