Lakota Virtues and Leadership Principles --

Insights and Applications for Ethical Leaders

Leaders struggle to create follower commitment which has been identified as a key

source of competitive advantage (Covey, 2004). Although scholars and leaders increasingly

advocate highly ethical principle-based approaches to leadership (Cameron and Dutton, 2012),

many employees perceive their companies’ “espoused values” to be substantially different

from their companies’ practices (Schein, 2010). This inconsistency between promises made and

kept has been a source of conflicts for decades (Kouzes & Posner, 2011). The Native American

Lakota Indian nation has adopted twelve guiding virtues that are key elements of every leader-

follower relationship and that are foundation principles of the Lakota culture. Understanding

those cultural virtues and their practical application offers valuable insights and helps clarify

the implicit ethical obligations that make up human relationships and effective leadership.

This article describes the twelve Lakota virtues and identifies how each virtue

corresponds with principles of ethical leadership. We begin by briefly identifying the

importance of ethical leadership as a condition precedent to competitive advantage. We then

introduce each of the twelve Lakota virtues and identify cutting-edge leadership findings about

their application in today’s busy work setting.

Understanding Ethical Leadership

Ethical leadership encompasses both the demonstration of morally appropriate conduct

and the promotion of such conduct to others (Skubinn & Herzong, 2016, 250-251; Brown, et al.,

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2008, 117). Many scholars place ethical leadership in the category of Aristotelian virtue ethics

(Solomon, 1992). Bennis and Nanus (2007, 1-3) called the leader’s ability to generate trust one

of corporate America’s most critical issue. Increasingly, leadership scholars have recognized

the need for a highly ethical approach to leader-follower relationships that exemplifies virtues

and honors duties owed to stakeholders (Cameron, 2011; Schein, 2010).

The leadership role has sometimes been described as a “covenantal” relationship in

which leaders honor sacred obligations in the pursuit of truth and new meaning (Pava, 2003);

empowering others (Zhang & Bartol, 2010), and working for the welfare, growth, and

wholeness of followers and organizations (DePree, 2004). Scholars who have written about

various leadership perspectives emphasize the moral nature of leaders. Moral leaders are

ethical stewards who create long-term wealth for all parties and a commitment to the welfare,

growth, and wholeness of those whom they serve (Block, 2013; Caldwell, et al., 2012).

Ethical stewardship is a governance model that pursues long-term wealth creation,

benefits stakeholders, and honors duties owed to others (Caldwell, et al., 2009). The

stewardship role creates wealth potential and adds value (Senge, 2006), generate innovations

and increases creativity which sustain long-term competitive advantage (Clayton, 2013); and

builds both long-term and short-term follower commitment and trust (Caldwell & Hansen,

2010; Hayes, et al., 2015). Ethical leaders are stewards and role models who demonstrate

morally sustainable virtues and encourage others to do the same (Cameron, 2011; Skubinn &

Herzog, 2016).

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 Virtuous leaders create organizations that provide improved customer service,

increased quality, and greater profitability than comparable organizations lacking virtuous

leaders (Cameron, 2003). Although the make- up of organizations may impact what precisely

constitutes ethical leadership, the foundations of ethical leadership are based upon

relationships that demonstrate a commitment to the justice and rights of followers (Gilligan,

1982; Turiel, 1983, 3; Fehr, et al., 2015, 185). Ethical leadership lies at the core foundation of

human relationships and achieves the moral duties of individuals and organizations to add

value, create excellence, and do no harm (Aristotle, 2011; Solomon, 1992; Covey, 1991; Lennick

& Kiehl, 2007).

By creating a culture of high trust organizations earn employee commitment,

followership, and the willingness to go the extra mile that create long-term wealth (Pfeffer,

1998; Christensen & Raynor, 2003; Caldwell & Hansen, 2010; Hayes & Caldwell, 2015). It is this

level of trust and personal ownership that enables employees to enter a “Zone of Stewardship”

wherein they take upon themselves the best interests of the organization—acting as if they are

“owners and partners” in the pursuit of its long-term success (Hayes & Caldwell, 2015; Block,

2013).

