Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097

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An archaeometric contribution to the study of Late Classic-Hellenistic T

ceramics of Northern Greece
⁎
Y. Santosa, D. Kondopouloua, L. Papadopouloua, N. Saridakib, E. Aidonaa, , C. Rathossic,
C. Serletisa
a
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of Sciences, School of Geology, Thessaloniki, Greece
b
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of Philosophy, School of History and Archaeology, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece
c
University of Patras, Department of Geology, Sector of Earth Materials, Rio Patras 26504, Greece

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The present study is a multi-analytical approach for the characterization of several potsherd samples, dated from
Late-Classic Late Classical to the Hellenistic period at three different archaeological sites of Northern Greece: Pella, Thasos
Hellenistic and Samothrace. Ceramic petrography, Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive
Ceramics Spectrometry (SEM-EDS) and X-Ray Powder Diffraction Analysis (XRPD) were applied for the determination of
Petrography
the chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the studied ceramics as well as the morphology of the clay with
X-Ray Spectroscopy
high resolution SEM images. Magnetic measurements on the sherds enriched the present study and when
Archaeomagnetism
combined with the archaeometrical approach described above, contribute to the characterization of the material
on its suitability for archaeomagnetic experiments. The overall obtained results confirm a local provenance and
techniques used for the pottery production.

1. Introduction techniques, some of which are destructive. Petrography could easily

The interdisciplinary approach by means of chemical, geological
and physical analytical techniques in the study of archaeological re-
mains is common nowadays. More specifically, the characterization of
ancient pottery, based on the methods above, can provide valuable
information regarding the provenance of raw materials used for the
ceramic production and specify the employed technological processes
related to the product manufacture (Pollard et al. 2007; Iordanidis
et al., 2009; Gauss and Kiriatzi, 2011; Neyt et al., 2012; Quinn, 2013;
Marzec et al., 2018).
The identification of the elemental variability in the ancient sherds
studies can provide fingerprints of the geological profile of the study
region and, furthermore, distinguish local pottery from imported one
(Hein and Kilikoglou, 2017). The mineralogical composition of ceramic
products provides us with information regarding the raw material used,
the firing temperatures during its fabrication and the firing conditions
(oxidizing or reducing) in the kiln (Whitbread, 1995).
The combination of multiple techniques is fundamental in order to
fully characterize the studied samples reinforcing and/or com-
plementing each line of analysis. The first analytical method applied
was petrography, which can provide a better orientation for analytical
determine pottery provenance based on the composition of mineral
inclusions and rock fragments and answer questions related to tech-
nological issues (Whitbread, 1995; Quinn, 2013).Mineralogical ana-
lyses using X-ray Powder Diffraction (XRPD) and Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM-EDS) are also reported.
The presently studied pottery samples were initially selected for
archaeomagnetic experiments. This selection was made upon their ac-
curate datings (Late Classical to Hellenistic) and known firing locations,
the elementary conditions “sine qua non” for such studies. Systematic
archaeomagnetic research has been conducted for several years in
multiple archaeological sites in Greece (De Marco et al., 2008; Fanjat
et al., 2013; Kondopoulou et al., 2014; Aidona et al., 2018 among
others). An important factor to be taken into account during archae-
omagnetic studies is the suitability of the related clays to accurately
record the signal of the magnetic field. This issue has been often dis-
cussed (Cui and Verosub, 1995; Kostadinova–Avramova, and
Kovacheva, 2013). The use of petrography in combination with mag-
netic measurements has been applied in a study on prehistoric cera-
mics, as a tool for improving the selection of pottery suitable for ar-
chaeomagnetic experiments (Kondopoulou et al., 2017). In order to
complement this study by extending it to historical periods, we adopted

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: aidona@geo.auth.gr (E. Aidona).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.102097
Received 6 May 2019; Received in revised form 6 November 2019; Accepted 12 November 2019
2352-409X/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Santos, et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097

Fig. 1. Map focus on the northern coast of Greece. Samples originate from 3 different regions in: Pella west of Thessaloniki; the island of Thasos east of Halkidiki
peninsula (Chalcidice) and the island of Samothrace further to the east.

a protocol for obtaining data from both analytical methods and basic
magnetic experiments such as thermomagnetic and hysteresis loop ex-
periments.
A strong emphasis is also recently given by several researchers on
the investigation of the firing conditions within the kiln, during ceramic
manufacturing, by both petrographic and magnetic measurements
(Jordanova et al., 2018; Rada et al., 2011). This approach, though
promising, is not directly related to the scope of the present study which
aims first to investigate the physical and chemical properties of three
groups of ceramics, and to establish relations between the material’s
composition and the regional geology in the vicinity of the corre-
sponding archaeological sites. At a second level, this outcome could
enhance their relevance for archaeomagnetic studies through the pos-
sible correlation of the ceramics magnetic properties and the char-
acterization of the clay fabric.
The production of all studied samples belongs to three different sites
in Northern Greece (Fig. 1): Pella, Thasos and Samothrace from west to
east. The samples date from late 5th to late 3rd century BCE. (Late
Classical to the Hellenistic Period).
due to river-transported sediments which have filled in the estuary, the
city stood on a shallow, but navigable lagoon (Fouache et al., 2008;
Vouvalidis, 2013).
The archaeological site of Pella has a great reputation as it is related
to the kingdom of Philip II and his son Alexander the Great. A recent re-
opening of the excavation lead to important restorations, and created a
fully visitable site (Akamatis and Lilimpaki-Akamati, 2015).
In 2008 an organized pottery workshop was unearthed and studied
in the quarter of the public baths, at the northwest part of the town
block (Fig. 2). The workshop comprised a well, two cisterns for cleaning
the clay and depositories in pits. Two pottery kilns were found in the
northeast room, both pear-shaped with medium to small dimensions,
that is 1.30–1.55 m width to 1.80–2.10 m length. Both kilns presented
similar architectural characteristics and evidence for high firings

2. Geological setting and archaeological background

2.1. Pella (Site code PE)

Pella is situated in the Northwest part of the Thessaloniki Plain (Fig.

S1). To its south lie the alluvial plains of the Axios and Aliakmon rivers;
to the north low hills of Miocene-Pliocene sedimentary rocks were de-
posited by predecessors of the present rivers (Fig. S1). The successive
depositional environments infilled a Neogene depression with fluvial
deposits, brackish clays, sands, limestones in the Miocene and fluvio-
lacustrine sands, silts and lacustrine marly limestones in the Pliocene
(Ghilardi et al., 2008). From Neolithic to Early Roman times Pella was
situated on the coast of the Thermaikos Gulf. By Late Roman times and Fig. 2. Pottery workshop in Pella.

