Comm 202

DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY

ZARIA, NIGERIA.
COURSE MATERIAL
FOR
Programme Title: BACHELOR IN NURSING SCIENCE (BNSc)
Course Code &Course Title: COMM 202: MAN & HIS ENVIRONMENT
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COPYRIGHT PAGE
© 2018 Distance Learning Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, ABU Zaria, Nigeria
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the
Director, Distance Learning Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, ABU Zaria, Nigeria.
First published 2018 in Nigeria.
ISBN:
Published and printed in Nigeria by:
Ahmadu Bello University Press Ltd.
Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria, Nigeria.
Tel: +234
E-mail:
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COURSE WRITERS/DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Sani Mohammed SANI ABU DLC Subject Matter Reviewers
Enegoloinu Adakole ABU DLC Language Reviewer
Dr. Fatima Kabir ABU DLC Instructional Designers/Graphics
Prof. A. Z. Hassan ABU DLC Editor
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CO Carbon monoxide
db Decibel
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
GHGs Green-house gases
HF Hydrogen fluoride
H2S Hydrogen sulphide
ITN Insecticide treated net
N2 Nitrogen
NO Nitrogen monoxide
O2 Oxygen
SO2 Sulphur dioxide
SO3 Sulphur trioxide
TLC Threshold limit value
TV Television
UV Ultraviolet
VIP Ventilated improved pit latrine

WHO World Health Organization
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Course Writers/Development Team 4

List of acronym 5
Table of Content 6
COURSE STUDY GUIDE

1.0 Course Information 8
2.0 Course Introduction and Description 9
3.0 Course Prerequisites 10
4.0 Course Learning Resources 11
5.0 Course Objectives and Outcomes 12
6.0 Activities to Meet Course Objectives 13
7.0 Time (To Complete Syllabus/Course) 14

8.0 Grading Criteria and Scale 15
9.0 OER Resources
10.0 DLC Academic Calendar/Planner
11.0 Course Study Guide and Outline 16
12.0 STUDY MODULES 21
12.1 Module 1: Introduction to Environment Health
Study Session 1: The concept of environment 23
Study Session 2 : Effects of the environment on health 27
12.2 Module 2: Components of Environment Health I

Study Session 1: Housing 39
Study Session 2: Water and sanitation 49
Study Session 3: Waste management 56
Study Session 4: Vector control 68
12.3 Module 3: Components Of Environment Health II

Study Session 1: Air pollution 73
Study Session 2: Noise Pollution 80
Study Session 3: Radiation 85
Study Session 4: Climate change 91
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COURSE STUDY GUIDE
1.0 COURSE INFORMATION
Course Code: COMM 202
Course Title: Man and His Environment
Credit Units: 2
Year of Study: Two
Semester: Second
2.0 COURSE INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION

In this series of lectures, you will learn about the concept of environment and
environmental health, the various components of environmental health as well as
the effects of environmental factors on health and diseases:
3.0 COURSE PREREQUISITES

Pass all lower courses. you are expected to have:
1. Satisfactory level of English proficiency
2. Basic Computer Operations proficiency
3. Online interaction proficiency
4. Web 2.0 and Social media interactive skills
4.0 COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES

1. Park, K. (2005) Park’s Textbook of Preventive & Social Medicine, India:
Banarsidas Bhanot Publishers.
2. Moeller DW. Environmental health. 3rd Ed. Havard University Press,
Massachussets 2005, pp 1-532
3. Nriagu JO. Encyclopedia of Environmental Health. Elsevier, London 2011.
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Pp2-123
4. Adams J, Bartram J, Chartier Y. Essential Environmental Health Standards
in Health Care. World Health Organization, Geneva 2008.pp1-27
5. Gurjar BR, Molina LT, Ojha CSP (Eds). Air pollution: Health and
environmental impacts. CRC Press, New York
6. Campbell-Lendrum DH, Corvalan CF, Ebi KL, Githeko A, Scheraga JD,
Woodward A (Eds). Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and
Responses. World Health Organization, Geneva 2003.pp1-283
7. Murphy E, and King E, Environmental Noise Pollution: Noise Mapping,
Public Health, and Policy. Elsevier, San Diego 2014. Pp 1-260
8. Holmes-Siedle A, Adams L. Handbook of Radiation Effects. OUP Oxford,
2002;pp 1-640
9. Butler CD (ed). Climate Change and Global Health. CABI Oxfordshire
2016. Pp1-293
10.3. Marsh A, Gordon D, Pantazis C and Heslop P. Home Sweet Home? The
impact of poor housing on health. The Policy Press, Bristol 1999 pp 1-56
11.Kumar HD. Environmental pollution and waste management. MD
publications. New Delhi 1998.pp 1-187
12.Rozendaal JA. Vector control: Methods for use by individuals and
communities. World health organization, Geneva 1997 pp1-12
5.0 COURSE OUTCOMES

After completion of this course, you should be able to:
1. Define environment and the concept of environmental health
2. Discuss the relationship between man and his environment
3. Discuss the various components of environmental health
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4. Describe global warming and its effects on health and diseases
6.0 ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES

Specifically, this course shall comprise of the following activities:
1. Studying courseware
2. Listening to course audios
3. Watching relevant course videos
4. Field activities, industrial attachment or internship, laboratory or
studio work (whichever is applicable)
5. Course assignments (individual and group)
6. Forum discussion participation
7. Tutorials (optional)
8. Semester examinations (CBT and essay based).
7.0 TIME (TO COMPLETE SYLABUS/COURSE)

To cope with this course, you would be expected to commit a minimum of 3 hours
weekly for the Course (study, assignments & Forum discussions).
viii. GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE

Grading Criteria
A. Formative assessment
Grades will be based on the following:
Individual assignments/test (CA 1,2 etc) 20
Group assignments (GCA 1, 2 etc) 10
Discussions/Quizzes/Out of class engagements etc 10
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B. Summative assessment (Semester examination)
CBT based 30
Essay based 30
TOTAL 100%
C. Grading Scale:
A = 70-100
B = 60 – 69
C = 50 - 59
D = 45-49
F = 0-44
D. Feedback
Courseware based:
1. In-text questions and answers (answers preceding references)
2. Self-assessment questions and answers (answers preceding references)
Tutor based:
1. Discussion Forum tutor input
2. Graded Continuous assessments
Student based:
1. Online programme assessment (administration, learning resource,
deployment, and assessment).
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IX LINKS TO OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCES
OSS Watch provides tips for selecting open source, or for procuring free or open
software.
SchoolForge and SourceForge are good places to find, create, and publish open
software. SourceForge, for one, has millions of downloads each day.
Open Source Education Foundation and Open Source Initiative, and other
organisation like these, help disseminate knowledge.
Creative Commons has a number of open projects from Khan
Academy to Curriki where teachers and parents can find educational materials for
children or learn about Creative Commons licenses. Also, they recently launched
the School of Open that offers courses on the meaning, application, and impact of
"openness."
Numerous open or open educational resource databases and search engines
exist. Some examples include:
• OEDb: over 10,000 free courses from universities as well as reviews of colleges
and rankings of college degree programmes
• Open Tapestry: over 100,000 open licensed online learning resources for an
academic and general audience
• OER Commons: over 40,000 open educational resources from elementary school
through to higher education; many of the elementary, middle, and high school
resources are aligned to the Common Core State Standards
• Open Content: a blog, definition, and game of open source as well as a friendly
search engine for open educational resources from MIT, Stanford, and other
universities with subject and description listings
• Academic Earth: over 1,500 video lectures from MIT, Stanford, Berkeley,
Harvard, Princeton, and Yale
• JISC: Joint Information Systems Committee works on behalf of UK higher
education and is involved in many open resources and open projects including
digitising British newspapers from 1620-1900!
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Other sources for open education resources
Universities
• The University of Cambridge's guide on Open Educational Resources for Teacher
Education (ORBIT)
• OpenLearn from Open University in the UK
Global
• Unesco's searchable open database is a portal to worldwide courses and research
initiatives
• African Virtual University (http://oer.avu.org/) has numerous modules on subjects
in English, French, and Portuguese
• https://code.google.com/p/course-builder/ is Google's open source software that is
designed to let anyone create online education courses
• Global Voices (http://globalvoicesonline.org/) is an international community of
bloggers who report on blogs and citizen media from around the world, including
on open source and open educational resources
Individuals (which include OERs)
• Librarian Chick: everything from books to quizzes and videos here, includes
directories on open source and open educational resources
• K-12 Tech Tools: OERs, from art to special education
• Web 2.0: Cool Tools for Schools: audio and video tools
• Web 2.0 Guru: animation and various collections of free open source software
• Livebinders: search, create, or organise digital information binders by age, grade,
or subject (why re-invent the wheel?)
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10.0 ABU DLC ACADEMIC CALENDAR/PLANNER
PERIOD
Semester 1 Semester 2 Semester 3
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV
N.B: - Semester Examinations 1st/2nd Week January

- All Sessions commence Mid-February
- 1 Week break between Semesters and 4 Weeks vocation at end of session.
- Semester 3 is OPTIONAL (Fast-tracking, making up carry-overs &
deferments)
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9.0 COURSE STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE
9.1 Course Structure
WEEK MODULE STUDY SESSION ACTIVITY
Study Session 1: 1. Read Courseware for Study Session 1.

