Thin-Section Petrography in Studies of Cultural Materials

Author(s): Chandra L. Reedy

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, Vol. 33, No. 2, Papers from the
Conservation Research and Technical Studies Update Session and the General Session on
Collections in Historic Buildings of the 21st Annual Meeting of the American Institute for
Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. Denver, Colorado, May 31-June 6, 1993
(Summer, 1994), pp. 115-129
Published by: The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3179421 .
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 THIN-SECTION PETROGRAPHY IN STUDIES
OF CULTURAL MATERIALS

CHANDRA L. REEDY

ABSTRACT-Thin-section petrographycan servea originof the objector someof itscomponents,

number offunctions instudies of culturalobjects.It andstudyingmanufacturing technology.For
isusedto characterize andidentify inorganic materials,someartmaterials, structural andmineralogical
locatethespecific sourceofmaterials, groupobjects changeson weatheredsurfaces in comparison to
thatmayhavea common source,and,lesscommonly, unaltered interiorsectionsof a samplemay
provide information onobjectdeterioration andthe
effectsof conservation treatment. Thispaper provideinformation concerning theauthenticity
presents of a Thinsectionshavealsobeenusedto
anintroduction to thetypesof cultural materials
and piece.
the deterioration of inorganicartand
researchquestions that have been examined through study
architectural materials and to checkthe effects
thin-section petrography. Examples involvestudies
ofstone(sculptures andarchitectural of conservation treatments on thosematerials.
materials),
ceramics (vesselsandsherds, terracotta and
sculptures, One advantage of thin-section petrography is
architecturalceramics), glassandglazes, andmiscel- that the necessary equipment(apolarizing
laneous materialssuchasclaycorematerials from microscope) is relativelyinexpensive,making
bronzes, andcements,
plaster frescoes,andslags. the techniquepotentially available to almostany
laboratory as a routine method of analysis.
1.INTRODUCTION Althougha significant investmentin training
andexperienceis requiredto usethistechnique
Thin-sectionpetrography is polarized light to fulladvantage, thin-sectionanalysis is stilla
microscopyof rocksandothermineral- veryefficientwayto obtaincrucialinformation
containingmaterials, usingsamplesgroundto a aboutmanyinorganicmaterials.The costof
standard thicknessof 30 gm. The standard andmaintaining a polarizing micro-
thicknessgivesknowncolorsbetweencrossed purchasing is much less than for other of
of different scope types
polarizers, facilitatingcomparison equipment usedto studyinorganicobjects(such
samplesandthe useof referencetablesof asa scanningelectronmicroscope,electron
mineralopticsforidentifyingunknowns.Use beammicroprobe, x-raydiffractometer, or
of a specific,knownthicknessforallstandard elemental
analysis All
instrumentation). these
petrographic samplesdiffersfromthe cross alternatives,includingthin-sectionpetrography,
sectionsoftenusedin conservation. extensive
require trainingandexperiencein the
Geologistsusethin-sectionpetrography to materials analyzed andin the theory
describeandclassifyrocks,soils,andsand. being
underlying theinstrument.
Archaeologists andconservation scientistsuseit
to studymanyinorganicmaterials usedin the Althoughthin-section petrography was
developed many decadesago,conservation
productionof culturalobjects.Purposes of such sciencestilldoesnot utilizeit to itsfull
analyses in culturalobjectstudiesincludemaking
correctmaterialidentifications, potential.Thinsectionsareoftenthe most
groupingsimilar usefulstarting pointfora studyof inorganic
objects,comparing materials-based groupings to evenif theymaysometimesneedto
materials,
arthistoricalgroupings, identifying thegeological be
supplemented by otherapproaches.They