2
Y. Santos, et al.
Fig. 3. Representative studied samples from Pella (A) Samothrace (B) and Thasos (C).
according to observed vitrification. Traces of fired floors were clear and
pottery fragments were found in both kilns, abundant in kiln 1 and less
numerous in kiln 2. The size of the fired pots was rather small, as can be
expected from the dimensions of the kilns, and the products were un-
painted. Because of the big amount of ceramics found within the kilns it
is assumed that they were in operation during their destruction and
possibly their last firing (dated at 250–225BC) was not completed
(Lilimbaki-Akamati and Akamatis, 2008). The material we selected
comes from the two kilns, is labelled as PE01 (from kiln 1) and PE02
(from kiln 2) and consists of small handles, bottoms and body fragments
of sherds.
2.2. Thasos (Site code TH)
Thasos is the northernmost island in Greece and is separated from
the mainland by only 10 km. The interior of the island is mountainous
and belongs to the Rhodope geological zone, thus largely composed of
metamorphic rocks (Fig. S2). These formations are divided into several
units formed basically of muscovite schists, biotite schists and gneisses
whereas coarse-grained marbles and dolomites are overlying these
series. Stratigraphically higher units follow the same lithological trend
of gneisses, schists, marbles and dolomites. Alluvial deposits occur in
the major bays, in the northeast, east and southwest, and especially
along the northwest coast (Zachos, 1982).
Remains of several production sites for transport amphorae have
been located and reported by Picon and Garlan (1986) and Garlan
(1986), all concentrated around the coast of the island, except from the
northwest to southeast. Workshops were in operation from the end of
the fifth or beginning of the fourth centuries through to the second or
even the beginning of the first century BC. More than 20.000 fragments
of stamped handles are classified and stored in the archeological mu-
seum of Thasos. The presently studied collection comes from four
groups of amphorae handles labelled as TH (05, 06, 07, 08) and covers
the period from 285 to 266 BC.
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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097
2.3. Samothrace (Site code SM)
The island of Samothrace is situated in the northeast part of the
Aegean (Fig. S3). The island is part of the Circum-Rhodope Belt
(Heimann et al., 1972; Kauffmann et al., 1976), a series of Triassic-
Jurassic continental margin sedimentary and volcanic rocks that sur-
round the crystalline Serbo-Macedonian and Rhodope Massifs. Litho-
logically, five units have been distinguished in Samothrace from bottom
to top: I) the basement which consists of a series of Late Jurassic low-
grade metamorphic sedimentary and volcanic rocks (Tsikouras and
Hatzipanagiotou, 1995) II) a low-grade meta-ophiolitic complex; III) a
calc-alcaline granite; IV) tilted volcano-sedimentary formations and V)
mostly horizontal Upper Miocene-Pliocene sediments which consist
mainly of conglomerates, sandstones, shales and nummulitic limestones
(Christofides, 2000; Eleftheriadis et al., 1994). The lower north-east,
west and south-west slopes of the island are covered by Tertiary vol-
canic rocks in the form of domes, dykes, lava flows and abundant
pyroclastic formations mainly of andesitic composition (Eleftheriadis
et al., 1994) (Fig. S3).
The island hosts one of the most peculiar archaeological sites in
Greece, which flourished in the second half of the 4th BC century and
continuously expanded until the end of Hellenistic times. This site,
Palaeopolis, is situated at the northern part of the island and comprises
the Sanctuary of the Great Gods, a Tholos, and several buildings used
for the mystic ceremonies of Kaviria. An extended complex of ceramic
workshops was excavated in the late 1980s close to the North coast,
around 5 km east of Palaeopolis. The workshops’ activity was placed
between the late Hellenistic and the Early Imperial period. Around
500 m further to the East three ceramic kilns, of updraft type, were also
brought to light (Karadima-Matsa, 1994) and for this reason the area
was named Keramidharia. The biggest kiln was studied archae-
omagentically in the past (Spatharas, 2005; Spatharas et al., 2011). The
kiln was buried afterwards for preservation, but in the surrounding
slopes of the mound several fragments of common, unpainted pottery
(jars, plates, handles) were spread, originating from the kiln’s produc-
tion. The samples of the present study were collected precisely in this
Y. Santos, et al.
area. The archaeomagnetic dating of the kiln in combination with OSL
on the fragments suggests a possible date for the sherds between 340
and 221 BCE. Additional information on the kiln’s dating can be found
in the supplementary material.
3. Materials and analytical methods
A total of 23 fragments from the three sites were examined within a
framework of archaeological information on typology (Fig. 3). None of
the three groups could be considered as “fine ware” since they are
mostly unpainted (PE) amphorae handles (TH) and other commonware
(SM). From each fragment 2 to 3 specimens (apart only one exception)
were cut in order to be used for the different methods applied in this
study. In total, 48 specimens were studied. The mean size of each
fragment was 3X4 cm in surface and 1–2 cm in thickness, while spe-
cimens followed the geometry of the fragment. More details on the
material are included in the corresponding paragraphs for each site.
Microscopic examination combines several analytical techniques
such as ceramic petrography, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and
X-Ray powder diffraction analysis in order to better investigate the raw
material sources.
Defining the petrographic fabric groups was initially based upon
their occurrence in the archaeological collections that were sampled,
the extent of production centres and availability. This has allowed the
regional geology of each area to be taken into consideration during the
fabric characterization.
Petrography has been performed on 15 pottery specimens and re-
vealed a fine fabric for Pella, a coarse, a medium to fine and a fine
fabric for Thasos, a coarse, a medium and a fine fabric for Samothrace
ceramics. All but one polished thin-sections used for petrographic
analysis were coated with carbon in order to achieve conductivity at the
Scanning Electron Microscopy Laboratory of Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki. At least one sample per petrographic fabric has been
analysed by SEM with the aim of complementing the results of the
petrographic analysis. Images and chemical analyses were performed
with a SEM (JEOL JSM-840A, Tokyo, Japan) equipped with an Energy
Dispersive Spectrometer - EDS (INCA 250, Oxford) with 20 kV accel-
erating voltage and 0.4 mA probe current. Backscattered electron (BSE)
images were taken in order to determine the different mineralogical
phases in the clay matrix. Chemical composition of the clay paste was
measured using a beam size of 5 x 5 μm. On each sample 30 analyses of
clay paste were performed. All data were normalized to 100%.
SEM provides valuable information regarding the degree of refine-
ment of the clay used, tempering and the firing conditions during the
ceramic production. Therefore it is widely used in archaeometric stu-
dies on ceramics (Froh, 2004; Knappet, 2011 among others). This
technique permits surface details to be obtained and statistical analyses
to be performed to fully characterize the samples.
X-ray Powder Diffraction spectroscopy is based on the fact that
crystals diffract X-ray with an angle characteristic of the crystal and
consequently of the material. The angle and the intensity of the peaks
can give information about the phases present in the sample. That can
be used for identification of general mineralogical composition and
neo-formed minerals.
By identifying the mineral phases present in ceramics, one can es-
timate the firing temperature which the ceramic products reached
during the vitrification process. So, the main goal of XRPD analysis is
the recognition of the mineral phases, especially new microcrystalline
minerals formed by firing and from those the determination of the firing
temperature and atmosphere condition in the kilns. However, it is im-
portant to bear in mind that XRPD can identify minerals only above 3%
of the overall sample weight. Also XRPD analysis can confirm the data
found by petrography and SEM-EDS analyses as well as complete a full
mineralogical composition of the studied samples by distinguishing
polymorph compounds. X-Ray diffraction can distinguish polymorphs
by identifying the crystallography of each compound. Compounds with
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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097
the same chemical composition do not have the same crystallographic
structure (e.g. calcite and aragonite).
Mineralogical characterization of the ceramic samples as well as
their firing conditions were performed by X-ray powder diffraction
(XRPD) using a water-cooled Rigaku Ultima in conjunction with
powder diffractometer with CuKa radiation, a step size of 0.05° and a
step time of 3 s, operating at 40 kV and 30 mA.
The collections studied here were initially selected for an archae-
omagnetic study. In order to cross-check the information compiled
through the experiments described above with a focus to magnetic
minerals included in our fragments, two classical magnetic experiments
were performed:
a) Magnetic susceptibility and its variation with temperature
(thermomagnetic analysis) is a key tool for the identification of iron
oxides within fired clays and for monitoring possible alterations during
heating and cooling cycles. Important information can be obtained
through their shape, reversibility and calculation of Curie temperatures.
The Curie points for the corresponding samples have been calculated
through the second derivative procedure (Petrovsky and Kapicka,
2006). For this experiment we used the equipment in Paris IPG. A
Kappabridge KLY 3 was used in order to determine the Curie point of
the magnetic carriers, as well as their stability during heating. The
experiments were carried out in air. Susceptibility values were recorded
continuously from room temperature up to 550 °C and back to room
temperature. The equivalent equipment in the Geophysical Laboratory,
University of Thessaloniki, MS2 Bartington susceptibility meter with
the MS2WF attached furnace, was also used for complementary mea-
surements from room temperature up to 700 °C.
b) Hysteresis loops are also a standard experiment for rock mag-
netism studies. Their shape and calculated parameters provide im-
portant information on the nature and size of magnetic grains. These
experiments were conducted in the Physics Department of Aristotle
University of Thessaloniki, on a PAR 155 magnetometer with a 2T
electromagnet.
4. Results
4.1. Ceramic petrography
Thin section petrography is based on compositional analysis and
provides data for the raw material selection and the reconstruction of
technology (Peterson, 2009). Petrographic analysis allowed the classi-
fication of the samples into fabric classes based on a common range of
explicit properties and not only from typology and macroscopic ana-
lysis. Since petrography can reveal significant points for archaeometric
analysis, it was the first step done in this research and provided pre-
liminary information concerning the fabric and the minerals included in
the samples.
In order to better investigate these issues, 15 pottery sherds were
thin-sectioned and studied under the polarizing microscope (Zeiss
Axioskop Pol.) following the systematic description proposed by
Whitbread (1986; 1995). Each Fabric Class was based on the clay ma-
trix, the compositional differences (the presence of different inclusions)
and the fabric coarseness.
It is important to bear in mind that the nomenclature for each fabric
class is based on the set of samples from a specific area. For example we
have fine fabric classes from Pella, Thasos and Samothrace, but that
does not imply that all of these fabrics can be classified in the same
category. Regarding the contribution of petrographic analysis an
overview on the fabrics is required (Tables 1 and 2).
Regarding Pella fine fabric samples, though the geology of Pella is
mostly based on alluvial sediments, volcanic rock fragments are not
uncommon. In fact, intense volcanic activity took place northwest from
Pella and fragments from these rocks, most likely trachyte due to its
texture and orientation of feldspars, would reach Pella as sediments
(Higgins and Higgins, 1996; Vougioukalakis, 2002; Eleftheriadis et al.,
Y. Santos, et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097