Concept of environment 2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 1
Week 1 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 1
4. View U-tube(https://bit.ly/2XTPBsS )
STUDY
Study Session 2 1. Read Courseware for Study Session 2.
The effects of the 2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 2
MODULE 1 environment on health 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 2
Week 2 & 3
4. View U-tube(https://bit.ly/2UxypHn)
Study Session 1 1. Read Courseware for Study Session 1

Housing 2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 1
4. View U-tube(https://bit.ly/2F3CXPl)

Water and sanitation 2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 2
Week 5 & 6 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 2
4. View U-tube(https://bit.ly/2zguwii)
STUDY Study Session 3 1. Read Courseware for Study Session 3

Waste management 2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 3
Week 7 MODULE 2 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 3
4. View U- tube(https://bit.ly/2XZ2emn)
Vector control 2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 4
4. View U-tube(https://bit.ly/2HjebhJ)
1. Read Courseware for Study Session 1

Study Session 1 2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 1
Week 9 Air pollution 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 1
4. View U-tube(https://bit.ly/2mlndyO)

Noise pollution 2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 2
4. View U-tube(https://bit.ly/2UCI1AK)
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Radiation 2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 3
Week 11 STUDY 3. Listen to the Audio on Study Session 3
4. View U-tube(https://bit.ly/2ptiFcr)
MODULE 3

Climate change 2. View the Video(s) on Study Session 4
4. View any other Video/U-
tube(https://bit.ly/27TjdGB)
Week 13 ON-CAMPUS TUTORIALS/REVISION
Week 14 & 15 SEMESTER EXAMINATION
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10.2 Course Outline
MODULE 1: Introduction To Environmental Health
Study Session 1: The concepts of environment and environmental health
Study Session 2: Effects of environment on health
MODULE 2: Components Of Environmental Health I

Study Session 1: Housing
Study Session 2: Water and sanitation
Study Session 3: Waste and sewage management
Study Session 4: Vector control
MODULE 2: Components Of Environmental Health II

Study Session 1: Air pollution
Study Session 2: Noise pollution
Study Session 3: Radiation
Study Session 4: Climate change
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12.0 STUDY MODULES
MODULE 1: Introduction To Environmental Health
Contents:
Study Session 1: The concept of environment
Study Session 2: Environmental health
Study Session 3: Relationship between health and environment
Study Session 4: Components of environmental health
STUDY SESSION 1
Introduction To Man And His Environment
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning objectives
2.0 Main Content
2.1 – The concept of environment
2.2 – Environmental health
2.3- Relationship between health and environment
2.4. Components of environmental health
3.0 Tutor marked assignments (individual or group)
4.0 Conclusion/summary
5.0 Self-assessment questions and answers
6.0 References/further readings
Introduction:
Environment implies all the external factors; living and non-living, material and
non-material which surround man, as well as the social and economic conditions
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under which we live.
For descriptive purpose, I shall divide the environment into three:
1. Physical: water, air, soil, housing, wastes, radiation, etc.
2. Biologic: plant and animal life including bacteria, viruses, insects,
rodents, etc.
3. Social: customs, culture, habits, income, occupation, religion, etc.
1.0 Study session learning objectives

After completion of this study session, you are expected to be able to:
1. Define environment
2. Define environmental health
3. Discuss the relationship between health and environment
4. List the components of environmental health
2.0 Main Content

2.1. The Environment
Environment implies all the external factors; living and non-living, material and
non-material which surround man, as well as the social and economic conditions
under which we live.
Environment is divided into three:
1. Physical: water, air, soil, housing, wastes, radiation, etc.
2. Biologic: plant and animal life including bacteria, viruses, insects,
rodents, etc.
3. Social: customs, culture, habits, income, occupation, religion, etc.
In-text Questions
1. What is environment?
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Answer
Environment implies all the external factors; living and non-living, material and non-material
which surround man, as well as the social and economic conditions under which man lives
2.2. Environmental health

Environmental health is the study of all those factors in the environment that can
influence or affect the man’s health. It is also defined as the control of all those
factors in man’s physical environment which exercise or may exercise a
deleterious effect on his physical development, health and survival (World Health
Organization -WHO)
2.3 Relationship Between Health And Environment

The environment as have been stated above plays an important role to man’s
health. The key to man’s health largely lies in his environment. This is true,
because much of man’s ill-health can be traced to unpleasant factors in his
environment. Some of these factors include water pollution, soil pollution, air
pollution, poor housing conditions, presence of animal reservoirs, presence of
insect vectors of diseases etc. All these factors and others found in man’s
environment continues to pose a constant threat to man’s health and well-being.
When environmental factors (whether physical, chemical, biological, sociological)
are tamed, controlled or modified to provide comfort and wellbeing of man, then
human health prevails. When any individual adapts to the prevailing environmental
factors within his or her domain at any time, he is said to be in good health.
However, despite all these, man is often times responsible for the pollution of his
environment through his activities which includes urbanization, industrialization
etc. Therefore, the control of all those factors in man’s physical environment which
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may have a harmful effect on man’s health and survival is important and helps to
maintain and ensure man’s growth and development.
2.4: Components of Environmental Health

The components of environmental health include the following:
1. Control of air pollution
2. Water treatment
3. Ventilation
4. Lighting (illumination)
5. Control of noise pollution
6. Prevention of radiation
7. Provision of safe housing
8. Wastes disposal
9. Vector control
10.Food hygiene
In-text Questions
1. Define environmental health
Answer
1. Environmental health is the study of all those factors in the environment that can influence or
affect the man’s health. It is also defined as the control of all those factors in man’s physical
environment which exercise or may exercise a deleterious effect on his physical development,
health and survival

Q. Discuss the relationship between health and environment
4.0Conclusion/Summary
The environment is includes all external factors; living and non-living, material
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and non-material which surround man, as well as the social and economic
conditions under which man lives. All these factors found in the surroundings
of man can have a harmful effect on man. Therefore the study of the control of
these factors that may be harmful to man’s health and well-being is
environmental health.
5.0Self-assessment questions and answers

1. What are the components of environmental health?
6.0 References/Further Readings

1. René D. (1965) Man and his Environment: Biomedical knowledge and
Social Action. Pan American Sanitary Bureau, Regional Office of the World
Health Organization, Washington DC. Available online at
at:http//:www.pdf.net/manandhisenvironment/biomedicalandsocialaction.pdf
, accessed on 27/8/2018
2. Park.K (2007),Textbook of preventive and social medicine.19thed. Jabalpur:
Banarasidas Bhanot Publishers p.762-68.
3. https://youtu.be/DxmjMH600aw
4. Moeller DW. Environmental health. 3rd Ed. Havard University Press,
Massachussets 2005, pp 1-532
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STUDY SESSION 2
Effects of Environmental Factors on Man
Section and Sub-section Headings
Introduction
2.0 Main content
2.1 – Health and its determinants
2.2 - Environment
2.3 - Environmental factors and/hazards affecting health
4.0Conclusion/summary
Introduction:
Health is a common theme in most cultures among different people. In fact, all
communities have their concepts of health, as part of their culture and beliefs. One
of the oldest definitions of health still probably in use is the “absence of disease”.
In some cultures health and harmony are considered equivalent, harmony being
defined as “being at peace with oneself, the community, god and cosmos”. This
session will discuss health, as well as the environment where the man lives in, his
interaction with factors/hazard in that environment and how they affect his health.
1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After completion of this study session, you are expected to be able to:
1. Define health and its determinants
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2. Mention environmental hazard affecting health with examples.
3. List the components of the environment
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Health
The world Health Organization (WHO) defined health as “A state of complete
physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity”. Recently this statement has been expanded to include the ability to lead
a “socially and economically productive life”. The World Health Organization
definition of health cannot be considered as an operational definition because it
does not lend itself to direct measurement. In order to overcome this lacuna a
WHO group has devised an operational definition of health. According to this
definition, the concept of health is viewed as being of two orders. In broader sense
health can be defined as “a condition or quality of the human organism expressing
the adequate functioning of the organism in given conditions, genetic or
environmental”.
Components of health
As evident from the above definitions, health is multidimensional .The WHO
definition envisages three specific dimensions (physical, mental, and social), some
other dimensions like spiritual, emotional may be included.
Physical health- is concerned with anatomical integrity and physiological

functioning of the body. It means the ability to perform routine tasks without any
physical restriction. E.g., Physical fitness is needed to walk from place to place.
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Mental Health- is the ability to learn and think clearly and coherently. E.g., a
person who is not mentally fit (retarded) could not learn something new at a pace
in which an ordinary normal person learns.
Social health- is the ability to make and maintain acceptable interaction with other
people. E.g. to celebrate during festivals; to mourn when a close family member
dies; to create and maintain friendship and intimacy, etc.
Emotional health - is the ability to express emotions in an appropriate manner, for