JAIC 33(1994):115-29
116 CHANDRAL.REEDY
provideinformation not availableby other
analyticaltechniques.
To makea thinsection,the samplematerial
is mountedon a glassslideusinganepoxyresin
with a refractiveindex(1.54-1.55)essentially
the sameasthatof quartz,a ubiquitous mineral
foundin almostallgeologicalmaterials.Thin
sectionsarethengroundto a uniformthickness
of 30 gm. Veryporousor friablematerials may
be impregnated, andtechniquesformounting
loosegrainshavealsobeendeveloped.A thin
sectionmaybe protectedby a coverslip,
particularlyimportant forfriablespecimens and
othermaterials thatmighteasilybecome
damaged.However,if thinsectionsareleft
uncoveredtheycanalsobe usedfora varietyof
additional analyticaltechniquessuchasmicro-
hardness andmicrochemical tests,scanning
electronmicroscopy withelementalanalysis
or microprobe
capabilities, analysis (Hutchison
1974;Loretto1984;Goodhew1988;Reed
1993). Stainingof uncoveredsectionscanaid
the identificationof mineralsthatareotherwise
difficult in thinsection.Examples
to differentiate
of the useof stainsincludedistinguishing be-
tweenalkaliandplagioclase feldspars and
betweencalciteanddolomite(Allmanand
Lawrence1972;Hutchison1974).
Whenexaminedundera polarizing micro-
scope,mineralsin mountedthinsectionsof 30
gm canbe identifiedthrougha varietyof
opticalproperties, usuallyatmagnifications
rangingfrom16xto 400x. Fortransmitted
include
planepolarizedlight,theproperties
versus color,
transparency opaqueness, pleo-
chroism,refractive index,relief,morphology,
andcleavage.Betweencrossedpolarizers,
important properties includeisotropism versus
extinction
anisotropism, birefringence, angle,
andthe presenceor absenceof otherfeatures
suchaszoning,twinning,undulousextinction,
andanomalous polarization colors(Phillips
1971; Kerr 1977; MacKenzie andGuilford
1981; MacKenzieet al. 1982; Williamset al.
1982; Adamset al. 1984; Yardley1990).
JAIC 33(1994):115-29
In additionto the identificationof specific
minerals,thin-sectionpetrographyalso involves
the studyof mineraland rock textures,coarse-
ness, and the relativeor quantitativepercentage
of variousconstituents. The datacollected
from thin-sectionstudiescan easilybe used for
statisticalanalysisby using quantitativemeasure-
ments,convertingbinaryand categorical
informationto arithmeticdata,or using
statisticalmethodsdesignedfor binaryand
categoricaldata(Chayes1956; Keith and
Cooper 1974; Stoltman1989; Agresti1990;
Matthewet al. 1991; Reedy 1991; Reedy and
Reedy 1994). One can also decreasethe
subjectiveaspectsof thin-sectionanalysisby
coding sectionsfor "blind"analysis,random-
izing the orderof analysis,or using semiauto-
maticimage analyzersystems(Middletonet al.
1985; Garrett1986; Stoltman1989; Middleton
et al. 1991).
To introducethe potentialof thin-section
petrographyfor studiesof culturalmaterials,this
paperincludesbriefdiscussionsof a wide variety
of relevantmaterialsand researchproblems.
These examplesare dividedinto sections on
stone, ceramics,glassand glazes,and other
miscellaneousmaterials.
2. STONE
2.1 STONE SCULPTURES
Thin-sectionstudiesof stone sculptures
frequentlyaim to identifythe stone materialor
find its source. Some of the sculpturalmaterials
thathave been characterizedare sandstone,
limestone,marble,phyllite,schist,quartzite,
granite,basalt,andesite,tuff, steatite,soapstone,
gypsum,andothers(KempeandHarvey1983;
Newman1984).
A notableexampleis work on ancient
Egyptianlimestonesculptures(Harrell1992).
Many ancientquarrieshave been located in the
Nile Valley,and samplesfrom them have been
characterizedby thin-sectionanalysis.Because
of this work it is possibleto identifyrthe prov-
 THIN-SECTION PETROGRAPHY IN STUDIES OF CULTURAL MATERIALS 117