Table 1 analysis. As for the metamorphic fabric, pyroxene is clearly present as

Overview of the analyzed fabric. Groups divided as Pella Fine Fabric (PFF); well as some opaque minerals (Fig. 4c). Similarly to Pella samples, it
Thasos Coarse Fabric (TCF); Thasos Medium to Fine Fabric (TMFF); Thasos Fine was not possible to identify the opaque minerals present in the meta-
Fabric (TFF); Samothrace Coarse Volcanic Fabric (SVF); Samothrace Coarse morphic fabric by petrography alone. The fine fabric from Samothrace
Metamorphic Fabric (SMF) and Samothrace Fine Fabric (SFF).
has similar aspects to Pella fine fabric samples; it could even be ques-
INCLUSIONS PFF TCF TMFF TFF SVF SMF SFF tioned whether this is due to similar production techniques.
Apart from Samothrace volcanic fabric sample, all the samples bear
Polycrystalline Quartz X X X X X X X
clay pellets, mostly with clear boundaries, subrounded and with high
Quartz X X X X X X X
K-Feldspar X X X X X X X density. This pattern can be justified due to standard production pro-
White Mica X X X X X X X cedure used by Hellenistic potters at that era (Drougou, 2014).
Brown Mica X X X X X X X By petrographic analysis we studied the characterization of ceramic
Epidote X X X X X X
fabrics which includes the identification of most minerals and rock
Plagioclase X X X X X X X
Amphibole X X X X X X
fragments. Further analyses by SEM and XRPD can confirm the previous
Sillimanite X conclusions and determine those minerals not clearly specified.
Calcite X X
Titanite X
Pyroxene X X 4.2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM - EDS)
Volcanic Rock Fragments X X X X
Metamorphic Rock Fragments X X X X X X
Opaque Minerals X X By SEM-EDS analysis it was possible to confirm the results found
Clay Pellets X X X X X X through petrographic analyses and identify minerals which the previous
technique could not.
Pella samples were found to consist of rutile, amphibole, epidote in
2003). The metamorphic rock fragments could not be clearly identified small grains, titanite, pyroxene, chlorite and ilmenite. The presence of
by petrography alone, but their texture clearly belongs to basic aspects similar minerals in the different Pella samples suggests the same clay
of metamorphic rocks. The opaque minerals found could not be iden- source or temper used for the production of the vessels. Iron oxides
tified by petrography alone as well, so we registered the particular have been chemically identified only in sample PE01-07, while ilmenite
minerals for elemental analyses (Fig. 4a). and titanite were found in samples PE02-07 and PE02-08.
The major characteristic for Thasos samples is the presence of cal- Regarding Thasos samples, these consist of amphibole, iron-oxides,
cite linings and much larger epidote crystals, especially compared with titanite, monazite and rutile which also suggest a common clay source
Pella samples. The calcite linings, also known as hypo-coating, derive or temper used for the production of the amphorae. The presence of
from calcite precipitation, after the ceramic’s burial. Calcite can easily calcite is likely due to post-burial processes, when calcite from the soil
crystallize between gaps since it is dissolved in solutions that circulate fills the gaps of voids and clay pellets. Furthermore, sample TH06-05
in the soil (Quinn, 2013). Fragments with epidote crystals could have bears minerals which stand out from all the other samples from Thasos
originated from metamorphic rocks such as metabasites (Zachos, 1982; group set, i.e. sillimanite, xenotime and allanite. Xenotime and allanite
Wawrzenitz and Krohe, 1998; Brun and Socoutis, 2007). As for ser- contain rare earth elements, La, Ce, Nd and Y, while sillimanite points
icitized plagioclase, it could originate from either metamorphic or ig- to a metamorphic rock source.
neous rocks. Single mineral crystals cannot be used for the provenance In Samothrace samples, pyroxene was the focus for SEM analysis, as
identification of the raw material as they can derive from many dif- well as the opaque minerals determined by petrographic analyses,
ferent rock types (Fig. 4b). which point to an iron oxide.
Samothrace samples were quite peculiar since all the fabrics present In order to confirm the petrographic results, elemental analyses of
many similarities as well as unique features. The volcanic fabric not the clay was performed by SEM-EDS and the results are given in
only contains fragments of andesite but also rare grains of titanite. Table 3.
Pyroxene may be present as a primary mineral but is quite altered due Samples from Thasos and Pella, as well as one sample from
to firing conditions so its presence can be verified only by elemental Samothrace, present a grey inner core and a red outer rim. As revealed

