AZA SSP BLACK RHINOCEROS (Diceros bicornis)

VETERINARY UPDATE
2011-2013

Michele Miller, DVM, PhD

Veterinary Advisor
Black Rhinoceros Species Survival Plan

Eric Miller, DVM, Dipl. ACZM

Veterinary Advisor
Rhinoceros TAG/SSP

VETERINARY MEDICINE
For any veterinary issues related to black rhinoceros, please contact Dr. Michele Miller, phone
(561) 345-9085; e-mail: michelemiller128@gmail.com.

Please continue to contact Dr. Mary Duncan at the Saint Louis Zoo in the event of a black
rhinoceros mortality (email: duncan@stlzoo.org). A copy of the TAG “Veterinary/Nutrition
Blood and Tissue Collection Protocol for Rhinoceros” is available on the AAZV website (under
“SSP/TAG/VAG information”).

Veterinary Blood and Tissue Collection Protocol

This protocol is reviewed on a regular basis (latest version dated January 2012). The protocol
is available on the AAZV website (www.aazv.org) in the “members only” section under
“SSP/TAG/VAG Information – Necropsy and Pathology Protocols”. This protocol provides up-
to-date sample and contact information for research projects and other tissue/serum requests.
Those researchers interested in materials for TAG-approved research projects should contact the
veterinary advisor with any updates.

SSP/TAG/VAG Protocols for Rhinoceros

Recommended protocols for routine preventive health programs for rhinoceros, preshipment
exams, transport and quarantine have been developed by the rhino SSP/TAG to help standardize
these procedures between institutions. The latest versions have been revised and are dated
January 2012. These are available on the AAZV website or by contacting Dr. Michele Miller.

Revised AZA Rhinoceros Husbandry Manual

The TAG/SSP Rhinoceros Advisors and others are working to create an electronic version of the
Rhinoceros Husbandry Manual that will be more easily searchable for information. An
expanded veterinary section has been included.

Rhinoceros Websites
In addition to the AAZV website, several other websites with rhinoceros information may be of
interest to veterinarians and other involved professionals.

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AZA Rhino Taxon Advisory Group (TAG)
http://www.rhinos-irf.org/technicalprograms/captiveprograms/regionalprograms/northamerica/tag.htm

Rhino Resource Center

http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/

Black Rhinoceros Iron Overload Disorder

The presentations from the workshop held at Disney’s Animal Kingdom in February 2011 have
been published in a special supplement of the Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine (September
2012). Iron storage disease has now been renamed “Iron Overload Disorder” (IOD). In addition
to the presentations, recommendations for research and other focused priorities have been
outlined by working groups in the supplement.

Therapeutic phlebotomy has been used at some institutions. This summary is provided by
Natalie Mylniczenko:
“With voluntary phlebotomy procedures, we have had some big improvements in ferritin and iron saturations in 2 of
our animals; one of animals was not participating as vigorously and so we didn’t see a substantial change, but she
was also one of the older animals, so she had a lot of iron that needed removal before we anticipated a change. We
have had a set back because vacuum bottles are no longer available, but we are creating some methods by which to
continue to phlebotomies (modification of vacuum suction devices).” She reports collecting volumes between 2-4
liters monthly up to 4-5 liters biweekly.

Idiopathic Hemorrhagic Vasculopathy Syndrome

Cases of IHVS continue to be reported in black rhino, particularly in Texas. Etiology is
unknown and treatment is supportive care. There appears to be increased occurrence during
colder months of the year and may also be associated with concurrent health issues.

Black Rhino Research Updates

A research project to evaluate serum ferritin in black rhinoceros in southern Africa using the
Kansas State University assay for comparison to U.S. black rhinos is underway. Since ferritin
assays vary based on the standards used, this will provide a standardized assay for comparison
iron stores of free-ranging and boma-confined rhinoceros to zoo animals.

The AZA Rhino Research Council is meeting in late August to re-evaluate the 2009 Research
Priorities, which include rhino health, nutrition, reproduction, genetics, management, and
conservation. These will provide future direction for funding, research, and conservation
covering all the rhinoceros species.

