Journal of Archaeological Science 46 (2014) 144e155

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Journal of Archaeological Science

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Experimental and traceological approach for a technical interpretation

of ceramic polished surfaces
Cédric Lepère a, b, *
a
Eveha e Etudes et valorisations archéologiques, 24 avenue des Bénédictins, F e 87000 Limoges, France
b
CEPAM UMR7264 e CNRS e UNS 24, Pôle Universitaire Saint Jean d'Angély, SJA 3, 24 avenue des Diables Bleus, F-06357 Nice Cedex 4, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ceramic surface treatments resulting in polished surfaces are frequent during all the Neolithic period and
Received 5 February 2013 show a significant variability. Although many studies contribute towards a better understanding of some
Received in revised form aspects of these treatments, none of them provide a genuine technical and traceological reconstitution
3 February 2014
method in archaeology. This paper outlines a set of specific experiments designed to test the influence of
Accepted 2 March 2014
Available online 15 March 2014
five main factors on the traces formation process (tool, movement and active part of the tool, paste water
content, hydration process and superimposition of the various treatments).
The results of the traceological analysis show that: (a) four main techniques can be highlighted
Keywords:
Experimental archaeology
through this approach; (b) the variability of the traces occurring during the applied treatments was
Hand-made pottery linked to several processes and methods; (c) archaeological pottery examinations show the potential role
Traceological analysis of surface treatments in defining “technological styles” and differentiating groups and settlements from
Surface treatments one another. As a result, these experiments entail a methodological innovation to archaeology, yielding a
Burnishing broader perspective into prehistoric technologies.
Polish ware pottery Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
During the last three decades, knowledge made worthwhile
progress in the archaeological research, by technological studies
putting particular emphasis upon experimentations and ethno-
archaeological analysis. Understanding differences in
manufacturing techniques offers a way to reconstruct the technical
choices made during the manufacturing process. This work is
therefore an important initial step towards understanding prehis-
toric human behaviour and cognition. In hand-built ceramic pro-
ductions, these approaches were systematically conducted through
chaîne opératoire studies (Arnold, 1985; Degoy, 1997; Gallay, 1994;
Gelbert, 2003, 2005; Gosselain, 1992, 2002; Huysecom, 1994;
Livingstone Smith, 2000a,b; Nicholson and Patterson, 1989;
Pétrequin and Pétrequin, 1999; Roux, 1994; Tobert, 1984; Woods,
1984). Even so, in their attempts to reconstruct the operating
sequence for ceramic productions, few archaeologists have tried to
accurately reproduce finishing surface treatments methods, which
regroup various pre-firing and post-firing techniques (Balfet et al.,
* Eveha e Etudes et valorisations archéologiques, 24 avenue des Bénédictins, F e
87000 Limoges, France.
E-mail addresses: cedric.lepere@cepam.cnrs.fr, cedric.lepere@eveha.fr,
bradypot@hotmail.com, cedric.lepere@hotmail.com.
1983: 77; Binder et al., 1994; Gelbert, 2003: 148e149; Martineau
and Maigrot, 2004; Rice, 1987: 149e151; Rye, 1981: 54; Shepard,
1956: 191e193; Sinopoli, 1991).
Treatments resulting in polished surfaces, which are considered
to be a long and hard work by potters (Reina and Hill, 1978), are
frequent during all the Neolithic and would constitute a major
cultural fact. For example, during southern Chassey culture that
developed roughly between 4300 and 3300 BC from Catalonia to
Toscana, more than 95% of the vessels are polished (Lepère, 2012).
These surfaces show a significant variability (Timsit, 1999), which
can provide elements in defining “technological styles” (Childs,
1991: 332). However, the factors affecting their formation are not
yet fully understood.
From a techno-functional point of view, some authors argue that
polished surfaces modify the physical properties of the vessels by
reducing their permeability (Diallo et al., 1995; Echallier, 1984). Less
permeable walls influence the flow of fluids and the transfer of heat
and thereby, increase the heating effectiveness of the vessel and
reduce its susceptibility to thermal spalling and cracking (Bronitsky
and Robert Hamer, 1986; O’Brien et al., 1994; Orton et al., 1993;
Pierce, 2005; Schiffer, 1990; Schiffer et al., 1994; Sillar, 2003;
Skibo et al., 1997; Wallace, 1989; Young and Stone, 1990).
From a traceological point of view, O. Shepard was the first to
explore the diversity of treatments resulting in polished surfaces,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.03.010
0305-4403/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 C. Lepère / Journal of Archaeological Science 46 (2014) 144e155 145