Table 2
Petrographic analysis of the studied samples. Groups are labeled as in Table 1. “X” checks the presence of the particular mineral or rock fragments within the sample.
Petrographic Fine Fabric Medium Fabric Coarse Fabric
Groups

Pella PFF: Fine, well sorted, optical medium active.

Common: quartz, feldspars, epidote, white and
brown mica.
Rare: volcanic(trachyte) and metamorphic rock
fragment (PE 01–01, PE 01–07, PE 02–07, PE
02–08, PE 02–09)
Thasos TFF: Fine, poorly sorted, optical active.
Common: quartz, white and brown mica.
Rare: micritic calcite, epidote, plagioclase,
amphibole (TH06-01)
Samothrace SFF: Fine, poorly sorted, optical active.
Common: quartz, plagioclase, white and brown
mica.
Rare: amphibole, volcanic and metamorphic
rock fragments (SM12)
TMF: Medium, well sorted, optical medium
active.
Common: quartz, feldspar, white and brown
mica.
Rare: epidote, mictitic, calcite, metamorphic
rock fragments with epidote (TH05-05, TH07-
05, TH08-01)
SMF: Medium, poorly sorted, optical inactive.
Common: quartz, plagioclase, white and
brown mica, volcanic rock fragments.
Rare: amphibole, titanite, pyroxene,
metamorphic rock fragments (SM13)
TCF: Coarse, well sorted, optical medium active.
Common: quartz, plagioclase, white and brown mica.
Rare: epidote, amphibole, mica schist (TH06-05, TH06-
08)
SCF: Coarse, poorly sorted, optical inactive.
Common: quartz, white and brown mica,
polycrystalline quartz with biotite, metamorphic rock
fragments (epidotite), plagioclase.
Rare: amphibole, volcanic rock fragments, pyroxene
(SM15, SM18)

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Y. Santos, et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097

Fig. 4. (a) Pella Fabric, XP, Sample PE01-01. Volcanic rock fragment; potentially trachyte (x10) 1.4 mm wide, (b) Thasos fine fabric, XP. Sample TH 07-05. Clay
pellet with calcite linings, also known as hypo-coating (x10; 1 mm wide), (c) Samothrace coarse metamorphic fabric, XP, Sample SM-15.Metamorphic rock fragments
have been identified. Fabric feature. (x5; 2 mm wide).

by SEM micrographs, the surface morphology between rim and core
shows variations (Fig. 5). The outer rim shows a smooth, continuous,
non-porous texture while the inner core is characterized by fine pores
with a diameter less than 1 μm. On the other hand, the chemical
composition of the clay matrix, as shown by EDS analysis is similar. The
morphological difference between the core and the rim is ascribed to
the different firing conditions as will be discussed in a following
paragraph.
Therefore, additional data from XRPD are needed to confirm the
mineralogical composition of the samples, distinguish polymorphs by
identifying the crystallography of particular minerals and provide
characterization of the clay used.
4.3. X-ray powder diffraction analysis
As stated before, the mineralogical composition depends on the
regional geology and the potters’ habits and experience.
The estimated firing temperature for PE01 sample is T ≈ 750 to
800 °C. The presence of tremolite confirms that this temperature could
not exceed 800 °C as such a mineral would not be present (Grapes,
2006; Xu et al., 1996). Data from petrographic analyses also confirm
the firing temperature mentioned above since the micromass for Pella
fine fabric has been described as optically slightly active, when almost
complete dehydroxylation of clay minerals happens (Rathossi et al.
2004; 2010) (Fig. 6).
Furthermore, sample PE02-09 belongs to the same fabric group as
all the other samples and the micro mass can be described as medium/
slightly optically active (Fig. 6) so its firing temperature was probably

Table 3
Chemical composition of the different clays. Values represent average of 30 area (5 μm × 5 μm) analyses. All data are normalized to 100%. Analyses of inner and
outer layers of representative samples are also given.
SAMPLE PE01-07 PE02-07 PE02-08 PE02-09 TH06-01 TH06-05 TH06-08 TH07-05 SM-12 SM-15 SM-18
inner outer inner outer