Fig.1. A large(2 mm)bioclast,or skeletalparticle Fig. 2. Limestonewith sphericalparticlescalled

froma carbonate-secreting
organism, in ooids.Thecoarse-grained
matrix
hasa number
of
limestone
microcrystalline withsome scattered rhombohedralcalcitegrains.Plane polarizedlight, 32x
accessory minerals.
Planepolarized light,32x

enanceof manysculptures andarchitectural boundaries, andthe degreeandmannerof

stones. Limestones fromdifferentsourcescan recrystallization. Weiss(1954)andHerz(1955)
differgreatlyin grainsizeandtextureandin the alsousedidentification of thepreferred
typesof microfossils present,asillustratedin orientation of calciteto matchfragments that
figures1 and 2. Theymay also differin type hadoncebeenpartof a singlesculptureor
andratioof carbonates present(generally calcite inscribed slab. RenfrewandPeacey(1968)
and/ordolomite).Othertechniques suchas reviewedinaccuracies andinadequacies in
elementalanalysishavealsoprovenquiteuseful Lepsius's work(1890). Someof theseweredue
in limestoneprovenance work(forexample, to incompletepetrographic descriptions, the use
MeyersandvanZelst1977;Holmeset al. of subjective methodsof analysis thatdidnot
1986). Still,thin-sectionanalysis canoften includeblindingor randomization, andsample
answerthe questionof provenance aslongas sizestoo smallto characterize adequately the
the potentialsourcesdifferin one or moreof variation foundin marblequarries.
the characteristics mentionedabove. As the numberof sampledquarries has
Marblesculptures, particularlyfromthe increased, it is now recognizedthatno one
Aegeanregion, have received much attention methodof analysis aloneis sufficientfor
fromthin-sectionpetrographers. A systematic provenance studies of classical
marbles,except
description (nowoutdated)of thepetrography whenthepossiblesourcelocationsand
of classical
marblequarries waspublished more comparisons areverylimited.Inherentoverlaps
thana centuryago (Lepsius1890). Thatwork foundwhenmanypotential sourcesarecompared
describedfeaturessuchasgrainsize,extentand inhibitthe effectiveness of petrographic,
orientationof metamorphic foliation,color,and elemental,or isotopicdata(KempeandHarvey
presence of trace minerals. Later workexpanded 1983). Thereforethin-sectionanalysisis most
knowledge of the petrographic characteristicsof usefulforthismaterial whenusedin combin-
specificquarries of the classical
world (for ationwithothermethods,particularly if
example,Washington1898;Marinos1948; statistical
analysis includestwo or moretypesof
Weiss1954;Herz1955). Thesestudiesadded data(forexample,Lazzarini et al. 1980;
the description of featuressuchaspreferred Germann et al. 1988;Moenset al. 1988;Roos
orientationof calcitegrains,formof grain et al. 1988;Moenset al. 1989;Lazzarini 1990;

JAIC 33(1994):115-29
118 CHANDRA L. REEDY

Fig.3. Rod-shaped
chloritoid are
inclusions Fig. 4. A naturalweatheringlayerfound on the outer
characteristicof carbonaceousphyllitesandschists surfaceof volcanictuff. Planepolarizedlight, 32x
fromnorthwest usedto produce
Pakistan many
Buddhist
Gandharan Planepolarized
sculptures. light,
80x