which leave different kinds of traces whether they are applied to on this raw material (Pierret, 1994). The state of constraint is
bone-dry or leather-hard supports (Shepard, 1956: 190e192). Later, determined by the physical properties of the tool (hardness,
O.S Rye (1981: 90) introduced the distinction between polishing microtopography.) and the movement exerted by this tool (di-
and burnishing. This distinction was also adopted by P. Rice, who rection, angle of attack, pressure.). The physical condition of the
defines burnishing as the “rubbing of a hard-leather (at least 40e support is principally characterized by its degrees of moisture
60% of the humidity has evaporated) or a bone-dry humidified content, by the clay properties and by the surface morphology
surface with a hard foamy object”, whereas polishing is carried out (Shepard, 1956). The factors considered to be the most significant
on a bone-dry surface (1987: 138). Burnishing involves a compac- have been tested (Table 1).
tion and a reorientation of the clay particles, creating parallel linear Many tools are potentially usable for polishing ceramic surfaces
facets and sheen. Polishing yields a uniform polish without facets. (Arnal, 1989). It seems however illusory, as a first step, to approach
Some authors also introduce the notion of “sheen” to define the this parameter exhaustively. Therefore, we chose three types of
surfaces processed with a cloth after firing (Balfet et al., 1983: 87). tools with different degrees of hardness (hard, flexible and soft),
Those works show that even if the gestures are reasonably which might have been employed during the Neolithic: a hard rock
comparable (pressure and friction), rubbing tools against clay with pebble (hard tool), a flexible leather square (flexible tool) and a
different degrees of moisture content imply differences in the sheep fleece stamp (soft tool).
making and produce very different results which may have various Several studies also show that animal fibre (hair) can be used at
symbolic, cultural, aesthetic or functional values. Therefore, if we different stages of the “chaîne opératoire”. Just like plants, hair can
define a technique as the physical way of shaping, each change be added to clay in order to facilitate some techniques or to improve
(tool, degrees of moisture content, etc.) influencing significantly the the drying process (Sestier, 2005). It can also be used to humidify
making or the result of the treatment may be use to define a fully- the surface of a piece of pottery throughout the burnishing process.
fledged technique. Each techniques can be done according to In order to verify the assumption that these operations leave spe-
several “procedures” (sequence of gestures aiming at the realiza- cific traces, each one of them was tested.
tion of a technique). The combination of techniques and procedures The tools were rubbed against the sides of the pots in swift and
defined the method of surface treatment (Roux, 1994: 47). repetitive movements. At first, the main plane part was active
Although previous works contribute towards a better under- (Fig. 1A, C). Later, the active surface was reduced and only a limited
standing of some aspects of these treatments, none of them provide a part of the tool surface was used (Fig. 1B, D).
genuine technical and use-wear analysis method in archaeology. In addition, the treatments were carried out on supports with
Current methods focus on observations with the naked eye, while the variable degrees of moisture content. Three states were distin-
description of traces remains brief and general. In addition, the ter- guished: soft leather-hard (material barely reaching a leather
minology used to describe surface treatments presents inaccuracies. consistency), stiff leather-hard (drier state with significantly higher
Indeed, some terms like “polishing” refer to the effect of the treatment resistance) and bone-dry (solid). These states can also be modified
on the surface rather than to the technical process involving this ef- by other procedures.
fect. The lack of harmonization of the terminology is a last issue to For instance, ethnographic data report on the moistening of
consider. For example, several authors do not distinguish between surfaces throughout the treatment, which changes the consistency
“polishing” and “burnishing” (Gibson and Woods, 1997). of the paste and induces a variation of the degree of moisture
This paper is an initial step towards creating a firmer under- content between the surface and the inner section (Mahias, 1994).
standing of ceramic surface treatments. Thus, we carried out Accordingly, for each consistency, a humid square of leather was
controlled experiments consisting in testing a set of factors used to slightly hydrate the surface one small part after another
affecting the formation of traces. Our main aim was to propose an (Fig. 1E). Then the supports were treated. It is to note that in this
effective use-wear analysis method applicable to pottery assem- particular experimental framework, the traces represent one
blages. Our results show that four main techniques as well as their possible aspect of the moistening process. In fact, traces are likely to
variability can be identified. They also highlight the potential role of vary according to the quantity of added water or to the method
this stage of the production sequence in defining “chaînes used to humidify the vessel.
opératoires”. Polishing time and surface features may depend on the prop-
erties of the clay material and the quantity of temper (Shepard,
2. The experiment: materials and methods 1956: 661; 122e124). These parameters involve multiple combi-
nations, which are difficult to reproduce exhaustively. Therefore, in
The initial question addressed through these experiments was
to estimate the influence of five main variables on the formation
Table 1
process of the traces:
Single treatment, experimental variables (pastes A and B, 6 replicas, total: 576
supports).
(i) Type of tool,
Large Short Non Moistened
(ii) Movement and active part of the tool,
active active moistened
(iii) Degree of moisture content, part part
(iv) Moistening of the surface,
Rock pebble/wet U U U U
(v) Superimposition of various treatments. Rock pebble/soft leather hard U U U U
Rock pebble/stiff leather-hard U U U U
Then, by comparing the experimental products, the most rele- Rock pebble/bone-dry U U U U
vant distinctive criteria were considered in order to develop a use- Leather/wet U U U U
Leather/soft leather hard U U U U
wear analysis reference set.
Leather/stiff leather-hard U U U U
Leather/bone-dry U U U U
2.1. Variables Sheep wool/wet U U U U
Sheep wool/soft leather hard U U U U
The surface treatment is carried out according to the physical Sheep wool/stiff leather-hard U U U U
Sheep wool/bone-dry U U U U
condition of the raw material and the state of constraint exercised
146 C. Lepère / Journal of Archaeological Science 46 (2014) 144e155