FORMULA wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt%
Na2O 4,23 5.57 0,69 0,96 1,56 1,85 1.87 0,88 2,97 2,14
MgO 2,1 1.71 3,42 3,31 2,23 4,99 4.58 3,44 3,66 4,5 3,66 4,81
Al2O3 19,69 17.89 21,1 22,59 22,74 17,95 15.97 23,05 14,65 23,55 29,9 21,97 22,97
SiO2 64,07 69.93 57,24 58,35 61,29 55,75 58.32 65,43 53,48 53,05 53,23 61,04 60,39
K2O 2,78 2.25 2,59 2,6 2,91 3,8 3.82 2,53 26,12 3,34 0,66 0,68 1,55
CaO 0,85 0.3 1,76 1,4 2,23 9,23 8.96 1,51 2,94 5,94 1,61 2,84 1,72
FeO 4,5 2.59 8,07 9,64 6,59 5,73 5.05 4,41 4,22 7,56 8,17 7,46 6,23
TiO2 3,63 0,61 0,69 0,56 1,18 0,71 0,7
Cr2O3 0,49 0.02 0,23 0,38 0,42 0,33 0,29
MnO 0,46 0.08 0,18 0,24 0,36 0,26 0,36 0,75
BaO 0,48 0,58
SO3 5,81

6
Y. Santos, et al.
Fig. 5. Backscattered electron micrographs of sample PE01-07 – Outer (top)
and inner (bottom) layer comparison.
Fig. 6. XRPD spectra of representative specimens from Pella and Thasos.
slightly higher T ≈ 800 °C to 850 °C which could also be explained by
the higher content of hematite formed.
All samples from Thasos clearly bear white mica, which can be
preserved up to 900 °C, however the strong reflection recorded for such
a mineral and the absence of neo-formed minerals suggests that the
firing could not have exceeded 750 °C (Rathossi and Pontikes 2010;
Kondopoulou et al., 2014). In addition the small amounts of calcite in
sample TH06-07 indicate also that the firing temperature was below
750 °C. Results from sample TH07-05 indicate the presence of calcite
7
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097
and pyrite. As observed by the petrographic analyses, calcite in this
sample is secondary, deposited in voids after the burial of the ceramics.
The presence of pyrite can be explained as secondary mineral as it can
not persist above 600⁰C (Nungasser et al., 1985) and the firing tem-
perature of this sample can not be very low as the optical behaviour of
its micromass is medium optically active (Table 4). As a result the es-
timated firing temperature of Thasian samples is T ≈ 650° − 750 °C. A
preliminary XRPD study on Thasian amphorae included two fragments
from group TH05 of the present collection that is TH05-02 and TH05-
07. The calculated firing temperatures are very divergent, around
900–950 °C for the first but only 600°- 650 °C for the second, in
agreement with the ones calculated in this study. The corresponding
spectra are displayed in Fig. S7.
Results of XRPD analyses on samples from Samothrace were not
performed during this study. The relevant information on fragments
from the same ceramic production was obtained from Rathossi et al.,
(2018). The compiled new results on the obtained minerals and asso-
ciated firing temperatures are given in Table 4.
4.4. Magnetic properties of the studied ceramics
4.4.1. Pella
Among the fragments which were retrieved from the two Pella kilns
for the archaeomagnetic study, four representative samples were se-
lected according to their color and shape.
First the monitoring of the magnetic susceptibility variation with
temperature (thermomagnetic analysis) on these specimens was per-
formed up to 550 °C in order to detect the reversibility of the heating
and cooling curves. A very similar pattern was observed for all (Fig. S4).
Following this, three specimens were selected and heated up to 700 °C
in order to calculate their Curie temperatures (Fig. 7).
For two out of three the calculated Curie points provide values in
the expected range of 496 °C−506 °C, indicating the dominance of ti-
tanomagnetite. For sample PE01-08 the Tc is very low, around 210 °C.
This will be discussed together with similar results from Thasos.
Hysteresis loops were performed, to our best, on the same material
as for the thermomagnetic analysis, and to the one used for petrography
and SEM. Therefore we used the following samples: PE01-01, PE01-08,
PE02-07, PE02-08 (Fig. 7). From the shape of the loops and the cal-
culated parameters the following characteristics can be observed: For
PE01-01 dominance of single domain (SD) titanomagnetite. For PE01-
08 a mixture of two magnetic components most probably one super-
paramagnetic and one SD titanomagnetite. For PE02-07 the shell is
pseudo -single domain (PSD) titanomagnetite with a higher quantity
while the core is SD titanomagnetite with low quantity. Finally for
PE02-08 a mixture of two magnetic components, most probably PSD
and SD titanomagnetite is documented.
4.4.2. Thasos
Nine groups of stamped amphorae handles from Thasos were sam-
pled in the past and the magnetic properties of several fragments, be-
longing to groups 1–5 are under study by A. Genevey and D.
Kondopoulou. The groups were organized through their dating and not
through provenance areas. Therefore we tried to investigate some
fragments from groups 5, 6, 7 and 8 in order to enlarge our database.
We used the same approach as for Pella: the first set was heated up to
550 °C (TH05-05, TH06-05, 08, Fig. S5). Then thermomagnetic analyses
up to 700 °C were performed on specimens from group 6 for a better
coverage: TH06-01, TH06-03, TH06-04 and TH06-08 (Fig. 8). In all
cases, the susceptibility values are very low, the curves show a marked
alteration around 350–450 °C corresponding to possible mineralogical
transformations. The calculated Curie temperatures are T = 486 °C
only for sample TH-06-08 while for the 3 remaining very low values
were calculated (114°–172 °C).
Hysteresis loops were performed on fragments: TH06-01, TH06-05,
TH06-08 (Fig. 8). For sample THGR06-01 a mixture of SD/PSD and MD
Y. Santos, et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097

Table 4
Results by XRPD for sites PE and TH, presenting the estimated firing conditions, micro mass description and minerals abundances (%). Q: Quartz, K-fd: K-Feldspars,
Pl: Pagioclase, C: Calcite, M: Muscovite, Tr: Tremolite, He: Hematite, Py: Pyrite.
SAMPLE ESTIMATED FIRING TEMPERATURE (°C) MICROMASS DESCRIPTION (OPTICAL ACTIVITY) IDENTIFIED MINERALS (%) REFERENCE

Q K-fd Pl C M Tr He Py
PE01-07 750° – 800° C Slightly optically active; light brown 77 6 9 1 3 4 Present study
PE02-09 800° −850⁰ C Slightly optically active; light brown 79 9 12 Present study
TH06-01 650°-700⁰ C Optically Active; Brown. 72 18 8 2 Present study
TH06-05 700° −750⁰ C Slightly optically active; very light brown 80 4 4 2 7 4 Present study
TH06-08 650°-700⁰ C Slightly optically active; very light brown 73 18 2 6 Present study
TH07-05 650°-700⁰ C Medium optically active; brown 56 5 7 17 6 9 Present study

titanomagnetite is observed while for THGR06-05 considerably bigger
amounts of MD are present. In THGR06-08 SD or PSD titanomagnetites
in small amounts are dominant.
The comparison of the two datasets is very promising as both in-
dicate weak magnetization for samples TH06-05 and TH06-08 which
are the two overlapping cases.
4.4.3. Samothrace
Three of the ceramics retrieved from Samothrace were previously
studied for archaeomagnetism, and relevant information in parallel
with petrography is given in Rathossi et al., (2018). Thermomagnetic
analysis up to 550 °C was done on new fragments: SM-12, SM-13, SM-
15 and SM-18 three of which are fully reversible (Fig. S6) and up to
700 °C on SM-13 and SM-15 (Fig. 9). The Tc calculated are between 430
and 440 °C, indicating the possible dominance of titanomagnetites in
the samples.
Hysteresis loops were obtained for fragments SM-12 and SM-A
(Fig. 9) in addition to SM-19 published in Rathossi et al. (2018). Both
samples contain MD grains of magnetite/titanomagnetite. Sample SMA
contains a significantly higher quantity of magnetic grains than sample
SM-12 in which a very small quantity of magnetic grains is found.