example to fear, to be happy, and to be angry. The response of the body should be
congruent with that of the stimuli. Emotional health is related to mental health and
includes feelings. It also means maintaining one’s own integrity in the presence of
stressful situation such as tension, depression and anxiety.
Spiritual health - Some people relate health with religion; for others it has to do
with personal values, beliefs, principles and ways of achieving mental satisfaction,
in which all are related to their spiritual wellbeing.
Determinants of health
Health or ill health is the result of a combination of different factors. Health is
multifactorial. The factors which influence health lie both within the individual and
externally in the society or environment of the person. These factors interact and
the result of which may be health promoting or deleterious. There are different
perspectives in expressing the determinants of health of an individual or a
community.
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The health field concept
According to the “Health field” concept, there are four major determinants of
health or ill health.
A. Human biology (genetic factors): Every Human being is made of genes. In
addition, there are factors, which are genetically transmitted from parents to
offspring. As a result, there is a chance of transferring defective trait. A number of
diseases are known to be of genetic origin e.g. chromosomal abnormalities, mental
retardation etc. therefore; the state of health partly depends on the genetic
constitution of man.
B. Environment: is all that which is external to the individual human host. Those
are factors outside the human body. Environmental factors that could influence
health include:
a. Life support: food, water, air etc.
b. Physical factors: climate, rain fall etc.
c. Biological factors: microorganisms, toxins, biological waste,
d. Psycho-social and economic: overcrowding, income level, access to
health care
e. Chemical factors: industrial wastes, agricultural wastes, air pollution, etc.
C. Life style (Behavior): is an action that has a specific frequency, duration, and
purpose, whether conscious or unconscious. It is associated with practice. It is what
we do and how we act. Recently life style by itself received an increased amount of
attention as a major determinant of health. Life style of individuals affects their
health directly or indirectly. For example: cigarette smoking, unsafe sexual
practice, eating contaminated food
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D. Health care organization
Organization of health care services and welfare. This may be in terms of their
resource in human power, equipment, money etc. It is concerned with;
a. Availability of health services: People living in areas where there is no
access to health service are affected by health problems and have lower
health status than those with accessible health services.
b. Scarcity of Health Services leads to inefficient health service and resulting
in poor quality of health status of people.
c. Acceptability of the service by the community
d. Accessibility: in terms of physical distance, finance etc
e. Quality of care that mainly focuses on the comprehensiveness, continuity
and integration of the health care.
The other view of the determinants of health is from the ecological perspective.
Accordingly, there are four different factors affecting health. These consist of
physical, behavioural, socio-cultural, community organization and health of the
community.
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Figure 1. Determinants of health
Source: Ethiopian Public Health Training Institute
1. Physical Determinants -The physical factors affecting the health of a

community include: the geography (e.g. high land versus low land), the
environment (e.g. manmade or natural catastrophes) and the industrial
development (e.g. pollution occupational hazards).
2. Socio – cultural determinants – The socio- cultural factors affecting the health
of a community include the beliefs, traditions, and social customs in the
community. It also involves the economy, politics and religion in the community.
3. Community organization - Community organization include the community
size, arrangement and distribution of resources (“relations of productions’).
4. Behavioral determinants- The behavioral determinants affecting health include
individual behavior and life style affecting the health of an individual and the
community. E.g. smoking, alcoholism and promiscuity.
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Figure 2. Epidemiologic triad of disease causation
Concepts of disease
Disease is a result from complex interaction between a man, an agent and the
environment. From ecological point of view, disease is defined as “maladjustment
of the human organism to the environment”.
In-text Questions
1. Define Health
Answer
Health is defined as the state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely
the absence of disease or infirmity.
2.2 Environmental Factors Affecting Health

2.2.1 Conceptual foundation
The modern concept of environment embraces all of the external factors affecting
an organism. These factors may be other living organisms (biotic factors) or
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nonliving variables (abiotic factors), such as temperature, rainfall, day length,
wind, and ocean currents. The interactions of organisms with biotic and abiotic
factors form an ecosystem.
Types of Environment
The environment is all external conditions, circumstances, and influences
surrounding and affecting the growth and development of an organism or
community of organisms. Environmental health however is the study and
management of environmental conditions that affect the health and well-being of
humans.
Macro-environment or the external environment is said to be responsible for

millions of preventable diseases originating in it. Micro-environment is the
domestic environment in which man lives.
Internal environment is some time used for the environment inside the body
Components of the Environment

i. Physical: air, water, soil, housing, climate, geography, heat, light, noise,
debris, radiation, etc.
ii. Biological: man, viruses, microbial agents, insects, rodents, animals and
plants, etc.
iii. Psychosocial: cultural values, customs, beliefs, habits, attitudes, morals,
religion, education, lifestyles, community life, health services, social and
political organization.
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2.2.2. Effects of environmental factors on health
Environmental factors maybe biological, physical, chemical, psychological, or
social in origin. However, one form of hazard may proceed into another form. For
instance, an industrial worker who had a severe injury (head injury, etc.) from
work may end up with psychological trauma or mental disorder causing
psychosocial hazard to others in the community especially when the former is
poorly managed.
Biological hazards
These are living organisms or their products that are harmful to humans.
- Water-borne diseases: are conditions that are transmitted through drinking
water. These disease organisms are shed into the water in feces, and can
produce illness in those who consume untreated, contaminated water. Our
municipal water treatment facilities are usually able to purify water by
removing these agents or killing them by disinfecting the water. But these
are not always the case in rural areas.
- Food-borne Diseases: are diseases transmitted in or on food. To protect
against food-borne diseases, sanitarians from local health departments
routinely inspect food service establishments (restaurants) and retail food
outlets (supermarkets) to verify that food is being stored and handled
properly. Examples of food-borne infective agents include bacteria
Salmonella, serotype enteritidis, Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfigins.
- Vector-borne Disease: are those transmitted by insects or other arthropods -
improper environmental management can cause vector-borne disease
outbreaks, among other. Malaria is the most common vector-borne disease
in the tropics.
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Physical hazards
It includes airborne particles, humidity, equipment design and radiation. Natural
disasters are geographical and meteorological events of such magnitude and
proximity to communities that they produce significant damage and injuries. -
Examples are cyclones, earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, typhoons, and
volcanic eruptions. Physical hazards such as earthquakes, floods can cause
corresponding increase in Biological, psychological and sociological hazards.
Psychological hazards
These are environmental factors that produce psychological changes expressed as
stress, depression, hysteria.
Sociological Factors
These are those that result from living in a society where one experiences noise,
lack of privacy and overcrowding.
In-text Questions
1. List the determinants of health
Answer
1. Genetic factors
2. Environmental factors
3. Behavioural factors
4. Organization of health services

List and briefly discuss the environmental hazards and how they affect man’s health
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2.2.3 Components of environmental health
1 Water supply Adequacy, safety (chemical, bacteriological, physical) of water

for domestic, drinking and recreational use
2 Human waste
Proper excreta disposal and liquid waste management
disposal
3 Solid waste Proper application of storage, collection, disposal of waste. Waste
management production and recycling
4 Control of mammals (such as rats) and arthropods (insects such
Vector control
as flies and other creatures such as mites) that transmit disease
5 Food safety and wholesomeness in its production, storage,
Food hygiene
preparation, distribution and sale, until consumption
6 Physiological needs, protection against disease and accidents,
Healthful housing psychological and social comforts in residential and recreational
areas
7 Noise pollution It includes controlling the noise pollution which is also a risk to
concern- human health.
8 Radiological health It includes exposure to ionizing radiation from radioactive
isotopes and X-rays.
9 Air pollution It includes controlling the air pollution which is also a risk to
human health
The status of man’s health represents the result of complex interactions between
his internal biological system and the total external environmental system. The
presence of hazards in man’s environment, greatly affects his health and general
well-being.
5.0 Self-assessment questions

1. What is environment?
2. List the components of the environment
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1. Getnet Mitike (2003), Health Education for Health Science Students.
Lecture Note Series. Addis Ababa University-Department of Community
Health. Available at:https://www.pdfdrive.net/introduction-to-public-health-
the-carter-center-advancing-human-d771838.html. Retrieved on October 19,
2017
2. Park K (2007). Textbook of preventive and social medicine. 19thed.
Jabalpur: Banarasidas Bhanot Publishers p.762-68.
3. https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-environmental-health-definition-
types-sources.html
4. https://www.coursera.org/lecture/global-health-introduction/9-1-
environmental-health-challenges-f-konradsen-9y00C
5. Nriagu JO. Encyclopedia of Environmental Health. Elsevier, London 2011.
Pp2-123
6. Adams J, Bartram J, Chartier Y. Essential Environmental Health Standards
in Health Care. World Health Organization, Geneva 2008.pp1-27
32
MODULE 2
Contents
Study Session 1: Housing
Study Session 2: Water and sanitation
Study Session 3: Waste and sewage management
Study Session 4: Vector control
STUDY SESSION 1
Housing
Section and subsection headings:
Introduction
2.0 Main content
2.1 - Introduction
2.2- Social goals of housing
2.3- Effects of poor housing
2.4 Overcrowding
Introduction:
Housing in the modern concept includes not only the physical structure providing
shelter, but also the immediate surroundings, and the related community services
and facilities. It has become part of the concept of “human settlement” which is
33
defined as “all places in which a group of people reside and pursue their live
goals”. The size of the settlement may vary from a single family to millions of
people.
1.0 Study Session Learning Objectives