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MORTALITY DATA
Black Rhinoceros Deaths
January 1, 2011 – December 31, 2012

Southern Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis minor)

SB#/Institution Sex DOB DOD Cause of Death

None

Eastern Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis michaeli)

SB#/Institution Sex DOB DOD Cause of Death

364/San Antonio F 27Dec85 7Feb11 Hx of IVHS, dermatitis, chronic IBD

–lymphoplasmacytic enterocolitis, glomerulosclerosis and mineralization, mineralization in
foot/jt, hemosiderosis

365/Brookfield F 18Jan85 29Sep11 Hx of renal disease – severe

nephritis, poor body condition

332/Denver M 11Jan83 15Nov11 Pending necropsy report

488/Columbus M 6Oct93 28Dec11 Acute necrotizing typhlocolitis (r/o

Clostridial inf), nephritis, SND

376/Portland M 7May87 21Feb12 Hx chronic ISD, epistaxis, pustular

dermatitis – iron overload disease, nephrosclerosis, metastatic mineralization, hypertension

377/San Francisco M 21Jul87 27Feb12 Hx renal disease, epistaxis, dental dz

–marked glomerulonephropathy and neprhosclerosis, hemosiderosis

301/Sedgewick M 25Feb80 17Apr12 Pending necropsy report

363/Brookfield M 14Dec85 5Nov12 Hx chronic renal dz, dental dz,

dermatitis – nephritis and glomerulonephropathy, secondary mineralization, hemosiderosis,
bronchopneumonia, gastritis