Fig. 7. (Top) Thermomagnetic analysis of three Pella samples. Susceptibility is given in 10-5SI units. (Bottom) Hysteresis loops for four Pella samples.

8
Y. Santos, et al.
Fig. 7. (continued)
5. Discussion
5.1. Interpretation of results
The present ceramic collection was examined following a pro-
gressive protocol for an optimum exploration of the artifacts features.
This protocol included petrography, SEM, XRPD analyses and magnetic
mineralogy experiments (Table 5).
5.1.1. Petrography
The presence of coarse minerals may suggest the use of temper
during the production of the samples. For most of them the minerals do
not show such evidence, except for the samples from Samothrace where
metamorphic fabric presents a bimodal pattern of sand temper added
during the vessel production. This converges with the known tech-
nology for the ceramic production during Hellenistic times
(Hemingway and Hemingway, 2007).
Moreover, the difference between the inclusions from each sample,
regarding angularity and roundness, are attributed to the process used
for the preparation of the clay (e.g. levigation). The degree of angu-
larity in sediments is related to the distance through which clastic
material has been transported from its source. In the present ceramic
samples most of the grains are characterized as sub-angular to angular
and the inclusions usually are poorly-sorted. This is considered as evi-
dence that sediments have been deposited fairly close to the source
9
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097
area, i.e., have not undergone much transport.
Furthermore, the data from petrographic analysis can imply the
firing temperatures to which the ceramics have been exposed during
their production. In most of the samples, the micromass was optically
active to medium optically active and its colour was light brown to
yellowish red according to the Munsell Soil Colour Charts suggesting
that the firing temperature was between 700 and 800 °C in an oxidising
atmosphere. Usually, the clay matrix loses its birefringence between
800°–850 °C during firing. The samples with optically active clay ma-
trices were interpreted as having an approximate firing tempera-
ture less than 800°–850 °C. The samples with an inactive matrix were
interpreted as having an approximate firing temperature greater
than 800°–850 °C (Quinn, 2013).
5.1.2. SEM
Macroscopic and petrographic examination, as mentioned before,
suggested that non-calcareous clay sources could have been used for the
production of the ceramics in study due to the dominant reddish tone of
the ceramic matrix from all samples. Additionally, samples from Thasos
and Pella, as well as one sample from Samothrace, exhibit a red margin
and a grey core (Fig. 3). This structure is possibly the result of firing
conditions. The grey reduced core and the reddish oxidised margin can
be the result of firing in kilns under an oxidising atmosphere with a low
heating rate and long residence time (Maritan et al., 2006).
According to Maniatis and Tite (1981), clays containing less than
Y. Santos, et al.
Fig. 8. (Top) Thermomagnetic analyses for four Thasos samples. Susceptibility is given in 10-5 SI units. (Bottom) Hysteresis loops for three Thasos samples.
6 wt% of calcium oxide are considered as non-calcareous clays. In all
studied samples, with the exception of sample TH06-01, CaO content is
less than 6 wt%, confirming the original petrographic observation that
the clays used for the production of the vessels are non-calcareous.
Sample TH06-01 has a high CaO content, 9.23 wt%, indicating a dif-
ferent clay source for this sample. Thasos amphorae have been divided
in two groups based on their clay composition and on a previous re-
levant study on prehistoric pottery (Kondopoulou et al., 2017). The first
group has been produced from calcareous clay which points to a source
near marbles, dolomites and Neogene sediments while the second group
has been produced from a non-calcareous clay, pointing to a source
near metamorphic rocks.
5.1.3. XRPD
A set of 8 ceramic samples collected from Pella and Thasos have
been subjected to mineralogical (XRPD) analysis in order to gather
further data on the mineralogical composition. The main purpose was
to assess their firing conditions because the degree of thermal trans-
formation to which the clay paste of ceramics has been subjected during
the firing procedures is largely affected by the prevailing conditions in
the kilns. The overall calculated firing temperatures for Pella vary be-
tween 750 and 850 while for Thasos they are between 650 and 750. We
further used previously reported XRPD results from 3 samples from
Samothrace (SMb, SM3, SM19) which constitute products of the same
10
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097
kiln, and have been fired between 650° −800 °C (Rathossi et al., 2018).
The calcite deficiency that was witnessed in the majority of samples
may indicate that either the raw clays were extracted from a non-cal-
careous deposit or were not refined with calcite temper. Quartz was
detected in all samples. This mineral persists on firing up to 1000 °C,
and thus it indicates that the ceramic derived from silica-rich raw
material. Quartz may be an indigenous mineral of natural clays or may
be an intentionally added temper. Except quartz, feldspars are also
evident in all samples, while the preservation of primitive minerals such
as: clay minerals, white mica, hornblende and neo-formed such as: iron
oxides, mullite helps on estimating the firing conditions of analysed
samples.
5.1.4. Magnetic properties
The calculated Curie temperatures for the majority of the studied
fragments converge to dominant titanomagnetites as magnetic carriers.
We report also a group of samples (PE01-08, TH06-01, TH06-03, TH06-
04) with very low Curie temperatures (below 200 °C). This feature,
already reported in archaeological clays from various areas in Europe
has been related to the presence of a new high coercivity-low Curie
temperature iron oxide (e-iron oxide, McIntosh et al., 2007; 2011).
The kiln from which the Samothrace ceramics were retrieved was
studied for archaeomagnetism by Spatharas, (2005) and relevant results
are also included in Spatharas et al. (2011). It can be assumed quite
Y. Santos, et al.
Fig. 8. (continued)
safely that the materials used are the same both for the kiln and its
products, since these common use ceramics are not very elaborated and
were attributed to the local workshop (Karadima et al., 2002). There-
fore the information provided by Spatharas, (2005; 2011) in terms of
magnetic mineralogy should be relevant to the one we cite here. A close
examination of this dataset indicates prevailing titanomagnetites,
mostly MD, and a few cases with mixtures of SD/PSD grains, both for
the kiln’s clays and the produced ceramics.
5.2. Implications and general context.
The pottery of the Hellenistic period proves to be common and
uniform and at the same time varying depending on the tradition and
the circumstances of different regions in the Hellenistic world.
Increasingly affluent consumers during this period were eager to en-
hance their private homes and gardens with luxury goods. These lavish
items were manufactured on a grand scale as never before, so it is safe
to conclude that pottery recipes were well diffused in the Hellenistic
world and, as a result, assume that the potters shared common
knowledge on ceramic production.
Several archaeometric studies in connection with raw materials
were performed on Hellenistic pottery in this part of the Mediterranean
(Neyt et al., 2012; Marzec et al., 2018 and references therein) apart
from Greece where the list is long (for an overview see Drougou and
Touratsoglou, 2012; Ackermann, 2018 and references therein). For the
11
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097
present study we selected three different geological zones with specific
characteristics and we enriched the obtained data with magnetic mi-
neralogy measurements. This combination is increasingly adopted for
the archaeometric studies on ceramics and we favored it aiming to the
improvement of the success in archaeomagnetic studies by appropriate
material selection.
Petrography performed on 15 pottery samples revealed a fine fabric
for Pella, a coarse, a medium and a fine fabric for Thasos, a coarse, a
medium and a fine fabric for Samothrace ceramics. The majority of
these fabrics seem to have been locally produced.
From the petrographic point of view, the observed samples share
many similarities, but a few minerals are more specific of the origin
area for each set of samples. The presence of metamorphic rocks in a
high quantity, for instance, is persistent in Thasos amphorae.
Consistency in the composition and micromorphology of Thasian am-
phorae from various production sites suggests that similar clay sources
were used in different parts of the island (Whitbread, 1995). Following
the geological evidence, sedimentary clays (other than recent alluvial
deposits) are only present in the south-western part of Thasos and, in
most cases these deposits are situated at some distance from the pro-
duction sites. According to Peacock (1970) the potters used two clays,
each taken from different localities on the island. The author reports
clear differences between the clays collected at these localities referring
to their color and grain size: yellowish brown and relatively fine, or
reddish brown and rather coarse.
Y. Santos, et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097