After completing this study session, you are expected to be able to:
1. Define housing
2. List the social goals of housing
3. Discuss the relationship between health and housing
4. Describe overcrowding
5. Discuss the effect of poor housing on health
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Introduction
A house is a man-made physical structure designed to offer shelter to human
beings. It should be built to meet the physiological needs of man and sited in a
suitable environment that will enable occupants to live a healthy and comfortable
life.
2.2. Social Goals of Housing

The generally accepted goals of housing include the following;
1. Shelter
2. Family life
3. Access to community facilities
4. Family participation in community life and
5. Economic stability
34
Criteria for standard housing
1. To provide physical protection and shelter
2. Adequacy for cooking , eating, washing, and excretory functions
3. Designed and constructed for easy maintenance
4. To prevent the spread of communicable diseases
5. Provides for protection from hazards of exposure to noise and pollution
6. Should be free from unsafe physical arrangements due to construction or
maintenance, and from toxic or harmful materials and
7. Encourages personal and community development, promotes social
relationships, reflects a regard for ecological principles, and by these means
promotes mental health.
Housing standards
Housing standards depend on conventional factors such as floor space and on
social and economic characteristics such as;
1. Family income
2. Family size and composition
3. Standard of living
4. Life style
5. Stage in life cycle
6. Education
7. Cultural
Despite the cultural, climate and social diversities, housing standards vary from
country to country, region to region etc. but then minimum standards are still
maintained by all country’s building regulations.
35
Typical housing standards in a tropical climate are as follows:
• Site: should be elevated, accessible, away from breeding places, away
from nuisances, in pleasant surroundings,
• Soil should be dry for good foundation, subsoil water should be below 10
feet.
• Set Back: this is an open space around the house. In rural area, the built
up area should not exceed one-third (1/3)of the total area and in the urban
area it should not exceed two-thirds (2/3) of the total area (for proper
lighting and ventilation)
• Floor: should be impermeable, smooth and free from cracks/crevices,
damp-proof and
• Walls: should be reasonably strong, have low heat capacity, weather
resistant, unsuitable for harborage of rat and vermin, not easily damaged,
and smooth
• Roof: the height of the roof should not be less than 10 feet in the absence
of air-conditioning for comfort. It should have a low heat transmittance
coefficient
• Rooms: Number of living rooms should not be less than two. Number
and area of rooms should be increased according to size of family not to
compromise recommended floor space per person
• Floor Area: Floor area of a room should be at least 120sq ft. for
occupancy by more than one person and at least 100 sq. ft. for occupancy
by a single person. The floor area available in living rooms per person
should not be less than 50 sq. ft.; the optimum is 100sq ft.
• Windows: Every living room should be provided with at least 2
windows. The windows should be placed at a height of not more than 3
36
ft. above the ground in the living room, window area should be 1/5th of
the floor area.
• Door and windows combined should have 2/5th the floor area.
• Lighting: The daylight factor should exceed 1 percent over half the floor
area
• Kitchen: Every dwelling house must have a separate kitchen. It must be
protected against dust and smoke and adequately lighted
• Privy: A sanitary privy is a must in every house, belonging exclusively
to it and readily accessible
• Garbage and refuse: Should be removed from the dwelling at least daily
and disposed of in a sanitary manner.
• Water supply: The house should have safe and adequate water supply at
all times
2.3 Effects of Poor Housing

Common health conditions associated with poor housing conditions are:
1. Respiratory infection: common cold, tuberculosis, influenza, diphthteria,
bronchitis, measles, whooping cough etc
2. Skin infections: scabies, ringworm, impetigo, leprosy
3. Rat infestation: plague
4. Arthropods: Houseflies, mosquitoes, fleas and bugs
5. Accidents
6. Morbidity and mortality
7. Psychosocial effects
37
2.4 Overcrowding
Overcrowding refers to the situation in which more people are living within a
single dwelling than there is space for, so that movement is restricted, privacy
secluded, hygiene impossible, rest and difficult to sleep. The degree of
overcrowding can be expressed as the number of persons per room i.e. number of
persons in the household divided by the number of rooms in the dwelling.
Persons per room

• 1 room 2 persons
• 2 rooms 3 persons
• 5 or more 10 persons (plus 2 for each room)
Overcrowding can also be expressed in terms of the floor space:

• 110 sq ft or more 2 persons
• 90-100 sq ft 1 ½ persons
• 70-90 sq ft 1 person
• 50-70 sq ft ½ person
• Under 50 sq ft nil
Note: A baby under 12 months is not counted; children between 1 to 10yrs

counted as half a unit. Overcrowding can also be expressed in terms of sex
separation: If two persons over 9 years of age, not husband and wife, of opposite
sexes, are obliged to sleep in the same room.
38
Effects of overcrowding
Overcrowding has a number of effects, examples of which include the
following;
1. Respiratory morbidities
2. Skin diseases
3. Poor sanitation
4. Stressed social amenities
5. Increased morbidity
6. Increased mortality
7. High accident rates especially among vulnerable groups viz children,
pregnant women, aged and the sick.
In-text questions
1. List the social goals of housing
2. What are the criteria for housing?
Answers
Q1. The generally accepted goals of housing are
1. Shelter
2. Family life
3. Access to community facilities
4. Family participation in community life and
5. Economic stability
Q2. A standard house should;
1. Provide physical protection and shelter
2. Be adequate for cooking, eating, washing, and excretory functions
3. Be designed and constructed for easy maintenance
4. Prevent the spread of communicable diseases
5. Provide for protection from hazards of exposure to noise and pollution
6. Be free from unsafe physical arrangements due to construction or maintenance, and from
toxic or harmful materials and
7. Encourage personal and community development, promotes social relationships, reflects a
regard for ecological principles, and by these means promotes mental health.
39
1. Discuss the standards for housing
Housing plays a very important role in the lives of families. Proper housing
contributes to the preservation of health.
5.0 Self-assessment question

1. List the effects of poor housing

1. Park.K.(2007) Textbook of preventive and social medicine..19thed. Jabalpur:
Banarasidas Bhanot Publishers; p.762-68.
2. Butler CD (ed). Climate Change and Global Health. CABI Oxfordshire 2016.
Pp1-293
3. Marsh A, Gordon D, Pantazis C and Heslop P. Home Sweet Home? The impact
of poor housing on health. The Policy Press, Bristol 1999 pp 1-56
4. https://youtu.be/xAdLrcA3-vE
5. https://youtu.be/72jQNUx0WGM
6. Krieger J, Higgins DL. Housing and Health: Time Again for Public Health
Action. Am J Public Health 2002;92(5)758-768. PMID:11988443
40
STUDY SESSION 2
Water and Sanitation
Introduction
2.0 Main content
2.1 – Common sources of water
2.2 - Qualities of a sanitary well
2.3- Water treatment processes
2.4- Water related diseases
Introduction:
Portable water; is that water with acceptable taste and free from chemicals and
pathogens. Requirements; for drinking is 2 litres/day per head and for domestic use
is 150 – 200 litres/capita in urban areas.

1. List the common sources of Water
2. List the qualities of a sanitary well
3. Discuss the treatment processes of water
4. Classify and list diseases associated with poor water treatment
41
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Common Sources of Water
The main sources of water are three:
1. Rain water
In regions where rainfall is abundant and frequent, rainwater can be a good source
of water supply for individual families and small communities. The storage of
rainwater is particularly important in areas with a long dry season, or where
groundwater or surface water is difficult to obtain or polluted. The term rainwater
harvesting is sometimes used. It simply means collecting, or harvesting, rainwater
as it runs off from hard surfaces and storing it in a tank or cistern. Rainwater has
several advantages. It is free, relatively clean and usually reliable, even if it rains
only once or twice a year, and a rainwater harvesting system can be easily
constructed and maintained at low cost. Although mainly found in rural areas,
rainwater harvesting can also be useful in an urban situation.
2. Surface water
The quality and quantity of surface water varies from one place to another and over
time, due to factors such as geology, climate and surrounding land use. This is
because rivers and lakes can be easily contaminated by run-off that washes
pollutants into the water. Lack of effective sanitation and open defecation make
contamination by microbiological pathogens much more likely.
The variable quality of surface water means it has to be treated to make it safe for
domestic consumption. There are several different methods of water treatment at
large and small scale that are described in later study sessions. The quantity of
water in rivers and lakes obviously varies with rainfall and there can be wide
fluctuations at different times of year. To ensure year-round supply, dams can be
42
constructed to create reservoirs from which water can be extracted prior to
treatment.
3. Underground water
Groundwater was defined as water that is found underground within rocks. Its
presence depends primarily on the type of rock. Permeable rocks have tiny spaces
between the solid rock particles that allow water and other fluids to pass through
and to be held within the rock structure. The layers of rock that hold groundwater
are called aquifers. It is shown that groundwater in an aquifer is replenished by rain
and other forms of precipitation (any form of water, such as rain, snow, sleet or
hail that falls to the Earth’s surface, shown in the diagram as ‘recharge’) that has
percolated (passed through a porous substance, or through small holes) downward
into the aquifer. The level of water below ground is called the water table.
Groundwater can be extracted from wells or collected from springs.
Water pollutants
A number of substances are known to pollute water and these include;
1. Sewage
2. Industrial and trade wastes
3. Agricultural chemicals (fertilizers, pesticides)
4. Radioactive substances
In-text Questions
1. List the common sources of Water
Answer
1. Rain water
2. Surface water
3. Underground water
43
Water quality
Potable water is one that is safe and attractive to use. It is characterized by the
following:
1. Absence of disease causing organisms e.g. protozoa, bacteria, viruses
2. Absence of poisonous chemicals (preserved naturally or introduced artificially)
e.g. nitrates, fluorides, trace metals.
3. Pleasant to taste (i.e. free from odour, colour and taste).
2.2 Properties/Qualities of Sanitary Well