Fig. 1. Experiments. A, burnishing with the main part of the tool; B, burnishing with a limited surface of the tool; C, sheep wool treatment with the main part of the tool; D, sheep
wool treatment with a limited part of the stamp; E, moistening of the surface with a leather square.

order to verify whether or not different surface features could be
identified, we used two types of clay with very different properties
for shaping and polishing: very plastic clay (paste A: cave clay,
created by decalcification of the limestone) and a less plastic one
(paste B: kaolinitic clay), easier to polish (the tool hang less to the
surface). In each case, glauconite and fine calcite tempers were
added to the clay.
Lastly, once the influence of each variant was assessed, it was
important to consider the question of treatment superimpositions,
essential for grasping the complexity of the finishing methods and
the time investment they imply. The supports were thus prepared
through a preliminary treatment (with stone, leather.) in different
states of hygrometry. Then, a second development was applied, at
different drying states (Table 2).
All these variables were tested through five sets of experiments.
For each tested combination, the treatments were applied to three
vessels and three plaques (6 replicas) for a better control of the
parameters. These supports were scraped and then smoothened.

Table 2
Treatments superimposition (T1 and T2), experimental variables (pastes A and B, 6 replicas, total: 624 supports). So L-H ¼ soft leather-hard; St L-H ¼ Stiff leather-hard; B-
D ¼ bone dry.

Tool/consistency Wool/So L-H Leather/So L-H Rock/So L-H Wool/St L-H Leather/St L-H Rock/St L-H Wool/b-d Leather/B-D Rock/B-D

A (T1) U U U U U U
B (T1) U U U U U U
C (T1) U U U U U U
Leather/So L-H (T1) U U U U U U
Rock/So L-H (T1) U U U U U
Wool/So L-H (T1) U U U U U
Leather/St L-H (T1) U U U U U
Rock/St L-H (T1) U U U U
Wool/St L-H (T1) U U U U
Leather/B-D (T1) U U
Rock/B-D (T1) U U
Wool/B-D (T1) U U

A: wool added to clay; B: wool used for laying a slip; C: wool used to humidify the surface.
 C. Lepère / Journal of Archaeological Science 46 (2014) 144e155 147

Afterwards, they were processed for 20 min and then wood-fired in
shallow pits (vessels) or fired in a muffle furnace (plaques) for
approximately one hour at 650 Celsius.
2.2. Descriptive criteria
Observations were conducted both with the naked eye and
stereomicroscopic analysis (magnifications of 10 to 60) mainly
with oblique light. Part of the terminology used has been borrowed
from use-wear analysis dealing with hard materials (Gassin, 1996;
Maigrot, 1997). Three groups of traces were selected to outline
the surface: striations and crests (i), microtopography and sheen
(ii), non-plastic particles (iii).
The orientation of striations and crests reveals the kinematics of
the movement. The same surface generally bears an association of
dissimilar striations. These types have thus been organized into a
hierarchy according to their frequency: principal striations, sec-
ondary striations and additional striations.
Their morphology is described according to different parame-
ters. Striations can be of different kinds: rectilinear (Figs. 2B and
3A), comet shaped (Fig. 2E), dashed (short comet; Fig. 2B), dotted
(Fig. 4A), fern shaped (indented on both edges) or undulated
(indented on one edge, Fig. 4C). Their width (thin, medium, large or
furrow) and depth (shallow, more or less shallow, deep) varies.
Their edges are straight (clear delimitation; Fig. 2D), soft (irregular
delimitation; Fig. 4A), blunt or fused (the edges of different stria-
tions meet; Fig. 4F). The bottoms and sides of the striations are
either smooth polished, smooth unpolished, rough polished or
rough unpolished. Their organization is: parallel, converging,
diverging or disorganized. The description is completed with the
structure of the striation layers, which can be tight (Fig. 3A), loose
(Fig. 2A) or aired (very loose).
The development of the striation layers is described with
reference to their length (short, medium, long), their continuity or
discontinuity, their orientation (diagonal, horizontal, vertical,
perpendicular or x-shaped) and their covers (invasive, partial or
residual).
Micro- and macrocrests are created by the movement of the
paste in a perpendicular direction to the tool movements (Fig. 2C).
Their descriptive criteria are the same as for the striations. The
description of their peak has however been specified: blunt,
granular or flattened.
The microtopography describes the irregularities formed by the
treatment. It is smooth (Fig. 2E, for example), facetted (few grooves;
Fig. 2C), staked out (Fig. 4B), granular (few regular grains; Fig. 2A or
4A), grainy (‘snakeskin aspect’ with a large number of small irreg-
ular grains; Fig. 5E) or “fleecy” (big irregular granules; Fig. 5A).
The processing action on the pre-existing protuberances is
defined by the “polish modelling” (Gassin, 1996). It is either fluid
(following the relief; Fig. 4A), smooth (the protuberances are