Fig. 9. (Top) Themomagnetic analyses on Samothrace samples. Susceptibility is given in 10-5 SI units. (Bottom) Samples SMA and SM- 12 hysteresis loops.

Table 5
Compilation of samples and techniques applied in the present study. Number of specimens depends on the methods used. XRPD results from Samothrace (SM) are
from Rathossi et al. (2018).
Sample Specimens Petrography XRPD SEM-EDS Thermomagnetic Hysteresis

PE01-01 2 X X X X
PE01-07 3 X X X X
PE01-08 2 X X X X
PE02-07 2 X X X X
PE02-08 2 X X X
PE02-09 2 X X
TH05-02 2 X X X
TH05-05 2 X X X
TH05-07 2 X X
TH06-01 3 X X X X X
TH06-03 1 X
TH06-04 1 X
TH06-05 3 X X X X X
TH06-08 3 X X X X X
TH07-05 3 X X X X
TH08-01 1 X
SM – a, b 2 X X X
SM – 3 2 X X
SM − 12 2 X X X X
SM − 13 2 X X
SM − 15 2 X X X
SM − 18 2 X X X
SM − 19 2 X X X

12
Y. Santos, et al.
Ceramic groups from Samothrace were previously investigated, to-
gether with clay surveying (Karadima et al., 2002), through XRF ana-
lysis. Several groups were isolated among which some of local and
others of non-local origin. Two among these groups, named 2 and 3 by
the authors, due to their high contents in chromium and nickel, have
been assigned to the areas of Palaeopolis and Keramidharia, where our
samples were collected. These are compatible with the proximity of
gabbro outcrops, which increased the concentrations of Cr and Ni
within the sediments resulting from alteration. Elemental analyses of
the clay from our Samothrace samples show existence of Cr2O3 in small
quantities in samples SM-12 and SM-15 as well as higher amounts of
FeO, while sample SM-18 lacks Cr2O3 and has smaller amounts of FeO.
The first two samples possibly point to areas near the alteration of the
gabbro formations that exist at the centre of the island while the latter
derive from a different location. This observation is in accordance with
Karadima et al., (2002) as reported above.
The minerals identified by spectroscopy suggest that all samples
correlate with each other while each set group bears some particular
minerals compared to each other group set, in relation to the area
where the samples were produced. The local geology is characterized
by the exclusive minerals from each sample set, e.g sillimanite in
Thasos samples. Thasos samples correlate to the maximum with both
Pella and Samothrace samples, in terms of fine fabric. Fine fabric from
Samothrace has similar aspects as Pella fine fabric samples. Therefore
we can conclude that the potters used a preferred type of clay or/and a
similar production technique to obtain fine fabrics.
SEM-EDS analyses provided also information regarding the clay
texture and composition. It confirmed the use of non-calcareous clay for
the production of the samples under study, with the exception of
sample TH06-01. Furthermore, SEM results enhance the suggestion that
potters had followed similar if not identical recipes, and the major
difference refers to the non-plastic inclusions, that could have origi-
nated either from the clay source or from the added material (e.g
temper).
The petrographic, mineralogical and geochemical analyses indicate
that all the observed samples were produced from non-calcareous clay
with similar composition due to the overall low percentage of calcium
oxide and the bloating porous microstructure displayed by the BSE
microphotographs. All samples differ very little both in texture and
chemical composition. The discrimination of sample TH06-01, which
has the highest CaO content, 9,23 wt%, probably indicates an exception
From the macroscopic examination, samples from Pella and Thasos
and one sample from Samothrace, show an outer red/dark red margin
and an inner grey core. When examined with SEM-EDS, these areas
reveal a different microstructure. Margins are non-porous and the sheet
like habit of the clay minerals is evident while the cores exhibit fine
pores with a diameter of less than 1 μm. The difference in color and
morphology is attributed to the differing firing conditions (Maniatis and
Tite, 1981). The more reddish outer margin points to oxidizing condi-
tions during firing while the gray-colored inner core points to reducing
conditions. Based on this fact, firing of these samples is assumed not to
be completed, in accordance with archaeological information, for in-
stance in Pella where the kilns appear to be destroyed during firing
Table 6
Comparative information provided by optical and magnetic methods.
Sites Methods Pella Thasos
Petrography Fine fabric (volcanic and Coarse, medium and fine fabrics (indication
metamorphic inclusions) for metamorphic/volcanic origin)
SEM High % FeO, Low % FeO,
Low % TiO2 No TiO2
XRPD (Firing temperatures) 700 °C–850 °C 750 °C–800 °C 650 °C-700 °C
Magnetic Mineralogy (Tc) 494 °C–506 °C 290/558 °C, SD/PSD 486 °C
Hysteresis titanomagnetites 114 °C–172 °C Mixture of SD/PSD and MD
titanomagnetites
13
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097
(Lilimbaki-Akamati and Akamatis, 2008).
An important contribution of petrography and XRPD analysis in the
present research was to assist on the estimation of the firing tempera-
tures. Table 4 presents a general characterization of the studied samples
by XRPD analyses. The maximum firing temperature of each sample is
also indicated according to the presence or absence of particular mi-
nerals. For instance the estimated firing temperatures of Samothrace
samples are T ≈ 650°-800 °C. The micromass of studied samples are
optically active (clay minerals, T ≈ 600°–650° C) to slightly active
(almost complete dehydroxylation of clay minerals, T ≈ 750°–800 °C).
Moreover, the coexistence of both hematite and magnetite at tem-
peratures below 1000 °C suggests firing in a mild oxidizing atmosphere.
(Rathossi et al., 2018; Rathossi and Pontikes, 2010)
Apart all technological and archaeological input provided by com-
bined sets of optical methods, one application of the obtained in-
formation directly connects with the field of archaeomagnetism. As
stated in a previous section, the possible contribution of optical
methods to improve the outcome of such studies, is still under ex-
amination as it has already been underlined in recent publications
(Kondopoulou et al., 2017).
Combination of analytical and rock magnetic methods is increas-