1. Good location (uphill from source of contamination and at least 30m away)
2. Has internal concrete lining at least 6m long (deep) and should be 60 – 90cm
above the ground level.
3. Has parapet, at least 1m high
4. Has an Apron (concrete platform) surrounding the parapet and at least 1m wide
to drain the waste water.
5. A water-tight cover
6. A pump or a permanent fetcher (bucket) attached to the well.
44
Figure 4. Features of sanitary well
2.3 Water Treatment

A. Rural water treatment
The processes involved in rural water treatment consist of boiling, storage,
household sand filtration and filtration using monofilament filter, Alum,
Disinfection (pot chlorinators for wells -1.5kgbleach+3kg sand).
B. Urban (conventional) water treatment
In urban water treatment plant, the raw water is subjected to a number of processes
before it becomes fit for human consumption. These include pre-treatment
(screening, pre-chlorination); storage; aeration; coagulation and flocculation;
sedimentation, filtration and disinfection
45
2.4. Disease Conditions that are Associated With Water (lack, reduction or
contamination);
1. Water-borne diseases; cholera, typhoid
2. Water-washed diseases; scabies, trachoma
3. Water-based diseases; schistosomiasis, guinea worm
4. Water-related diseases; malaria, filariasis
5. Water-chemical diseases; fluorosis, endemic goiter
In-text Questions
1. Outline the qualities of clean Water
Answer
Potable water is one that is safe and attractive to use. It is characterized by the following:
1. Absence of disease causing organisms e.g. protozoa, bacteria, viruses
2. Absence of poisonous chemicals (preserved naturally or introduced artificially) e.g. nitrates,
fluorides, trace metals.
3. Pleasant to taste (i.e. free from odour, colour and taste)

Q. Briefly discuss the process of large scale water treatment
Water is essential for life. Adequate and clean water supply is important in the
preservation of health.

1. List the properties of a sanitary well
2. Classify the diseases associated the poor water supply
.
46
1. Park K. (2007) Textbook of preventive and social medicine..19thed.
Jabalpur: Banarasidas Bhanot Publishers; p.762-68.
2. https://youtu.be/KMP9-49I1U4
3. Roushdy R, Sieverding M, and Radwan H. The Impact of Water Supply and
Sanitation on Child Health: Evidence from Egypt. Poverty, Gender, and
Youth Working Paper No. 24. Population Council 2012 pp4-71
4. John-Dewole OO. Adverse Effects of Inadequate Water Supply on Human
Health: a case study of Kajola Local Government in Oyo State, Nigeria.
Greener Journal of Medical Sciences 2012; 2 (5):115-119
5. https://zh-tw.coursera.org/lecture/humanitarian-public-health/water-supply-
options-NGsfa
47
STUDY SESSION 3
Waste Management
Introduction
2.0 Main content
2.1 – Definition of waste
2.2 – Types of waste
2.3 – Objectives of waste management/disposal
2.4 – Methods of waste disposal
2.5 – Modern sewage disposal/treatment
Introduction:
Waste disposal takes many forms including direct discharge to land or water, and
sludge disposal. Such wastes need to be managed in such a way that the adverse
effects are minimized to protect the environment and human health. There are
potential risks to environment and health from improper handling of solid wastes.
Uncontrolled hazardous wastes from industries mixing up with municipal wastes
create potential risks to human health.
48
1. Define waste
2. List the types of waste
3. Discuss the methods of waste disposal/management
4. Describe the modern system of sewage disposal
2.0 Main Content

2.1 Definition of Waste
Waste refers to unwanted materials from diverse environment. It is anything
thrown away or rejected as worthless or useless trash or rubbish. It refers to
anything that is no longer useful and needs to be gotten rid of.
2.2 Types of wastes;

• Solid waste (refuse and garbage); such as leaves, bottles, Cans, maize husk,
ash etc.
• Liquid waste (sullage and sewage); comprises of human excreta, urine, and
waste water from the kitchen, toilet and bathroom.
2.3 Objectives of Waste Management/Disposal

1. To eliminate hazard to man
2. To prevent pollution of the environment
3. To salvage materials of economic value
Solid waste management

Stages of proper solid waste management involve the following:
49
1. Storage
2. Collection
3. Transportation
4. Disposal
Storage of waste materials

Solid waste can be stored in different kinds of containers depending on the volume
or type of waste generated e.g;
1. House – dustbin
2. Street – public bin
3. Industries – big bin
4. Market – market bin
5. Park – Use-me-bin
6. Hospital – specific bins (indicated)
Collection of waste;
1. House to House collection from bins
2. Use of vehicles and closed Vans
3. Bulk bins e.g Dinosaur, Mammoth etc
Transportation of waste;
1. Individuals
2. Use of trucks (open & closed)
3. Compression-type vehicles
50
Methods of waste disposal;
1. Dumping
2. Burning
3. Burial
4. Incineration
5. Manure pits
6. Composting
7. Controlled Tipping/Sanitary Landfill
8. River or Sea disposal or barging
Incineration
Before incineration, refuse is sorted out into combustible and non-combustible
matter. The combustible matters are then dried up and burnt in a large incinerator
maintained at temperature of 900-1200ºC. The disadvantage of this method is air
pollution due to burning fumes rising into the atmosphere.
Composting
In the case of composting, a mixture of compostable refuse and nitrogen rich
decomposable waste (e.g. night soil) is heaped for several months with periodic
turning; the end product which is manure is used in gardening or farming. The
disadvantage of this method is favors breeding of flies and leads to unpleasant
odour from decaying refuse which is a nuisance.
Controlled Tipping or Sanitary Landfill

This is the most satisfactory method of refuse disposal where suitable land is
available.it differs from ordinary dumping in that the material is placed in a trench
51
or other prepared area, adequately compacted and covered with earth at the end of
the working day. Refuse is piled up in 2m layers and covered daily with 2-2.5cm
layer of soil or sand. Types sanitary land-fills includes: Trench, Ramp & Area
methods. Disadvantage; use of large land area
River or Sea Barging

Refuse is dumped directly into the waters of river or sea at a distance to prevent
refuse being carried back to the shore by tides. It is popular in coastal areas.
Toxic/Radioactive waste are sealed in water-tight container and buried in deep sea.
The disadvantage: causes water pollution.
In-text Questions
Q. Define waste
Answer
Waste is unwanted materials from diverse environment. It is anything thrown away or rejected
as worthless or useless trash or rubbish. It refers to anything that is no longer useful and needs
to be gotten rid of.
Health hazards of waste

1. It attracts insects and rodents that can spread diseases
2. It is unsightly, aesthetically an eyesore.
3. It produces offensive smell/odour
4. It can cause pollution of air, water and food
5. It may cause fire hazard
6. It may cause accident through cuts or punctured wounds from sharp objects
52
Table 3. Diseases associated with improper solid waste disposal
Vectors Diseases
Flies Miasis, Diarrhoea, Cholera, Typhoid fever
Rodents Lassa fever, Plague, Leptospirosis, Murine
typhus
Mosquitoes Malaria, Yellow fever, Filariasis, Dengue
fever
Liquid waste disposal

What is Liquid waste?
Liquid waste is that waste that consists of waste water and human excreta. Liquid
waste is described in terms of sewage and sullage.
Sewage is waste water containing solid and liquid excreta from houses, schools,
streets, industries etc.
Sullage is waste water which does not contain human excreta. It is usually from
kitchens and bathrooms.
Factors influencing the method of liquid waste disposal/management

1. Type of soil in the area
2. Adequate site planning
3. Availability of water
4. Skills present in the community
5. The water table
6. Availability of materials
7. Financial resources
8. Existing culture of excreta disposal within the community
53
Methods of sewage disposal
Classification is based on nature of the process:
1. Sanitary methods
• sanitary & unsanitary
2. Carriage system
• water carriage & non-water carriage
Characteristics of a sanitary latrine