Fig. 2. Hard rock pebble treatments (burnishing). A, soft leather-hard paste, striations and microtopography; B, stiff leather-hard paste, striations and microtopography; C, soft
leather-hard paste, crests; D, stiff leather-hard paste, crests; E, stiff leather-hard paste, principal and secondary striations; F, soft leather-hard (on the left) and stiff leather-hard paste
(on the right).
148 C. Lepère / Journal of Archaeological Science 46 (2014) 144e155
Fig. 3. Hard rock pebble treatment (burnishing and softening), moistened bone-dry surfaces (AeB) and bone-dry surfaces (CeE). A, marked striations, edged and coated non-
plastic particles; B, crests; C, polish: overflowing, in clumps, soft to hard; D, non-plastic particles are spread out; E, hard polish, thin compaction, striations highly marked with clear
regular edges.
compacted, rounded and slightly flattened, Fig. 4B), soft (the
grooves and bumps are stretched in the direction of the tool’s
movement; the tops are flat; Fig. 4C) or hard (the grooves and
bumps remain in a residual state; Fig. 2CeE).
The development of the polish can be invasive (covering the
whole surface), on the top (only top parts are covered) or over-
flowing (the top parts are totally covered; the lower parts are partly
reached).
The compaction is either thin or deep. Its development is either
equal (the same everywhere; Fig. 2A), undulating (more compact
parts with transition layers; Fig. 4E) or in clumps (more compact
parts with no transition layers; Fig. 3C). The surface can include
cracks, partly due to clay shrinkage (Fig. 2F).
Sheen is a subjective characteristic, which varies with the
quality of the clay (Shepard, 1956). It defines the way the vessel’s
surface reflects direct sunlight. It can either be straight (light is
reflected continuously; Fig. 2F), “pixellated” (the light forms a
multitude of little dots; Fig. 5D) or vitreous (the surface shows
diffused reflections). Sheen intensity is dull, soft, velvety or bright.
Prints sometimes occur on the vessel. They are defined by their
type (hairs, plants, fingerprints, etc.), morphology (uncovered or
partly covered), aspect (polished or unpolished), orientation (hor-
izontal, vertical, diagonal), encrustation (salient, superficial or
deep) and quantity (rare, medium or abundant).
The consistency of the paste determines the degree of encrus-
tation of non-plastic parts. As a result, the quantity of non-plastic
particles at the surface (abundant, medium, rare or absent) is an
important factor. Their morphology can be salient (Fig. 5A), eroded
(Fig. 3A) or spread out (Fig. 3D). They are polished or unpolished.
Their degree of covering is bordered (the edges are covered; Fig. 6A)
or coated (entirely covered by a thin clay layer; Fig. 4F). Some
striations may appear.
3. Results
The systematic individual observation of more than 1200
experimental supports (Tables 1e2) reveals that tool hardness and
clay consistency are the main agents influencing the deformation of
the paste during the treatment. On the other hand, other agents
such as the type of clay do not modify the diagnostic features but
influence their intensity.
As a result, we distinguished four main techniques. From the
description of the mechanic effects of the treatment on the clay, a
terminology can be proposed.
First, for each technique, diagnostic features are explained by
reference to the variability observed when combining the four
parameters. Then, some complex sequences combining at least two
techniques can be identified, since they leave a combination of
diagnostic traces.
3.1. Definition and variability of techniques
Each of these techniques can be done according to several
“procedures” depending on paste consistency (which
 C. Lepère / Journal of Archaeological Science 46 (2014) 144e155 149

Fig. 4. Leather treatments (furbishing). A, soft leather-hard paste, soft to smooth polish, vitreous sheen, slightly granular surface; B, stiff leather-hard paste, doted micro-
topography, short and thin striations, covering polish; C, soft leather-hard paste, furbishing after burnishing, indented crests; D, burnishing, soft leather-hard paste; E, same than D
after furbishning, new compaction, erasement of the thin striations, apparition of short and thin striations; F, bone-dry paste, after burnishing on a stiff leather-hard paste, partly
melted striations.