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Rhino Health Bibliograph (2009-2013) – All Species
Anderson, C. 2012 Surveillance for anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
sympatric with the Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) population in Ujung Kulon National Park,
Indonesia. Report to Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, pp. 1-2
Andriansyah, Candra D, Marcellus ACT R, Barry J and RW Radcliffe. 2013. Hematology and serum
biochemistry of Sumatran rhinoceroses (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) in a rainforest sanctuary in Way Kambas
National Park, Indonesia. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 44(2): 280-284.
Ball, R.L.; Larsen, R.; Wagman, J. 2011 Investigating the hemoglobin of white rhinoceros
(Cerathotherium simum simum) and possible implications for anesthesia. Proceedings of the 2011
International Elephant and Rhino Conservation and Research Symposium, Rotterdam 10-14 October 2011:
1497-1521
Ball, R.L.; Mueller, S. 2011 Hemosiderosis and clinical findings consistent with Black Rhino Syndromes in
Greater One Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Proceedings of the 2011 International Elephant and
Rhino Conservation and Research Symposium, Rotterdam 10-14 October 2011: 1283-1308
Ball, R.L.; Wunder, S. 2011 Comparison of serum electrolytes and minerals between wild, captive
concentrate fed, and captive forage on fed White rhinoceros (Cerathotherium simum simum). Proceedings of
the 2011 International Elephant and Rhino Conservation and Research Symposium, Rotterdam 10-14
October 2011: 1159-1194
Bertelsen, M.; Steele, S.L.; Grondahl, C.; Baandrup, U. 2011 Pheochromocytoma in a white rhinoceros
(Ceratotherium simum). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 42 (3): 521-523
Bryant, B. 2012 Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis cultured from the faeces of a black rhinoceros
(Diceros bicornis minor) and observations subsequent to anti-tuberculous therapy. Proceedings of the 11th
Interinational Colloquium on Paratuberculosis 5-10 February Sydmey, p.241
Bryk, J.M. 2009 Effect of increased activity on metabolic markers in captive black rhino: a pilot study.
Project report to the Ohio State University, pp. 1-21
Candra, D.; Radcliffe, R.W.; Andriansyah; Khan, M.; I-Hsien Tsu; Paglia, D.E. 2012 Browse diversity
and iron loading in captive sumatran rhinoceroses (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis): a comparison of sanctuary
and zoological populations . Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43 (3s): S66-S73
Citino, S.; Bryant, B.; Duncan, M.; Fleming, F.; Hofmeyr, M.; Miller, E.; Miller, M.; Mylniczenko, N.;
Paglia, D.; Radcliffe, R. 2012 IOD in rhinos—veterinary group report: report from the clinical medicine
and pathology working group of the international workshop on iron overload disorder in browsing rhinoceros
(February 2011). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43 (3s): S105-S107
Clauss, M. and Paglia, D.E. 2012 Iron storage disorders in captive wild mammals: the comparative
evidence. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43 (3s): S6-S18
Clauss, M.; Dierenfeld, E. ; Goff, J.; Klasing, K.; Koutsos, L.; Lavin, S.; Livingston, S.; Nielson, B.;
Schlegel, M.; Sullivan, K.; Valdes, E. and Ward, A. 2012 IOD in rhinos—nutrition group report: report
from the nutrition working group of the international workshop on iron overload disorder in browsing
rhinoceros (February 2011). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43 (3s): S108-S113
Dennis, P.; Ellis, S.; Mellen, J.; Lee, P.; Olea-Popelka, F.; Petric, A.; Ryder, O. 2012 IOD in rhinos—
Epidemiology Group report: report from the epidemiology working group of the international workshop on
iron overload disorder in browsing rhinoceros (February 2011). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43 (3s):
S114-S116
Devkota, R. A.; Branta, S.V.; Thapa, R.A.; Loker, E.S. 2013 Sharing schistosomes: the elephant
schistosome Bivitellobilharzia nairi also infects the greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in
Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Journal of Helminthology DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0022149X12000697: 1-9
Dorsey, C.L.; Dennis, P.; Fascetti, A.J.; Wood, T.; Brown, J.L. 2010 Hypoaminoacidemia is not
associated with ulcerative lesions in black rhinoceroses. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 41 (1): 22-27
Dorsey, C.; Dennis, P., Guagnano, G., Wood, T., Brown, J.L. 2010 Decreased baseline fecal
glucocorticoid concentrations associated with skin and oral lesions in black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 41 (4): 616-625
Droma, A. 2012 The monitoring of rhino health through bleeding at the Uganda Wildlife Education Centre.
Proceedings of the International Conference of Zookeepers (Singapore, September 2012), pp. 1-30
Duncan, A.E.; Lyashchenko, K.; Greenwald, R.; Miller, M.; Ball, R. 2009 Application of Elephant TB
STAT-PAK assay and MAPIA (multi-antigen print immunoassay) for detection of tuberculosis and monitoring
of treatment in black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 40 (4): 781-785
Espie, I.W.; Hlokwe, T.M.; Gey van Pittius, N.C.; Lane, E.P.; Tordiffe, A.S.W.; Michel, A.L.; Muller,
A.; Kotze, A.; Van Helden, P.D. 2011 Diagnosis and implications of Mycobacterium bovis in a black
rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis minor) in South Africa. Proceedings of 8th International Conference on
Behaviour, Physiology and Genetics of Wildlife, Berlin 2011, 14
Espie, I.W.; Hlokwe, T.M.; Pittius, N.C. Gey van; Lane, E.; Tordiffe, A.S.W.; Michel, A.L.; Muller, A.;

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Kotze, A.; Helden, P.D. van 2009 Pulmonary Infection due to Mycobacterium bovis in a Black Rhinoceros
(Diceros bicornis minor) in South Africa. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 45 (4): 1187-1193
Galateanu, G.; Hildebrandt, T.B.; Maillot, A.; Etienne, P.; Potier, R.; Mulot, B.; Saragusty, J.;
Hermes, R., 2013. One small step for rhinos, one giant leap for wildlife management- imaging diagnosis of
bone pathology in distal limb. PLoS ONE 8 (7): e68493. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0068493