Sanitary latrine is one that has the following characteristics;
1. It should not pollute surface of the soil or surface water
2. It should not be unsightly or smelly (odour)
3. It must not make the waste accessible to flies or animals (rodents)
4. There must be NO handling of fresh sewage
5. It must be simple and inexpensive
6. It should be acceptable in terms of culture of the community
Examples of sanitary methods include;

1. Bore-hole latrine
2. Pit latrine
3. Ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP)
4. Septic tank
5. Aqua privy
6. Water carriage system
7. Chemical closet/toilet
8. Sewage treatment plant
9. Mobile latrine
54
10.Latrines for camps and temporary use
o Trench latrine
o Bore hole latrine
o Pit latrine
Pit Latrine
It consists of a pit, the floor and the superstructure. It should be as deep as possible
so that it can be dark inside and also last many years before it is filled up i.e. at
least 2.4meters deep. Floor should be re-enforced concrete slab to ensure it is
strong and safe.
It should be sited at least 30meters away and downhill from a water source and
must be provided with a tight lid or cover.
Ventilated Improved (VIP) Latrine

• It has features of pit latrine plus a vent pipe located outside the house
55
Odour Flies
Fly screen
Flyscreen over vent pipe
Sandcrete
Ventpipe
Air Current Pit

lines
wit h
cement
Flies mortar
Figure 5. Features of VIP

• Vent pipe helps to minimize flies and odour nuisance, and also makes the
warm gas formed in the pit to move up to the outside
• A flies screen is attached to the upper end of the vent pipe
2.4 Modern Sewage treatment System

Modern Sewage treatment System is based on biological principles of sewage
purification, through the action of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria processes. It is
divided into primary and secondary stages of treatment stages.
In primary stage, sewage is passed through metal screen which intercepts large
solids & floating objects. Then passed through a long narrow chamber (10-20m) in
length, heavier solids settle down and organic matter passes through.
This is followed by primary sedimentation in large tank (sedimentation
tank).Contact time in the tank is 6-8hrs, and 50-70% of solids settle (sludge) down,
30-40% reduction in coliforms takes place. Sludge is removed by mechanical
56
devices. Bacteria oxidize the remaining organic matter and break them down into
simple soluble substances and ammonia. Fat & grease rise to the top as ‘scum’.
Organic matter gets oxidized into carbon dioxide (CO 2, ) Nitrates and water by
aerobic bacteria in the sludge in this process.
Aerated sludge is exposed in the 20 sedimentation tank for 2-3hrs, this fully aerated
sludge is known as ‘Activated sludge’ it is devoid of bacteria, nitrogen, phosphate
& foul odour
Disposal of sludge
• Sludge digestion tanks for manure
• Sea outfall
• Land composting
• Sewage farming
Disposal of effluent
• Disposal by dilution
• River outfall
• Sea outfall
• Land treatment
• Oxidation ponds
Hazards associated with improper disposal of liquid waste

1. Soil pollution
2. Water pollution
3. Contamination of food
57
4. Propagation or breeding of flies
In-text Questions
Q. What is a liquid waste?
Answer
Liquid waste is that waste that consists of waste water and human excreta. It consists of sewage
and sullage.
Sewage is waste water containing solid and liquid excreta from houses, schools, streets,
industries etc. while sullage is waste water which does not contain human excreta. It is usually
from kitchens and bathrooms.

Q1. Describe the processes of modern sewage treatment
Waste generally refers to unwanted items of products of our everyday life, these
waste are potential hazards that can affect health of the population. Therefore
proper disposal of both solid and liquid waste will help prevent outbreaks of
diseases.
5.0 Self-assessment Questions and Answers

1. List the health hazards associated with waste
2. List the features of VIP Latrine

1. Park K. (2007) Textbook of preventive and social medicine. 19thed.
Jabalpur: Banarasidas Bhanot Publishers; p.762-68.
2. Singh P. Impact of Solid Waste on Human Health: A Case Study of
Varanasi City. International Journal of Scientific &Engineering Research
58
2010;4(11):1840-1842
3. https://youtu.be/n4SmwBFbhEM
4. https://slideplayer.com/slide/1381428/
5. Kumar HD. Environmental pollution and waste management. MD
publications. New Delhi 1998.pp 1- 187
59
STUDY SESSION 4
Vector Control
Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1 – Factors for Consideration in Vector Control
2.2 – Methods of vector control
2.3 Types of Insecticides
Introduction:
A vector is an invertebrate or an athropod that harbours infectious desease and is
capable of transmitting it.
Examples:
• Mosquitoes – Malaria, filaria, viral encephalitis
• Housefly - Typhoid, diarrhoea, cholera, polio, trachoma etc
• Sand fly – oriental sore, sand fly fever
• Tsetse fly – sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis)
• Louse – Epidemic typhus, relapsing fever
• Rat flea - endemic typhus, bubonic plague
• Black fly – Onchocerchiasis
60
Note: Pests and vectors are attracted to filthy conditions and environments.
Pests may not transmit disease but can constitute nuisance to man and may
affect his health indirectly
1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

1. Define vectors
2. Discuss the various methods of vector control
3. Classify the type of insecticides
2.0 Main Content

2.1 Factors for Consideration in Vector Control
1. Life history of vector
2. Habitats
3. Cost of control
4. Ecological consideration
2.2 Vector Control Methods

1. Mechanical
a. Trapping
b. Contact barriers
2. Biological
a. Use of other organisms to control vectors e.g. Larvivorous fish
(gambusia), Bacillus thuringiensis
b. Sterilization using ultraviolet (UV) or X-rays
61
3. Chemical
a. Insecticides
b. larvicides
4. Environmental
a. Elimination of breeding places
5. Integrate approach
a. Combining two or more methods above
In-text Questions
1. Classify the methods used to control vectors
Answer.
Mechanical
• Trapping
• Contact barriers
Biological
• Use of other organisms to control vectors e.g. Larvivorous fish (gambusia), Bacillus
thuringiensis
• Sterilization using UV or X-rays
Chemical
• Insecticides
• Larvicides
Environmental
• Elimination of breeding places
Integrate approach
• Combining two or more methods above
Control of mosquitoes
Environmental:
Source reduction: elimination of breeding places, carefully planned water
and solid waste management
Screening: Insecticide treated nets (ITNs) and house screens
Chemical: use insecticides and herbal repellents
Biological: Dragonflies, and fish – Gambusia affinis (eggs & larvae)
62
Genetic: use science to modify breeding of vectors
Since one method cannot completely eradicate mosquitoes, use integrated vector
management (more than one method)
2.3 Types of Insecticides

1. Non-residual
a. Unstable in air or light
b. E.g. Pyrethrum from pyrethrum flower
2. Residual
a. Stable in air and light, remaining toxic for months
b. Chlorinated hydrocarbons (organochlorines) e.g. DDT, dieldrin, aldrin
c. Organophosphates e.g. Abate (temephos), malathion, parathion,
fenthion, fenithrothion
d. Carbamates e.g. Carbaryl, Propoxure
In-text Questions
1. Describe the method of control of vectors e.g. mosquitoes
Answer
Environmental:
Source reduction: elimination of breeding places, carefully planned water and solid waste
management
Screening: ITNs and house screens
Chemical: use insecticides and herbal repellants
Biological: Dragonflies, and fish – Gambusia affinis (eggs & larvae)
Genetic: use science to modify breeding of vectors
Since one method cannot completely eradicate mosquitoes, use integrated vector management
(more than one method)
63
1.Vectors are important carriers of diseases, some serve as host for these disease.
Therefore, control of vectors is an important step towards the control of diseases
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. List the different types of insecticides

1. Park K. (2007) Textbook of preventive and social medicine.19thed.
Jabalpur: Banarasidas Bhanot Publishers.
2. Rozendaal JA. Vector control: Methods for use by individuals and
communities. World health organization, Geneva 1997 pp1-12
3. https://www.coursera.org/lecture/engineering-humanitarian/introduction-to-
vector-control-J1JwR
4. https://youtu.be/FMZeEqbV_X8
64
MODULE 3
Contents
Study Session 1: Air pollution
Study Session 2: Noise pollution
Study Session 3: Radiation
Study Session 4: Climate change
STUDY SESSION 1
Air Pollution
Introduction
1.0Learning objectives
2.0 Main Content
2.1 – Air pollution
2.2- Common sources of air pollution
2.3- Common air pollutants
2.4- Effects of air pollution
2.5- Prevention and control of air pollution
Introduction:
Humans need a continuous supply of air to exist. The requirement for air is
relatively constant, about 10-20m3 per day. Air pollution is the presence in
65
atmosphere of substances in the forms, concentrations, or for such durations that
they cause nuisance to man, animal or plants. Normal air: 78% nitrogen (N 2 ), 21%
oxygen (O 2 ), 0.03% carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), and argon, helium, crypton, methane,
water vapour, dust particles and others.