Leadership and the Lakota Virtues

Virtues reflect the character and moral excellence of individuals, regardless of the

personal cost. Virtuousness encompasses inherent values that enhance the quality of life, the

capacity to productively change, and the ability to contribute benefits that otherwise could not

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occur (Cameron, 2011). The derivation of the twelve Lakota virtues has its foundation in the

storytelling of the Lakota nation (Patterson, 2011).

Humility

The Lakota regard humility as essential in achieving spirituality, the foundation of all other

virtues, and the key to self-knowledge. Humility allows learners to be open to new thinking and builds

the respect of others (Schein, et al, 2001). The Lakota connection with nature, the earth, and its

creatures becomes a foundation for respecting the character of others and honoring their inherent

value. Humility, “is not about humiliation, self-abasement, penitence for sin or being unworthy in the

sight of God,, , (but) is a freedom from pride and arrogance that recognizes equity and equality” (Long &

Long, 2014, 1).

Collins (2001) explained that companies evolve from good to great when leaders possess

humility combined with a fierce commitment to success. Level 5 leaders who characterize great

organizations accept responsibility within themselves when organizational failures occur but give credit

to others when successes are achieved. Humility, respect for others, and letting go of our need to

control others are essential elements of personal growth (Schein, Kahane, & Scharmer, 2001). Morris

and colleagues (2005) emphasized the key role of leadership humility as a key to follower commitment

and respect.

Over 2,400 years ago, Aristotle emphasized the leader’s need to possess the proper balance

between pride and the self-deprecating failure to recognize one’s best qualities (Aristotle, Brown, &

Ross, 2009). McKay (1966) echoed Aristotle’s insight, observing that humility is “a proper estimation of

oneself.” The ability to accurately understand one’s own strengths and weaknesses is well regarded as a

quality of great leaders (Covey, 2004).

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 Thus, the Lakota virtue of humility as a foundation for personal growth relates directly to

modern thinking about successful leadership and is confirmed repeatedly by scholars.

Perseverance

Perseverance, the second Lakota virtue, is the ability to courageously endure and

overcome obstacles. Persisting, despite seemingly insurmountable difficulties, requires great

inner strength and builds character. For the Lakota perseverance affirms that life is worth living

—despite trials and struggles (Long & Long, 2014). Lakota educator, Pat Locke, defined the

courage associated with perseverance as “strength of character which equips us to meet danger and
trouble, to live our values, and to tell the truth in the face of ignorance.” Perseverance requires the

fortitude to keep the big picture in mind and endure faithfully until a noble goal is achieved. It is through

struggle and adversity that we achieve self-understanding.

Aristotle defined courage as perseverance despite adversity – and the balance between fear and

audacity. Perseverance despite difficult circumstances was found to be a critical element of leaders in an

extensive study conducted by Dries and Pepermans (2012). Calvin Coolidge, 30 th President of the United

States, observed that “Persistence and determination are omnipotent. The slogan ‘press on’ has solved

and will always solve the problems of the human race.”

The courage to persevere applies to modern leaders and organizations. Without the ability to

overcome obstacles, success is rarely possible.

Respect

Respect is a reverent regard or admiration for others – whether for living things, for

other people, or for the inanimate world and has been a key element of the Lakota way of life.

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The Lakota respect the elderly for their and Lakota teachings also affirm that all people and

things are linked together and are worthy of esteem (Long & Long, 2014).

Current thinking in the leadership literature affirms the importance of each individual as

“ends” rather than as the “means” to one’s self-interests (Block, 2013). Great leaders respect

others and treat them as valued partners by creating high trust organizational cultures (Pfeffer,

1998; Caldwell & Floyd, 2014) They treat others as people owed “covenantal” duties that

promote individual welfare as well as the best interests of the organization (DePree, 2004;

Paine, 2002).

Respect is best evidenced by creating systems that reinforce organizational values and is

a core element of great organizations, as well as being a fundamental Lakota virtue.