Ganz, T.; Goff, J.; Klasing, K.; Nemeth, E.; Roth, T. 2012 IOD in rhinos—immunity group report: report
from the immunity, genetics and toxicology working group of the international workshop on iron overload
disorder in browsing rhinoceros (February 2011). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43 (3s): S1117-S119
Ganz, T.; Nemeth, E. 2012 Iron homeostasis and its disorders in mice and men: potential lessons for
rhinos. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43 (3s): S19-S26
Govender, D.; Oosthuizen, M.C.; Penzhorn, B.L. 2011 Piroplasm parasites of white rhinoceroses
(Ceratotherium simum) in the Kruger National Park, and their relation to anaemia. Journal of the South
African Veterinary Association 82 (1) : 36-40
Harrison, T.M.; Stanley, B.J.; Sikarskie, J.G.; Bohart, G.; Ames, N.K.; Tomlian, J.; Marquardt, M.;
Marcum, A.; Kiupel, M.; Sledge, D.; Agnew, D. 2011 Surgical amputation of a digit and vacuum-
assisted-closure (V.A.C.) management in a case of osteomyelitis and wound care in an Eastern Black
Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis michaeli). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 42 (2): 317-321
Helary, S.F.; Shaw, J.A.; Brown, D.; Clauss, M.; Owen-Smith, N. 2012 Black rhinoceros (Diceros
bicornis) natural diets: comparing iron levels across seasons and geographical locations. Journal of Zoo and
Wildlife Medicine 43 (3s): S48-S54
Jago, M.; Morkel, P.v.d.B.; DuPreez, P.; Gleed, R.D.; Flaminio, M.J.B.F.; Nydam, D.V.; Taft, A.A.;
Lain, D.; Radcliffe, R.W. 2009 Postural changes and end-tidal carbon dioxide in the black rhinoceros
(Diceros bicornis) and its importance to field anesthesia. Poster presentation of 2009: 1
Kretzschmar, P.; Sipangkui, R.; Schaffer, N.E. 2009 Eye disorders in captive Sumatran rhinoceros
(Dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni) in Sabah, Malaysia. Proceedings of the international conference on
diseases of zoo and wild animals 2009: 236-242
Kruger, M.; Pitts, N.I.; Virgo, J.; Betts, E.; Delk, K.; Fayrer-Hosken, R.A. 2010 Development of field
assay for evaluation of white rhinoceros neutrophil function as a stress marker. Reproduction, Fertility and
Development 23 (1): 181-182
Lavin, S.R. 2012 Plant phenolics and their potential role in mitigating iron overload disorder in wild
animals. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43 (3s): S74-S82
Lembo. T.; Hampson, K.; Auty, H.; Beesley, C.A.; Bessell, P.; Packer, C.; Halliday, J.; Fyumagwa,
R.; Hoare, R.; Ernest, E.; Mentzel, C., Mlengeya, T., Stamey, K., Wilkins, P.O., Cleaveland, S. 2011
Serologic surveillance of anthrax in the Serengeti ecosystem, Tanzania, 1996-2009. Emerging Infectious
Diseases 17 (3): 387-394
Mathebula, N.; Miller, M.; Buss, P.; Joubert, J.; Martin, L.; Kruger, M.; Hofmeyr, M.; Olea-Popelka,
F. 2012 Biochemical values in free-ranging white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) in Kruger National
Park, South Africa. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43 (3): 530–538
Miller, M.; Foggin, C.; Peacocke, M. 2012 Blood gas measurements in a white rhinoceros calf using i-stat
handheld clinical analyzer. DVM Magazine 2012 (January-February): 23-24
Miller, M.; Olea-Popelka, F.; Joubert, J.; Mathebula, N.; Zimmerman, D.; Hausler, G.; Dreyer, C.;
Hofmeyr, M.; Buss, P. 2012 Serum iron and selected biochemical values in free-ranging black rhinoceros
(Diceros bicornis) from South Africa. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43 (3s): S55–S60
Mondal, S.; Manna, B. 2010 Probstmayria bengalensis n.sp. (Cosmocercoidea: Atractidae) in captive
Indian one horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) from Alipore Zoological Garden, Calcutta, West Bengal,
India. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of Calcutta 63 (2): 129-134
Morar, D. 2009 Development of ELISAs for the detection of interferon-gamma in rhinoceroses and
elephants as diagnostic tools for Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections. Ph.D.
Dissertation presented to the University of Pretoria, pp. 187
Morkel, P.v.d.B.; Miller, M.; Jago, M.; Radcliffe, R.W.; Du Preez, P.; Olea-Popelka, F.; Sefton, J.;
Taft, A.; Nydam, D.; Gleed, R.D. 2012 Serial temperature monitoring and comparison of rectal and
muscle temperatures in immobilized free-ranging black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). Journal of Zoo and
Wildlife Medicine 43 (1): 120-124
Morkel, P.v.d.B.; Radcliffe, R.W.; Jago, M.; Du Preez, P.; Flaminio, M.J.B.F.; Nydam, D.V.; Taft, A.;
Lain, D.; Miller, M.M.; Gleed, R.D. 2010 Acid-base balance and ventilation during sternal and lateral
recumbency in field immobilized black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) receiving oxygen insufflation: a
preliminary report. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 46 (1): 236-245
Mutinda, M.; Otiende, M; Gakuya, F.; Kariuki, L.; Obanda, V.; Ndeere, D.; Ndambiri, E.; Kariuki, E.;
Lekolool, I.; Soriguer, R.C.; Rossi, L.; Alasaad, S. 2012 Putative filariosis outbreak in white and black
rhinoceros at Meru National Park in Kenya. Parasites & Vectors 5: 206 (5 pp.)