corresponds to the moment of intervention), tool movement
(orientation of the striations and crests) and paste moistening
throughout the treatment. However, these procedures are not
always recognizable on the archaeological material. For example,
if moistening creates slight cracks on the surface, the diagnostic
features related to this procedure can rarely be discerned (Skibo
and Schiffer, 1987).
3.1.1. “Burnishing”
Hard tool treatment on leather-hard or humidified bone-dry
pastes (in this protocol, hard rock pebble treatment) triggers off a
compaction of the superficial layer and a slight displacement of
clay. The dryer the support is, the higher the compaction and the
lower the displacement. The term ‘burnishing’ which is generally
used for metal manufacturing is probably the best to designate this
technique (Rye, 1981).
Burnishing is characterized by parallel, thin, rectilinear, narrow
and shallow striations, sometimes edged with microcrests
(Fig. 2AeB). Larger secondary striations and dashes with polished
bottoms can also occur (Fig. 2E). Clay displacements, perpendicular
and frontal to the movement of the tool, sometimes form furrows
filled with thin parallel striations. These are bordered by macro-
crests which give a facetted aspect to the surface (Fig. 2CeD). Their
width corresponds to the active part of the tool. However, when the
treatment is repeated several times, crests and furrows disappear
or become more rare.
On soft leather-hard surfaces, the striations are not very marked,
rare and sometimes interrupted. Their edges are soft (Fig. 2A). The
bottoms and the sides are polished and rather rough. The structure
of the striation layers is loose. The macrocrests are undulating since
the displacement of matter is significant (Fig. 2C). The polish is
invasive and hard. Compaction is generally equal but may vary
according to the pressure exerted by the tool. With the exception of
crests and striations, the microtopography is slightly granular
(Fig. 2A). Cracks might form (Fig. 2F). The sheen is generally straight
and soft. The non-plastic particles, thin or rougher, are generally
encrusted and coated (Fig. 2A, F).
If the paste is firmer (stiff leather-hard), striations are more
clearly marked, more abundant, with a tight structure, polished
edges and bottoms (Fig. 2F). The surface is much smoother. Crests
are absent or appear in few spots and thinner, globally rectilinear
with a blunt peak (Fig. 2D). Cracks do not appear. The sheen is
straight, much clearer and much brighter. The compaction is
generally deeper and more regular, although if the treatment is
repeated it can be in clumps because a second run of the tool
triggers another surface compaction. The roughest non-plastic
particles do not penetrate entirely. They are bordered or coated
with a thin polished clay layer (Fig. 2F).
150 C. Lepère / Journal of Archaeological Science 46 (2014) 144e155

Fig. 5. Fleece treatments (patina treatment). A, soft-leather paste, grainy surface; B, on burnished paste, negative of hair; C, burnishing on a stiff leather-hard paste; D, n C after
patina treatment: erasement of the thin parallel striations, the largest striations are deformed; E, patina treatment on soft leather-hard burnished paste: crests are deformed,
apparition of a grainy surface; F, patina treatment on stiff leather-hard burnished paste, fingerprint.

At last, burnishing on moistened bone-dry pastes exhibits very
close similarity to what was observed on hard-leather pastes.
Nevertheless, although the compaction is generally deep, it can be
thinner in some ill-humidified places (undulating compaction);
high irregular crests and furrows may occur (Fig. 3B). Besides, since
the humidification is superficial, the non-plastic particles cannot be
fully encrusted. They are mostly bordered; the softest particles can
be eroded (Fig. 3AeB).
3.1.2. ‘Softening’
Hard tool treatment on dry non humidified paste creates a lower
compaction facilitated by the hygroscopic water (the paste holds-
water molecules from the surrounding environment). The friction
of the tool polishes the surface and creates some few removals of
clay. As a result, we propose to qualify this treatment as ‘Softening’
rather than polishing.
Striations are highly marked with clear regular edges and rough
polished bottoms. Some medium striations underlined with blunt-
edged microcrests appear (Fig. 3E). There are no macrocrests
(Shepard, 1956).
The “polish modelling” can be either hard or soft. It is invasive
and overflowing. This treatment displays a thin, generally even,
compaction (Fig. 3E), but when the treatment is carried out on
irregular surfaces, it can be transformed into clumps (Fig. 3C).
The sheen is straight, clear and bright, but more superficial than
for burnishing.
Non-plastic particles cannot penetrate into the paste. They are
edged and sometimes salient. Soft particles are eroded or spread
out with striations (Fig. 3D).
3.1.3. “Furbishing”
A treatment with flexible tools (leather, skin.) entails less
compaction and less movement of the clayey matter. The tool
cannot totally penetrate into the surface. It is deformed by, and
acquires the shape of the surface topography. Therefore, this kind of
treatment could be called “furbishing”. This term generally defines
a technique used in metal manufacture, which aims at brightening
the surfaces by cleaning them.
Unlike for burnishing, striations and crests are generally absent
after furbishing. Few short and very thin striation zones are
sometimes formed (Fig. 4A, B and E). They may be transformed
(fern shaped or indented striations) if the operation is repeated.
On soft leather-hard, stiff leather-hard or bone-dry pastes,
surface irregularities are deformed but not totally erased
(smoothing striations are however fully erased). The surfaces may
be staked out (Fig. 4A) but if the smoothening was carried out
carefully, the microtopography is globally smooth. Surfaces are
often dotted.
 C. Lepère / Journal of Archaeological Science 46 (2014) 144e155 151