1. Define the term air pollution
2. Classify air pollution with examples
3. List pollutants and identify sources of air pollutants
4. Discuss the effects of effects of air pollution on man and his environment
5. Discuss prevention and control of air pollution
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Air Pollution
Air pollution is the presence in atmosphere of substances in the forms,
concentrations, or for such durations that they cause nuisance to man, animal or
plants.
Composition of the atmosphere

A colorless, odorless, tasteless, gaseous mixture, mainly nitrogen (approximately
78 percent) and oxygen (approximately 21 percent). It has lesser amounts of argon,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen, neon, helium, and other gases. There are also varying
amounts of moisture and particulate matter, enveloping the earth.
The quality of the earth is affected by two factors; natural and anthropogenic
activities (human activities).
66
1. Natural factors include:
• Volcanic eruption
• Forest fires
• Sea sprays
• Pollen dusts
• Harmattan dust
2. Anthropogenic factors include;
• Domestic activities i.e. cooking stoves
• Municipal activities i.e. automobile emissions
• Agricultural activities i.e. pesticide fumes
• Industrial activities i.e. cement dust
In-text Questions
1. Define air pollution
Answer
Air pollution is the presence in atmosphere of substances in the forms, concentrations, or for
such durations that they cause nuisance to man, animal or plants.
2.2 Sources of Air Pollution

There are four identified sources of air pollution; these include combustion,
specific industrial processes, personal and domestic activities and natural
processes.
1. Combustion
• Automobile exhausts: carbon monoxide (CO), carcinogenic
hydrocarbons, organic lead
• Burning oils: sulphur dioxide (SO 2 )
• Steel blast furnaces: CO
2. Specicific industrial processes
67
• Dye making and oil refinery: HS
• Fertilizer, chemical and aluminium industries: hydrogen fluoride (HF)
• Organic chemical industries: carcinogenic hydrocarbons
3. Personal habits/Domestic
• Smoking: CO, hydrocarbons, cooking(burning fuels)
4. Nature
• Pollen grains, dust, mould spores, vegetable fibres, microbes
• Coal mine: CO
2.3. Common Air Pollutants

1. CO
7. Flourine compounds
2. CO 2
8. Organic compounds
3. Hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S)
4. SO 2 9. Metallic compounds
5. Sulphur trioxide 10. Photochemicals (SO 3 )

6. Nitric oxide/ nitrogen monoxide (NO)
11. Radioactive compounds
2.4 Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution has known effects manifesting as environmental, health, as well as
social and economic effects.
1. Environmental effects include photochemical smog, acid rain, greenhouse
effect or global warming, ozone layer depletion.
2. Health effects consists of acute bronchitis, chronic bronchitis acute
respiratory infections, exacerbation of asthma, eye irritation, headache,
cardiovascular effects, toxic effects , cancer, central nervous system effects
and death.
68
3. Social and Economic effects include destruction of plants and animal life,
corrosion of metals, damage to buildings, cost of cleaning and maintenance
and reduction of visibility.
2.5 Prevention and Control of Air Pollution

Air pollution can be prevented and its effects controlled by certain measures
and interventions as follows;
1. Site selection: separate residential, industrial areas etc.
2. Process redesign & equipment modification, e.g. substitution, wet
methods etc.
3. Regular monitoring of industrial gases, fumes etc.
4. Legislation : transportation policy, energy sources policy
5. Enforcement of laws governing emission standards
6. Health education on reduction of pollutants producing activities, use of
personal protective devices, periodic medical examination
In-text question
1. Classify the common sources of air pollution
Answer
1. Combustion
Automobile exhausts: CO, carcinogenic hydrocarbons, organic lead
Burning oils: SO2
Steel blast furnaces: CO
2. Specific industrial processes
Dye making and oil refinery: HS
Fertilizer, chemical and aluminum industries: hydrogen fluoride (HF)
Organic chemical industries: carcinogenic hydrocarbons
3. Personal habits/Domestic
Smoking: CO, hydrocarbons, cooking (burning fuels)
4. Nature
Pollen grains, dust, mould spores, vegetable fibres, microbes
Coal mine: CO
69
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (individual or group)
Q1. Briefly discuss the effects of air pollution
Air is essential for life. Air pollution has varied effects on man’s health and
environment. Therefore, the prevention and control of air pollution will greatly
enhance man’s health and wellbeing.
1. List the common air pollutants

2. Discuss the health effects of air pollution

1. Park.K (2007). Textbook of preventive and social medicine..19thed.
Jabalpur: Banarasidas Bhanot Publishers. pp.762-68.
2. Gurjar BR, Molina LT, Ojha CSP (Eds). Air pollution: Health and
environmental impacts. CRC Press, New York
3. Ghorani-Azam A, Riahi-Zamani B and Balai-Mood M. Effects of air
pollution on human health and practical measures for prevention in Iran. J
Res Med Sci. 2016;21:65. doi: 10.4103/1735-1995.189646
4. https://youtu.be/JHeQEcGu4nQ
70
STUDY SESSION 2
Noise Pollution
Introduction
2.0 Main content
2.1 – Noise pollution
2.2 – Sources of noise
2.3 – Effects of noise
2.4 – Prevention and control of noise
Introduction:
At birth the inner ear is fully developed and it has its full complement of hair cells,
supporting cells and nerve fibres. Unlike most other tissues in the body,
mammalian hair cells and nerve fibres do not regenerate when damaged. The ear is
a special organ that interprets sound. Noise can be damaging to the ear and lead to
psychological trauma.

1. Define noise
2. List the sources of noise
71
3. Discuss the effects of noise
4. Discuss the prevention and control of noise
2.0 Main content

2.1 Noise Pollution
Noise is any unwanted sound in the wrong place at the wrong time. Noise pollution
has been recently coined to signify the vast nature of sounds that are being
produced in our modern life, leading to health hazards.
The Unit of sound is decibel (db)
• Whisper produces 20-30db
• Normal conversation produces 60-65db
• Heavy diesel vehicle produces 90-100db
• Threshold limit value (TLC) 80-90db
2.2 Sources of Noise Pollution

1. Automobiles esp. train
2. Industries and factories
3. Air-crafts
4. Use of pressure horns
5. Noise of recreational loudspeakers during festivities
6. Domestic noises from radios, transistors, T.V sets etc.
In-text questions
1. Define noise
Answer
1. Noise is any unwanted sound in the wrong place at the wrong time.
72
2.3 Health Effects of Noise
1. Auditory effect
a. Auditory fatigue
b. Hearing loss
c. Noise induced deafness
2. Non-auditory effect
– Loss of concentration
– Irritability
– Annoyance
– Communication difficulty
– Physiological changes e.g. palpitation, sweating, breathing
2.4 Prevention of Noise Pollution

Controlling noise can be achieved through the following steps:
1. Process redesign
2. Personal protection
3. Health education
4. Pre-employment examination
In-text question
1. What are the sources of noise pollution?
Answer
1. Automobiles especially train
2. Industries and factories
3. Air-crafts
4. Use of pressure horns
5. Noise of recreational loudspeakers during festivities
6. Domestic noises from radios, transistors, T.V sets etc.
73
Q1. What are the health effects of noise?
Noise-induced hearing impairment is preventable. Protection against hazardous
noise exposure should be included into overall hazard prevention and control
programmes in workplaces.

1. Park K (2007), Textbook of preventive and social medicine. 19thed.
Jabalpur: Banarasidas Bhanot Publishers. pp.762-68.
2. https://youtu.be/-VaaTn_g1_k
3. https://youtu.be/AQ4BakagMvM
4. Murphy E, and King E, Environmental Noise Pollution: Noise Mapping,
Public Health, and Policy. Elsevier, San Diego 2014. Pp 1-260
5. Cooper WC. Noise pollution. JAMA. 1968; 206(11):2523.
doi:10.1001/jama.1968.03150110071020
74
STUDY SESSION 3
Radiation
2.0 Main content
2.1 – Sources of radiation
2.2 - Effects of radiation on man’s health
2.3 - Prevention and control of radiation
4.0 Conclusion/Summary
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
Introduction:
Radiation is part of man’s environment. Man is exposed to natural ration from time
immemorial. However, with the increase in man’s activities and industrialization,
man’s has become exposed to a new category of radiation classified as man-made
radiations. These radiations have profound effect on man’s health and can lead to
economic losses.