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Mylniczenko, N.D.; Sullivan, K.E.; Corcoran, M.E.; Fleming, G.J.; Valdes, E.V. 2012 Management
strategies of iron accumulation in a captive population of black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis minor).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43 (3s): S83-S91
Ndeereh, D.; Okita-Ouma, B.; Gaymer, J.; Mutinda, M.; Gakuya, F. 2012 Unusual mortalities of
Eastern Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis michaeli) due to Clostridial Enterotoxaemia in Ol Jogi Pyramid
Sanctuary, Kenya. Pachyderm 51: 45-51
Nielsen, B.D.; Vick, M.M. ; Dennis, P.M. 2012 A potential link between insulin resistance and iron
overload disorder in browsing rhinoceroses investigated through the use of an equine model . Journal of Zoo
and Wildlife Medicine 43 (3s): S61-S65
Obanda, V.; Kagira, J.M.; Chege, S.; Okita-Ouma, B.; Gakuya, F. 2011 Trypanosomosis and other co-
infections in translocated black (Diceros bicornis michaeli) and white (Ceratotherium simum simum)
rhinoceroses in Kenya. Scientific Parasitology 12 (2): 103-107
Oberholster, P.J.; Myburgh, J.G.; Govender, D.; Bengis, R.; Botha, A-M. 2009 Identification of
toxigenic microcystis strains after incidents of wild animal mortalities in the Kruger National Park, South
Africa. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety Journal 72 (4): 1177-1182
Octalia, R, Anderson, CE, Khairani, KO, and RW Radcliffe. 2012. Surveillance for Anthrax (Bacillus
anthracis) in Villages Surrounding Ujung Kulon National Park to Conserve the Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros
sondaicus) in Indonesia: Preliminary Findings. Proceedings Indonesian Veterinary Medical Association
Meeting, Yogyakarta Indonesia (Recipient of Award for Merit).
Olias, P.; Mundhenk, L.; Bothe, M.; Ochs, A.; Gruber, A.D.; Klopfleisch, R. 2012 Iron Overload
Syndrome in the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis): microscopical lesions and comparison with other
rhinoceros Species. Journal of Comparative Pathology 147 (4): 542-549
Osterhaus, A. 2011 Emerging viral diseases in wildlife with special emphasis on elephants and rhinos.
Program (abstracts) of the 2011 International Elephant and Rhino Conservation and Research Symposium,
Rotterdam 10-14 October 2011: 22-23
Paglia,D.E.; I-Hsien Tsu 2012 Review of laboratory and necropsy evidence for iron storage disease
acquired by browser rhinoceroses. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43 (3s): S92-104
Ruetten, M.; Steinmetz, H.W.; Clauss, M.; Pospischi, A. 2009 Haemochromatosis in the black
rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis michaeli): acquired or congenital. ESVP/ECVP Proceedings 2009: 306
Sangster, C.; Bryant, B.; Campbell-Ward, M.; King, J.S.; Slapeta, J. 2010 Neosporosis in an aborted
southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) fetus. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 41 (4):
725-728
Schaftenaar, W.. 2011 Chronic perforating foot sole lesions in 2 captive great Indian rhinoceroses
(Rhinoceros unicornis). Proceedings of the 2011 International Elephant and Rhino Conservation and
Research Symposium, Rotterdam 10-14 October 2011: 1359-1454