Honor

The Lakota people define honor as the capacity to choose noble actions that reflect the

character required of an honorable person. A person with treats others with dignity and

exemplifies honesty and consistency. To the Lakota, “everything is connected” and an

honorable life is congruent with one’s virtues and values. For the Lakota nation, honor affects

all facets of life and every relationship (Long & Long, 2014).

Leaders are known for their honesty in telling the truth, keeping promises, and honoring

relationships (Kouzes & Posner, 2011). Schein (2010) observed that createan organizational

cultures wherein systems and practices are consistent with espoused values. Moral identity is

the way in which a person defines oneself. Behaving as a moral person, is a key factor in a

leader’s ability to earn the trust of others (Dirks & Ferrin. 2002).

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 Honor, or the choice to pursue noble ideals and to work for the rights and best interests

of all, applies to the modern leader as well as the Lakota nation.

Love

For the Lakota, love is a spiritual emotion that encompasses all things. Love includes

compassion and is the source of creativity. The word for expressing love is Thečhíȟila, which

literally translates into “I cherish you.” Love expresses deep caring and personal regard and is the

recognition of universal balance in the world and an appreciation for all aspects of life. The ultimate

love is manifest as spiritual joy (Long & Long, 2014).

Love has become recognized as a fundamental element of the employer-employee relationship

– particularly when associated with the leader’s ethical stewardship roles (Caldwell, Bischoff, & Karri,

2002). Caldwell and Dixon (2009) associated love with forgiveness and trust and defined all three

constructs in context with their ability to broaden and enhance empowerment, self-efficacy, and

individual personal freedom. Koestenbaum (2002, 194-195) labeled love as the surrender of one’s

freedom to another and called it “the greatest gift you can ever give.”

Love demonstrates a commitment to creating excellent relationships, enhancing the world, and

empowering others in both the Lakota perspective and modern leadership theory.

Sacrifice

For the Lakota, sacrifice is the fruit of love and the giving of oneself to others. Sacrifice requires

of time, effort, and resources and offering oneself to others and mirrors the Lakota’s effort to follow the

example of the Creator. The Lakota believe that sacrifice creates the fruits of its own efforts and what a

persona sows will ultimately be balanced with that which they reap (Long & Long, 2014).

In the leadership literature, personal sacrifice is the choosing of service to others rather than

self-interest and is a fundamental element of servant leadership (Greenleaf, 2015; Block, 2013). The

research of leading scholars has confirmed that organizations with leaders who pursue self-interest and

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short-term profit taking are actually less profitable and less successful than organizations with leaders

who pursue honoring the best interests and core values of the organizations that they lead (Collins &

Porras, 2004; Cameron, 2003).

Sacrificing for the benefit of the community, rather than simply pursuing opportunistic self-

interest, applies as a virtue to the Lakota culture and is a leadership principle within the modern

organization.

Truth

For the Lakota culture, truth requires distinguishing between illusion and reality in a complex

and uncertain world. Universal truth is important to discern but the Lakota also view the acquisition of

truth as an individual spiritual attribute as well. The Lakota rely on the ability to define what is true for

each person. The search for truth and its importance are implicit as well in other Lakota virtues, andare

particularly relevant with regard to honor and integrity. For the Lakota, elders are s a source of truth

and wisdom and play a key role in affirming and explaining the application of Lakota principles and

virtues (Long & Long, 2014).

Covenantal leadership emphasizes the importance of the leader as seeker of truth and the

creator of new meaning (Pava, 2003). Learning cultures seek to constantly learn, innovate, and create

new disruptive innovations that ultimately make their competitors obsolete (Christensen & Raynor,

2003). Many leaders follow “conventional wisdom” that is not true and fail to confirm and disconfirm

critical assumptions (Collins & Hansen, 2011; Pfeffer, 1998). Understanding what is and is not true

regarding customers, competitors, and leadership concepts are critical knowledge sets required of

today’s leaders. Leaders who do not share the truth that they know are as ineffective in contributing to

their organizations’ success as leaders who have no knowledge of those truths.

Knowledge of the truth and creating greater awareness of the truth are key elements of the

Lakota culture as well as being foundation requirements for leaders in modern businesses.