2. List the sources of radiation
3. Discuss the effects of radiation on man’s health
4. Discuss the prevention and control of radiation
75
2.0 Main content
2.1 Sources of Radiation
Table 4. Sources of Radiation

Natural Sources Man-made sources
1. Cosmic rays 1. Medical and Dental: X-rays,
Radioisotopes
2. Environmental 2. Occupational exposure
a. Terrestrial radiation
b. Atmospheric radiation
3. Internal: 3. Nuclear : Radioactive fall-out,
a. Potassium – 40 accidents
b. Carbon – 14
4. Miscellaneous (others): Television
sets, wrist-watch, luminous markers
etc.
Types of Radiation
Radiation can be classified into two:
1. Ionizing radiation and
2. Non – ionizing radiation
Ionizing radiation are those radiations that has the ability to penetrate tissues and
deposit its energy within them. Examples of ionizing radiation include
76
electromagnetic radiations e.g. X-rays, gamma rays; corpuscular radiations e.g.
alpha particles, beta particles and protons
Non- ionizing radiations
1. The sun is the chief source
2. Visible light
3. Infrared
4. Ultraviolet radiation
5. Radio frequency waves
In-text Questions
1. List the common sources of radiation
Answer
A. Natural sources
1. Cosmic rays
2. Terrestrial radiation
3. Atmospheric radiation
4. Internal radiation (within the body)
B. Man-made sources
1. X-rays
2. Radio-active fallout
3. Others; Television sets, wrist-watch (luminous)
2.2.Effects of Radiation
The following are the major effects of radiation;
1. Acute radiation sickness
2. Radiation syndrome
3. Leukemia
4. Malignant tumours
5. Sterility
6. Shortening of life span
7. Congenital malformations
8. Ocular disorder e.g. lacrimation, cataract
77
9. Dermal disorder e.g. erythema, depigmentation, cancer
10.Reproductive disorders
2.3. Prevention and Control of Radiation

The following general and specific measures are employed in the prevention
and control of radiation;
1. Complete enclosure of radiation sources
2. Maintenance of safe distance from source of radiation
3. Personal protection
4. Time limited exposure
5. Good personal hygiene
6. Legislation against indiscriminate use of ionizing radiation in hospitals and
industries
In-text questions
1. List the effects of Radiation on Human’s health
Answer
1. Acute radiation sickness
2. Radiation syndrome
3. Leukemia
4. Malignant tumours
5. Sterility
6. Shortening of life span
7. Congenital malformations
8. Ocular disorder e.g. lacrimation, cataract
9. Dermal disorder e.g. erythema, depigmentation, cancer
10. Reproductive disorders

Q1. List the measures used in the control and prevention of radiation
78
Radiation is part of man’s environment and man is continually being to
ionizing radiation due to his activities. Therefore, the control of radiation is
important in preserving man’s health.
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

Q1. Describe the types of radiation

1. Park K. (2007) Textbook of preventive and social medicine. 19thed.
Jabalpur: Banarasidas Bhanot Publishers; pp.762-68.
2. Kamiya K, Akiba S, Niwa O, Kodama K, Takamura N, Zaharieva EK, et al,.
Long-term effects of radiation exposure on health. The Lancet Child &
Adolescent Health 2015; 386(9992): 469-478
DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)61167-9
3. https://www.edx.org/course/effects-radiation-introduction-radiation-oecx-
radio101x#
4. https://youtu.be/tq6FDyFeCN0
5. Holmes-Siedle A, Adams L. Handbook of Radiation Effects. OUP Oxford,
2002;pp 1-640
79
STUDY SESSION 4
Climate Change
Introduction
2.0 Main content
2.1 -Climate change/ global warming
2.2- Effects of global warming
2.3- Consequences of global warming
Introduction
Global warming and climate change occur as a result of the emission of green-
house gases, aerosols, and solar radiations into the atmosphere. The green-house
gases (GHGs) are; co 2 , methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons,
perfluorocarbons and sulphurhexafluorides. An emission of GHGs has increased
by 70% between 1970 to 2004.

1 .Describe climate change and Global warming
2. Discuss the interactions occurring in the atmosphere leading to global warming
3. Discuss the effects of climate Global Warming
80
4. Describe the consequences of climate change
2.0 Main Content

2.1 Climate Change/ Global Warming
The greenhouse effect:
This is a combination of processes leading to the rise the temperature of the earth’s
surface. The sun is the main source of energy to earth. The solar radiation emitted
from the sun passes through the atmosphere. Some of this solar energy penetrates
the earth’s atmosphere while some are reflected back from the surface of the earth.
However due to anthropogenic activities, greenhouse gases that are present in the
atmosphere traps these reflected sun’s energy and results in the rise in earth’s
temperature. This complex activity leads to global warming.
Figure 6. The green house effect
81
In-text Question
Q. What is global warming?
Answer
Global warming and climate change occurs as a result of the emission of green-house gases,
aerosols, and solar radiations into the atmosphere.
4.2.Effects of Global Warming

The direct effects of global warming include the following;
1. Increase in average global surface temperature.
2. Rise in sea level, currently at a rate of 3.1mm per year
3. Increase in occurrence of extreme climatic events such as cyclones, heat
waves and droughts, floods etc.
2.3. Consequences of Global Warming and Climate Change

As a result of the above events:
1. Many animals species may die or fail to adapt
2. Changes in ecosystem of local, regional, and global environment
3. Changes in prevailing winds, and ocean currents leading to changes in the
distribution of rainfall in many regions
4. Changes in the distribution of vegetation
5. Changes in distribution of insects vectors of diseases
6. Temperate zone warming induces a decline in soil moisture that impairs
grain production
7. Melting of the polar ice, ice caps, glacial ice and sheets leading to increase
in sea level and flooding
8. Acidification of the rain, ocean
82
In-text question
1. Briefly describe the interaction leading to global warming
Answer
This is a combination of processes leading to the rise the temperature of the earth’s surface.
The sun is the main source of energy to earth. The solar radiation emitted from the sun passes
through the atmosphere. Some of this solar energy penetrates the earth’s atmosphere while some
are reflected back from the surface of the earth. However due to anthropogenic activities,
greenhouse gases that are present in the atmosphere traps these reflected sun’s energy and
results in the rise in earth’s temperature. This complex activity leads to global warming.

Q1. What are the consequences of climate change?
Global warming is an ongoing event and will lead to climatic changes that may
affect distribution of diseases and other global disasters. It is therefore, imperative
for all actions necessary to be taken to stem the tide and prevent a global calamity
in the near future.
5.0 Self-assessment question and answer

1. What are the effects of global warming?

1. Park K. (2007). Textbook of preventive and social medicine..19thed.
Jabalpur: Banarasidas Bhanot Publishers. pp762-68.
2. https://youtu.be/yU3GwJu_yNA
3. United Nations Climate Change. Climate Change Impacts Human Health.
UNCC Report 12 April 2017. Available online at
https://unfccc.int/news/climate-change-impacts-human-health, accessed
24/9/2018
83
4. Luber G and Prudent N. Climate Change and Human Health. Am Clin
Climatol Assoc. 2009; 120: 113–117.
5. Frumkin H, Hess J, Luber G, Malilay J and McGeehin M. Climate Change:
The Public Health Response. Am J Public Health.2008;98(3):435–445.
doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2007.119362
6. Campbell-Lendrum DH, Corvalan CF, Ebi KL, Githeko A, Scheraga JD,
Woodward A (Eds). Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and
Responses. World Health Organization, Geneva 2003.pp1-283
84

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DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY

Programme Title: BACHELOR IN NURSING SCIENCE (BNSc)

First published 2018 in Nigeria.

Published and printed in Nigeria by:

Ahmadu Bello University Press Ltd.

Ahmadu Bello University,

CO2 Carbon dioxide

GHGs Green-house gases

H2S Hydrogen sulphide

ITN Insecticide treated net

SO2 Sulphur dioxide

SO3 Sulphur trioxide

TLC Threshold limit value

VIP Ventilated improved pit latrine

Course Writers/Development Team 4

COURSE STUDY GUIDE

7.0 Time (To Complete Syllabus/Course) 14

12.2 Module 2: Components of Environment Health I

12.3 Module 3: Components Of Environment Health II

2.0 COURSE INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION

3.0 COURSE PREREQUISITES

4.0 COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES

5.0 COURSE OUTCOMES

6.0 ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES

7.0 TIME (TO COMPLETE SYLABUS/COURSE)

viii. GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE

N.B: - Semester Examinations 1st/2nd Week January

WEEK MODULE STUDY SESSION ACTIVITY

Study Session 1: 1. Read Courseware for Study Session 1.

Study Session 1 1. Read Courseware for Study Session 1

Study Session 2 1. Read Courseware for Study Session 2

STUDY Study Session 3 1. Read Courseware for Study Session 3

1. Read Courseware for Study Session 1

Study Session 2 1. Read Courseware for Study Session 2

Study Session 4 1. Read Courseware for Study Session 4

Week 14 & 15 SEMESTER EXAMINATION

MODULE 2: Components Of Environmental Health I

MODULE 2: Components Of Environmental Health II

1.0 Study session learning objectives

2.0 Main Content

2.2. Environmental health

2.3 Relationship Between Health And Environment

2.4: Components of Environmental Health

3.0 Tutor marked assignments (individual or group)

5.0Self-assessment questions and answers

6.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

2.0 Main Content

Physical health- is concerned with anatomical integrity and physiological

Emotional health - is the ability to express emotions in an appropriate manner, for

1. Physical Determinants -The physical factors affecting the health of a

2.2 Environmental Factors Affecting Health

Macro-environment or the external environment is said to be responsible for

Components of the Environment

3.0 Tutor marked assignments (individual or group)

1 Water supply Adequacy, safety (chemical, bacteriological, physical) of water

5.0 Self-assessment questions

1.0 Study Session Learning Objectives

2.0 Main Content

2.2. Social Goals of Housing

2.3 Effects of Poor Housing

Persons per room