Fig. 6. Fonbrégoua cave (Salernes, Var, France), surface treatments variability. A, horizontal burnishing on dry moistened surface; B, patina treatment on smoothed surface; C,
patina treatment on dry burnished surface; D, softening.

Non-plastic particles remain salient and sometimes polished
without striations. These particles, partly coated, form little bumps
at the surface of the container (Fig. 4A).
The sheen, the covering of non-plastic particles and the
compaction of the surface also contribute to distinguish at which
stage of the drying process the furbishing was conducted. The
sheen is generally vitreous (Fig. 4A), but its intensity is soft or
tern on soft leather-hard pastes, whereas it is much clearer and
brighter on stiff leather-hard pastes. Sheen is more superficial on
dry pastes (Fig. 4B). Likewise, the wetter the paste, the greater
the covering of the non-plastic particles. The compaction is al-
ways thin, but the polish is fluid to soft (Fig. 4B), invasive to
overflowing (the lower parts, scraping striations for instance, are
not always reached) depending to the degree of moisture
content.
3.1.4. Patina treatment
Wool (or hairs with grease) treatment produces a grease deposit
which oils the side of the vessel. For this reason, we suggest to
qualify this kind of treatment as “patina treatment”.
Procedures are very hard to identify. In fact, experimental sup-
ports show a very close similarity for each paste consistency, only
little distinctions can be noted in the intensity of traces. No diag-
nostic marks could be linked to the degree of hygrometry, to the
moistening of the surface or to the kinematics of the movement.
Patina treatment forms no striations but a micro-grain appears.
The grains are irregular with smooth and polished tops (grainy or
“fleecy” microtopography). The “polish modelling” is overflowing
and covering, undulating to equal, fluid modelled to soft. The
smoothing striations are deformed (Fig. 5A, C). Their peaks, partly
polished, and grooves have a granular aspect. The sheen is soft.
152 C. Lepère / Journal of Archaeological Science 46 (2014) 144e155
Non-plastic particles are salient, coated and edged. They show
neither polish nor striations. Sometimes, fine films of clay can be
tearing off (Fig. 5C).
A small quantity of hair, oriented in the same direction as the
tool, adheres to the surface. It generally leaves barely encrusted
prints. Other operations can also result in this kind of deposits:
shaping based on hair impregnated clay, hydration of the surface
due to a hair stamp for example. Nevertheless, these operations
leave a larger number of negatives close to one another and more
profoundly encrusted in the surface of the vessel.
3.2. Superimposition of techniques
These experiments reveal that complex sequences combining at
least two techniques can be identified, since they leave a combi-
nation of diagnostic traces. Indeed, in some cases, the second
treatment alters the traces of the first one without removing them
completely. The more the paste is humid, the more these modifi-
cations are marked.
For example, furbishing on burnished surfaces erases the thin
striations and increases the sheen (Fig. 4C, E) by provoking a new
compaction of the surface. The largest striations, the crests and the
furrows remain but they are deformed, blunted or flattened. They
become morphologically indented, undulating or fern shaped
(Fig. 4C). Some are however fused (Fig. 4F). The protuberances are
slightly stretched. Thin short striations, posterior to burnishing, are
sometimes visible (Fig. 4C, E).
“Patina treatment” produces a grease deposit that also erases
the thin parallel striations formed by burnishing (Fig. 5D). The large
striations, the dashes, the furrows and the crests remain, but their
edges are blunt; their sides and bottoms are transformed (Fig. 5B,
E). The non-plastic particles retain the characteristics of the former
treatment.
The microtopography is deformed. A grainy aspect appears
(Fig. 5B, E). However, this is not systematic on a dry surface (Fig. 5D,
F). The sheen is softened, more velvety and often ‘pixellated’. A
smooth and polished bottomed hair deposit was also observed.
Hairs are not deeply encrusted, sometimes partly covered if patina
treatment has been conducted on a rather humid paste (Fig. 5B).
Since the use of hair is prior to the treatment provoking compac-
tion, sides and bottoms of the negatives do not bear any polish.
From time to time, manipulations of the greased vessel during
the patina treatment cause fingerprints on the surface (Fig. 5F). This
accident is not systematic but it has been identified in archaeo-
logical finds.
On the other hand, when burnishing superimposes other tech-
niques, it completely erases the former traces. Earlier de-