Sommanustweechai, A.; Vongpakorn, M.; Kasantikul, T.; Taewnean, J.; Siriaroonrat, B.; Bush, M.;
Pirarat, N. 2010 Systemic neosporosis in a white rhinoceros. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 41 (1):
165-168
Steinmetz, H.W.; Eulenberger, U.; Riond, B.; Schwarzwald, C.; Hatt, J.M. 2009 Successful treatment
of a Streptococcus meningoencephalitis in a black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis michaeli). Proceedings of the
international conference on diseases of zoo and wild animals 2009: 132-133
Stetter, M.; Hendrickson, D.A. 2011 Laparoscopic surgery in the elephant and rhinoceros. In: Fowler's
zoo and wild animal medicine: Current therapy, vol. 7, pp. 524-530
Stringer, A. 2012 Investigating the parasites of black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). Report to Mare,ami
Nature Reserve, South Africa: pp. 1-3
Stringer, E.M.; De Voe, R.S.; Linder, K.; Troan, B.; McCalla-Martin, A.; Loomis, M.R. 2012
Vesiculobullous skin reaction temporally related to Firocoxib treatment in a white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium
simum). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43 (1): 186-189
Sulinawati; Saputra, I G.N.A. W.A.; Priono, T.H. ; Ediwan; Slamet; Candra, D. 2013 Kecacingan
Trematoda Schistosoma spp. Pada Badak Sumatera (Dicerorhinus Sumatrensis) di Taman Nasional Way
Kambas. bppvlampung.com January 2013: 23-28
Takle, G.L.; Suedmeyer, W.K.; Garner, M.M. 2010 Diagnosis and treatment of vitiligo in a sub-adult
eastern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis michaeli). Journal of Zoo Wildlife Medicine 41(3): 545-549
Valverde, A.; Crawshaw, G.J.; Cribb, N.; Bellei, M.; Gianoti, G.; Arroyo, L.; Koenig, J.; Kummrow,
M.; Costa, M.C. 2010 Anesthetic management of a white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) undergoing an
emergency exploratory celiotomy for colic. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 37: 280-285
Wack, A.N.; Miller, C.L.; Wood, C.E.; Garner, M.M.; Haefele, H.J. 2010 Melanocytic neoplasms in a
black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) and an Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Journal of Zoo and
Wildlife Medicine 41 (1): 95-103
Wallace, R.S.; Clyde, V.L.; Steinberg, H. 2009 Coccidioidomycosis in a black rhinoceros (Diceros
bicornis). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 40 (2): 365-368

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Walzer, C.; Goeritz, F.; Hermes, R.; Nathan, S.; Kretzschmar, P.; Hildebrandt, T. 2010
Immobilization and intravenous anesthesia in a Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis). Journal of
Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 41 (1): 115-120
Wyss, F.; Wenker, C.; Robert, N.; Clauss, M.; Houwald, F. von 2012 Why do Greater one-horned
rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis) die? - An evaluation of necropsy reports. International Conference on
Diseases of Zoo and Wild Animals, Bussulengo/Verona, Italy, 16 May 2012 - 19 May 2012: pp. 54-61
Zeiler, G.E.; Stegmann, G.F. 2012 Anaesthetic management of a 10-month-old white rhinoceros
(Ceratotherium simum) calf for emergency exploratory celiotomy. Journal of the South African Veterinary
Association 83 (1): 1-5