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Compassion

Lakota members believe that compassion is the genuine concern and a willingness to care about

others. It is a fundamental quality of the Lakota people, and unconditional love is an important quality

to create a strong Lakota community. The obligation of compassion encompasses caring for others as

one would care for oneself, and is based upon honoring and respecting the value of each member of the

community--rather than a motivation based upon pity. The roots of compassion are in recognizing

others as valued individuals who are worthy of love and respect. The Lakota view life as a journey to

travel and compassion for equates with helping others along the path of that journey (Long & Long,

2014).

As a leadership characteristic compassion relates closely with emotional and social intelligence

in the leader-follower relationship (cf. Goleman, 2007; Albrecht, 2009; Bradberry & Greaves, 2009). The

leader’s compassion requires acknowledging another’s needs and responding in a manner that enhances

another’s well- being (Boyatzis, et al., 2007, 153). Understanding the needs of others and showing

consideration for those needs are fundamental requirements for effective communication (Goleman,

2005). The ability to sustain interpersonal effectiveness is enhanced when leaders show genuine

concern for others and create organizational systems that reinforce that concern (McKee & Boyatzis,

2008).

For the Lakota and for leaders, compassion empowers both the person who feels understood

and cared about and the person who demonstrates authentic caring. Its application enhances

interpersonal bonds and enriches all parties.

Bravery

To the Lakota people, bravery encompasses wisdom, honor, and a willingness to engage and

overcome an obstacle that contains potential dangers or hardships. Bravery should be neither blind nor

reckless and demands great strength of character. For the modern Lakota, bravery also includes

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overcoming dysfunctional inner motivations that can sap and destroy one’s life or hurt others. Bravery,

courage, and fortitude reflect the willingness to be vulnerable and to take appropriate constructive

action despite potential risks (Long & Long, 2014).

For leaders, bravery may consist of a willingness to challenge the status quo and confront a

dysfunctional situation when assumptions are wrong-headed or out of date (Kouzes & Posner, 2012, Ch

6-7). Collins and Hansen (2011) noted that courage in decision-making enables organizations to become

great by choice while noting that such courage should be accompanied by hard research to acquire the

best available information before acting. The courage to let go, to trust employees, and to empower

them is often lacking in the modern organizational leader, despite the fact that a growing body of

empirical evidence has confirmed that such leadership actions increase profitability and employee

commitment (Ulrich, et al., 2012; Pfeffer, 1998). Leaders sometimes need to demonstrate the courage

to care passionately for an organization’s interests and advocate change – despite the risk that others in

their organization might nonetheless “kill them for caring” (Quinn, 1996).

Bravery in the face of potential dangers is an essential requirement for success for both the

Lakota nation and for leaders who compete in a marketplace consisting of constant threats – both

within and outside of their own organizations.

Fortitude

Fortitude, or the capacity to demonstrate resilience and the strength of mind to persist despite

difficulties or pain, is a result of patience and inner endurance. To the Lakota, fortitude requires faith in

one’s ability to overcome obstacles by constant effort. Fortitude is sometimes perceived as the quiet

and gentle voice which provides sustaining strength to honor a commitment or effort, even when results

may not be immediately evident. Fortitude maintains a big picture perspective that requires emotional

stability, determination, and a quiet confidence in one’s own abilities (Long & Long, 2014).

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 Fortitude is a leadership virtue that describes fortitude as a well of inner strength that enables a

leader to face daunting obstacles (Schiller, 2013). Fortitude is related to one’s personal self-

assessment, and effective leaders thoughtfully examine what (s)he can do well, what the world rewards,

what (s)he passionately loves to do, and what one’s conscience affirms (s)he must do to achieve a

desired objective (Covey, 2004). Fortitude has recently been described as the moral courage to do what

is good for others as a matter of practice, regardless of a potential threat to self (Hannah, Avolio &

Walumbwa, 2011, and often incorporates extra-mile behavior perceived by others as authentic and

highly moral (Avolio & Gardner, 2005).