ingly explored worldwide in the last decade for estimating various
technological aspects of ceramic production and especially provenance
and firing temperatures. As an example, Rada et al. (2011) suggested
that IRM acquisition curves as well as thermomagnetic measurements
can be used to distinguish various pottery groups and as indicators for
reducing or oxidizing conditions respectively. In more recent studies
(Jordanova et al., 2018; 2019) extensive experimental procedures on
Bulgarian collections establish protocols leading to such information.
Nevertheless such an approach is beyond the scope of our research
based mostly on analytical methods and basic rock magnetic results.
The combination of petrographic observations, SEM and X-ray dif-
fraction analysis was used, apart assessing the firing conditions (tem-
perature, atmosphere), for estimating the proportion of Fe-bearing
minerals in order to cross-check this outcome with the magnetic
properties of the three collections. This cross-checking proved to be
partly efficient as will be explained below.
In Table 5 we have compiled the totality of experiments performed
on the 23 fragments studied. In the majority of them, at least two dif-
ferent measurements were done. We will now focus to cases where all
(5/5) or 4/5 experiments are available, mostly for Pella and Thasos and
one from Samothrace. For Pella, samples PE01-07 and PE02-07 are
studied with 4/5 methods. Both samples contain FeO but in lower
amounts for PE01-07. They also belong to the same petrographic fabric
class: Pella Fine Fabric (Table 1). All Thasos samples display alteration
indications at low temperatures ~300°–400 °C. Together with their
magnetic content of MD grains and rather low firing temperatures (less
than 700 °C) these samples do not sound promising for archaeointensity
studies. Finally, most of Samothrace samples do not seem to alter
during heating, but did not reach very high temperatures apart from SM
– 19 which is the only one that has provided successful archae-
omagnetic results in a preliminary study (Rathossi et al., 2018). The
cross-checking of information provided both by optical and magnetic
Samothrace
Coarse, medium and fine fabrics (volcanic fabric with
fragments of andesite and titanite/metamorphic)
High % FeO,
Low % TiO2
650 °C–800 °C
434 °C–440 °C
MD titanomagnetites
Y. Santos, et al.
experiments is displayed in Table 6. It is noteworthy to observe that the
existence of titanomagnetites can be traced through magnetic mea-
surements even if they are not tracked by SEM analysis.
6. Conclusions
Detailed analytical experiments applied to 23 potsherds from Late
Classic to Hellenistic collections (Northern Greece) when combined to
three previously studied ones from Samothrace, have confirmed the
local provenance of the clays in almost all cases and provided in-
formation on the technology used. When compared to magnetic mi-
neralogy experiments performed on selected fragments, a more concise
pattern of their content and characteristics as far as their iron oxides
inclusions are concerned can be drawn. Among the three collections
studied here, we claim that Thasos amphorae are the less promising for
archaeomagnetism- archaeointensity calculations which imply long
series of heating and cooling cycles and this can be explained by the
tendency of Thasian clays to alter during heating and by the rather low
firing temperatures. This last observation was already mentioned for a
prehistoric pottery collection in Thasos, therefore it suggests a dia-
chronic feature in preparation and use of Thasian clays (Kondopoulou
et al., 2017). Nevertheless and in spite of this promising outcome we
confirm, by the present study, that if optical methods have to be
combined to magnetic ones in order to improve the success of archae-
omagnetic experiments, then a much bigger and variable dataset is
requested. In order to build an easily applicable protocol, the abundant
greek ceramic collections, already well studied through archaeometry,
should be explored. For instance samples originating from different
geological areas could be collected from archaeological periods be-
tween the end of Bronze Age and the Classical period, which lack suf-
ficient archaeomagnetic information. We remain confident that there is
a real potential in such approach, therefore we expect to have the op-
portunity to expand this research. In this context, the present article
aimed to be among the first of many future steps to come, regarding a
harmonic cooperation between different scientific approaches to enrich
the already flourishing ceramic studies in the broader area.
Acknowledgements
The current article is based on the results of a Master thesis within
ARCHMAT – Erasmus Mundus Master in Archaeological Materials – to
promote a better approach between Archaeology and Material Sciences.
For such realization the first author is indebted to many individuals and
institutions for their support and encouragement. We would like also to
thank Prof. G. Vourlias and Dr. A. Bourliva for their major role in as-
sisting on the XRPD experiments realization and interpretation.
The analysis of these Greek ceramic samples could not be possible
without the aid of the archaeologists, Dr. N. Akamatis and Dr. Ch.
Karadima who allowed the use of ceramic collections from Pella and
Samothrace respectively. Dr. A. Genevey agreed to provide samples
from Thasos (French School at Athens material) for archaeometric
purposes and commented on an earlier version of the paper.
D. K. and E. A. acknowledge partial support by the project “HELPOS
– Hellenic System for Lithosphere Monitoring” (MIS 5002697) which is
implemented under the Action “Reinforcement of the Research and
Innovation Infrastructure”, funded by the Operational Programme
“Competitiveness, Entrepreneurship and Innovation” (NSRF
2014–2020) and co-financed by Greece and the European Union
(European Regional Development Fund).
The efforts of the editor and two anonymous reviewers are highly
appreciated and improved substantially our manuscript.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.102097.
14
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (2020) 102097
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