velopments may however remain in residual forms on non-
processed or poorly processed parts of the vessel.
4. Archaeological implementations and discussions
By addressing the action of surface treatments on clayey ma-
terial, this experimental protocol led to a better understanding of
the mechanisms of the diagnostic attributes.
Being able to link micro-wear patterns observed during exper-
iments to patterns observed on archaeological specimens is a
critical part of the work. To illustrate potential contributions of this
use-wear analysis for archaeological interpretations, the example
of southern Chassey culture ceramic productions is developed here.
It was applied to a corpus of more than 2500 vessels (Lepère, 2012).
This middle Neolithic culture is defined by bladelet productions in
bedoulian honey flint imported from workshops located in the
Vaucluse region (France) and specific polished pottery productions
(Binder, 1990). Specifying the definition of the “chaînes
opératoires”, this use-wear analysis provides complementary in-
formation for understanding ceramic assemblages and leads to
propose several interpretative hypotheses.
4.1. Evolution of techniques and intercultural transfers
Generally speaking, during Chassey culture period the pottery
shows relatively complex surface treatment methods since some
vessels combine 4 or 5 techniques: scraping, smoothening,
burnishing, patina and post-firing treatment. More than 95% of the
productions are polished. This particularly important treatment
constitutes a major cultural fact.
The trend of surface treatments shows highly significant mod-
ifications, which are related to the chronology. The three first stages
(4250e3850 BC) are characterized by the domination of burnishing
(70e80%) and, to a lesser extent, softening methods. From 3850 to
3800 BC, the combination of burnishing and patina treatment be-
comes largely predominant (70e90%). During the last stage (3650e
3300 BC), the combination patina treatment-burnishing is
restricted to composite shapes and voluminous containers are no
longer burnished but simply smoothened. This lesser investment in
surface treatments shows a modification of the technical traditions
and maybe of the value of these techniques.
Patina treatments appear or spread in Provence and Languedoc
until the beginning of Chassey culture. The first appearance of
surface treatment methods combining burnishing and patina
treatment during the first stages of Square Mouth Pottery complex
(SMP) around 4800 BC, raises the question of technical transfers
and interrelation networks between those two cultural spheres
(Binder, 1990; Binder et al., 2008).
4.2. Accuracy of “chaînes opératoires”
The identification of surface treatments (techniques and pro-
cedures) has proven quite helpful to give a clearer picture of the
ceramic “chaînes opératoires” when combined with a global
morphological and technical approach. In some cases, when hand-
building methods cannot be properly identified (for example highly
fragmented series), the definition of surface treatments techniques
and procedures can bring valuable information to distinguish be-
tween the technical groups. As well as other technical (raw material
sourcing, variability of building methods, etc.) or functional data
(distribution of volumetric classes, etc.), surface treatments are a
key means for addressing production patterns, but also the re-
lationships between site function and technical diversity. In this
regard, the comparison between pottery from the two sites of
Pertus II (Méailles, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, France) and Font-
brégoua (Salernes, Var, France) is quite meaningful.
At Pertus II, two methods are used for polishing ceramics. The
jars are simply burnished, whereas the smaller containers are
burnished and then treated with a patina. These rather strict norms
underline the presence of stable production units. Based on the
similarity of the whole chaîne opératoire, it was suggested that this
cave was a craft area specialised in the making of vessels (Lepère,
2004).
On the other hand, at Fontbrégoua (levels 19e24) a sheepfold
cave (Courtin, 1974), the finishing methods are much more diverse
for each type of containers. Six distinct finishing methods were
highlighted: smoothening then patina treatment (Fig. 6B),
burnishing then patina treatment (Fig. 6C), horizontal burnishing,
horizontal burnishing on dry humidified pastes (Fig. 6A), x-shaped
softening (Fig. 6D). This diversity suggests multiple productions
units, probably domestic, in a pastoral lifestyle context (short oc-
cupations for pastoral activities).
Table 3
Summary of the main traces. Principal (1), secondary (2), comets or furrow (3).