Fortitude reflects a highly ethical commitment to benefits others and requires moral courage

and confident self-knowledge. Whether as a characteristic of the Lakota culture or of modern leaders,

fortitude enables those who possess it to demonstrate great strength of character.

Generosity

The Lakota view generosity as a virtue but also as a core value. In the Lakota language,

iCanteyouke, is a word often used for generosity and is literally translated as “to have a heart.” For

the traditional Lakota culture, property is not individually owned but is accessible to all who have a

legitimate need. Providing for family members is an important Lakota obligation and the family extends

beyond one’s immediate relatives. For the Lakota, the person who is most generous within a Lakota

tribe is considered to also be the most important member of the tribe. Possessions are viewed as

transitory and generosity demands the showing of genuine love for others (Long & Long, 2014).

Associated with modern leadership, Greenleaf (2015) observed that the leader is first a servant

of others. Berry (1999) explained that generosity is more than a philanthropic gesture but the action

expressing an organization’s or leader’s humanity. Caldwell and colleagues (2015) noted that kind

actions within organizations can be a source of actual competitive advantage and can be a key to

building trust and commitment. Covey (2011) explained the importance of adopting an abundance

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mentality, rather than a scarcity mentality, in pursuing outcomes that create a “third alternative” that

optimize benefits to all stakeholders. Kouzes and Posner (2012, Ch. 10-11) emphasize leader generosity

and caring as keys to “encouraging the heart” in creating great organizations.

Generosity requires treating people as valued “Yous” (Buber & Smith, 2012) rather than as less

important “Its” and builds powerful interpersonal commitment which benefits all the members of a

community or organization and increases collaborative cooperation (Hayes & Caldwell, 2015; Boyatzis &

McKee, 2005).

Wisdom

For the Lakota, wisdom measures the soundness of one’s actions in applying experience,

knowledge, and judgment and is both a virtue and a value. Wisdom enables the distinction between

truth and illusion, and integrates all other virtues. The acquisition of knowledge and experience are

necessary conditions precedent to applying wisdom but are not wisdom. Wisdom is seen by the Lakota

as an acquired reward in life for faithfully incorporating into one’s life in dealing with life’s challenges

and opportunities. Wisdom acknowledges that people and relationships are more valuable than any

acquisitions or money. Wisdom of the elderly is greatly respected and is deemed to be highly valuable

to the Lakota nation (Long & Long, 2014).

Leadershi0 scholars agree that effective leaders integrate “superior experience-driven cognitive

and emotional development resulting in a life that is beneficial for oneself and other people” (Zacher, et

al., 2014, 171). Covey (2004) emphasized that the modern leader must work within a knowledge-,

information-, and wisdom-based economy. Leaders earn the trust of others by applying knowledge

correctly in guiding organizations – and wise leaders acknowledge that technical knowledge may be

necessary but is far from sufficient in leading a successful organization long-term (Kouzes & Posner,

2012).

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 For the Lakota nation and the modern leader, wisdom is critical to the achievement of individual

and organizational goals. Wisdom is experience-based and is essential to optimizing the leader’s role as

well as the responsibilities of Lakota members to themselves and to others. Wisdom is the culminating

virtue for both the Lakota nation and business leadership, integrates the other virtues, and is focused

on achieving wealth and adding value for all stakeholders.

Conclusion

As society struggles to address the complex problems of the current work setting,

individuals and organizations can benefit from the virtuous conduct of their leaders as they

seek to accomplish organizational goals and to improve the quality of life for individuals and

society (Cameron, 2011). Understanding virtue ethics and the nature of individual virtues

enables a person to reflect on his or her own value choices, personal character, and

opportunities for improvement (Solomon, 1992).

Understanding the twelve virtues of the Lakota nation enables us to more fully

understand the richness of their character, their value in a world where all mankind are linked,

and their integrity as a people who care more about each other than their own material

possessions. In addition, studying the importance of the Lakota virtues helps to reaffirm the

importance of our leaders treating employees as valued partners who are much more than

commodities or costs to minimize (Pfefffer, 1998; Covey, 2004).

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