Techniques and consistency/ Striations Crests Microtopography and sheen Polish and compaction Non-plastic particles
descriptors

Burnishing 1: rectilinear thin, shallow, few abundant loose Undulating thin to medium, Grainy to smooth, facetted or not, Covering, hard, even and deep Rare, polished, generally coated
soft leather-hard edges, loose layers, rough polished bottom loose edges, blunt grainy top sometime cracked pixelated to
2: few to medium abundant, more or less straight sheen, smooth
shallow, loose layers, straight edges, rough

C. Lepère / Journal of Archaeological Science 46 (2014) 144e155

unpolished bottom
3: in comets
Burnishing 1: rectilinear thin, shallow, abundant, straight Rare, thin rectilinear, straight Smooth, straight and bright sheen Rares, coated, polished
stiff leather-hard edges, smooth polished bottom edges, blunt smooth top
2: few abundant, airy layer, medium, shallow,
straight edges, smooth polished bottom
3: in comets and furrow, rare
Softening Polished bottom Generally absent Generally smooth, superficial, Covering, soft to hard, Moderately abundant to
3: in dash, thin furrow straight and bright sheen undulating or in clumps, thin abundant, eroded to spread out,
fringed to coated, polished
Furbishing 1: rectilinear thin, rare, airy, shallow, loose Granular to smooth, vitreous sheen, Covering to overflowing, fluid Moderately abundant, in relief,
soft and stiff leather-hard, dry edges, rough unpolished bottom soft to bright to smooth, thin, even to fringed to coated, rarely
undulating polished
Patina treatment 1: rectilinear thin, marked, abundant, tight, Smoothing crests indented, Grainy to “fleecy”, vitreous to Overflowing to covering fluid to Rare to moderately abundant,
Soft and stiff leather-hard, dry shallow, straight edges, polished or unpolished dotted, grainy, pixelated sheen, soft to smooth, smooth, thin, even to in relief, fringed to coated
bottom prints of hairs undulating
2: rare, airy, shallow, straight edges, smooth
Burnishing then furbishing 1: rectilinear thin, rare, loose edges, fused, Indented, loose edges, Smooth to faceted, vitreous to Overflowing, soft to hard, Rare, coated polished
smooth polished bottom flattened, blunt top straight sheen bright undulating or in clumps, deep
2: in firm, indented, few abundant, airy, loose
edges, smooth polished bottom
3: in dash, rare, deformed
Burnishing then patina 1: rectilinear thin, rare or absent, mild, tight to Indented to rectilinear, straight Grainy smooth sheen, pixelated, Covering, hard, even, deep
treatment loose, blunt edges, shallow, smooth polished to loose edges blunt top, polished prints of hairs, fingerprints
bottom smooth polish
2: medium, rectilinear, smooth polished bottom
3: in comets, loose edges, blunt
Furbishing then patina 3: dotted, rare, airy, mild, blunt edges, smooth Covering to overflowing, Rare to moderately abundant,
treatment polished bottom smooth to soft, even, thin rarely in relief, coated, polished

153
154 C. Lepère / Journal of Archaeological Science 46 (2014) 144e155
5. Conclusion and suggestions for future research
These experiments establish a significant baseline for the un-
derstanding of surface treatments resulting in polished surfaces
from a technical viewpoint. They led to develop an original use-
ware analysis method.
If compaction was already known as a diagnostic attribute for
inferring burnishing on soft leather-hard or stiff leather-hard paste
(Rye, 1981: 138), several additional criteria can now be used and
appear essential for the characterization of surface treatments:
striations, microtopography, encrustation and covering of the non-
plastic particles or sheen (Table 3), etc.
At least four main techniques were highlighted of which two
had not yet been described in the literature, i.e. patina treatment
(fleece stamp) and furbishing (flexible tool). These experiments
already allowed recognizing these techniques in archaeological
series.
Likewise, this protocol provided a better understanding of the
variability of traces within a same technique depending on the
consistency of the paste and the gesture. A terminology describing
the processing action on the clay was proposed to clearly specify
these treatments. It fills a gap in hand-built ceramic studies.
The experiments also reveal that several complex surface
treatment methods combining at least two techniques can be
highlighted. Ultimately, this study shows the potential role of sur-
face treatments in specifying “chaînes opératoires” in archaeolog-
ical sets.
The approach we employed represents an essential starting
point but it is also an initial step in investigating polished surfaces.
Future work should be broadened to another range of questions.
The first set of analyses we carried out suggests that the quality of
the clay changes the intensity of the traces, but that the diagnostic
features are equivalent. Nevertheless, the influence of this param-
eter needs to be specified and clearly identified.
Furthermore, only variations related to tool hardness have been
tested (classes of tools). Further experiments, based on observa-
tions with high magnification analytical methods, must be done to
verify whether using different kinds of tools (for example, bone
tools and rock tools) with equivalent hardnesses may have dis-
similar effects on the traces.
Different post-depositional effects which might produce dis-
tortions (Hally, 1983; Schiffer, 1987) should as well be examined.
As a result, these experiments entail a methodological innova-
tion to archaeology, yielding a broader perspective into prehistoric
technologies. Surface treatments appear as a great key to renew
anthropological questionings in a context of further investigation
and, overall, acquisition of new archaeological field data.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the members of the CEPAM and all the
colleagues that made this study possible, particularly Sylvie Bey-
ries, Didier Binder, Lorene Chesnaux and Auréade Henry.
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