Moenset al. 1990). Petrographic features chloritoidinclusions hasenabledfurther

foundmostusefulin thosestudiesincludethe of
grouping sculptures thatprobablyderive
averageandmaximum
shapeof calcitecrystals, fromthesamesource.
calcitegrainsize,andto a limitedextentthe Thinsectionsof stonesculptures havealso
presenceof accessory minerals.The thin beenusedin authenticity studies, one wayof
as
sectionscanalsobe stainedwithAlizarinRed S examining the naturalpatinaor weathering
in dilutehydrochloric acidto distinguish that
layers may have formed sincethe surface
betweencalciteanddolomite.Sincecalciteis wasworkedby the sculptor(fig.4). The
readilysolublein the acidanddolomiteis not, mineralogical andtexturalchangesof the stone
onlythe calcitestains(Hutchison1974). dependuponthetypeof stone(suchasmarble,
Thin-sectionanalysis hasprovenveryuseful tuff,schist,etc.)anditsenvironmental condi-
in provenancestudiesof Gandharan schist tions(suchasburialin thesoilor long-term
sculpturesfromancientAfghanistan and outdoorexposure).Foranycombination of
Pakistan(Courtois1962-63;Lahanier 1976; stonetypeandenvironmental conditionwe
Kempe1982;Newman1984;Kempe1986; needa setof referencespecimensthatincludesa
Newman1992;Reedy 1992b).These varietyof objectsof knownauthenticity, and
Buddhistsculptures fromnorthwestPakistan preferablysome known to be forgeries.
showa clearmix of influencesfromboth Newman(1990),buildingon earlierworkon
GreeceandIndia. Theyaremostoftenmade weathering layers(Hipkisset al. 1937;Young
of a shinygrayschistosematerial thathasbeen andAshmole1968),discussed characteristicsof
identifiedin thinsectionasa carbonaceous marbleweathering He
layers. prepares thin
phylliteor schistprimarilyconsistingof quartz sectionswithoutcoverslipsso theycanalsobe
andmuscovite,with chloritesometimes usedin electronbeaminstruments.Such
present.An unusualfeatureis theprominent background studiesarenotyet available for
inclusionsof tinyrodsof chloritoid(fig.3). mostclassesof stonesculpture; the effectsof
Comparison with samplesfrompossiblequarry commonconservation treatments on the overall
sitesindicatesthatthe sourceswerelocated surfaceandon weathering layershavealso
withintheSwatandPeshawar Valleys. receivedlittleresearch.
Newman's(1992)microprobe of the
analysis

JAIC 33(1994):115-29
 IN STUDIESOFCULTURALMATERIALS
THIN-SECTIONPETROGRAPHY 119

2.2 ARCHITECTURAL STONE rhyolite(Martinez andMartinez1991);and

Thin-sectionanalysis hasbeenusedto sandstone (Salehet al. 1991).
characterize the materials of a specificbuilding In one example,thinsectionswereusedin
or groupof buildingsandidentifythesourcesof studiesof the deteriorationof historicchapels
thatstone. One exampleis RichardNewman's carvedintovolcanictuffin the Cappadocia
work(1988,1992)on the talcchloritetemples regionof centralAnatolia(Tiirkmenoglu et al.
of the Hoysaladynastyof westernIndia(11th- 1991). The samples were taken systematically
14thcentury).Newmananalyzed41 samples to givea continuousview of the rockfromthe
fromsix differenttemplesto determineif there surfaceto a depthof about10 cm. A varietyof
werepetrographic differences thatwould mineralogical alterations(suchasthe break-
indicatethe utilizationof differing(probably downof plagioclase feldspar)couldbe seen,
local)quarrysources.Thinsectionsservedas dependingupondepth. Microbiological
the startingpointin the research, followedby alteredthesurfacemineralogy
activitydrastically
selectiveelectronbeammicroprobe work. Talc andtextureandpenetrated atleast1 cm into
andchlorite,alongwithmetallicoxidesand the rock. Otherrockalterations wereobserved
carbonates, werethe predominant minerals in asdeepas8 cm.
mostof the samples.However,variations were
observedin the presenceandtypeof amphibole 3. CERAMICS
minerals.Usingpublishedgeologicalmapsand 3.1 CERAMICVESSELSAND SHERDS
surveys,Newmandiscussed hisresultsin relation
One of the earliestandmostsuccessful petro-
to the petrography of talcchloriteoutcropsin
the vicinityof the temples. graphicthin-sectionstudiesof artifacts wasof
ceramicmaterials excavatedatthe siteof
Thin-sectionanalysis is alsousedby
ancientTroy(Felts1942). Thisstudyremainsa
architectural conservators to characterize the
modelof thepotentialutilityof thin-section
mineralogical and textural features
of archi-
analysisof ceramics andsherds.Threeresearch
tecturalstone,identifythe susceptibility of the
questions were addressed in thisstudy:(1)
to
stone weathering,determinethe degreeand
Among the ceramics excavated at the site,is it
depthof deterioration, provideinformation to local from
aboutthe mechanisms of deterioration, and possible distinguish imported
wares?(2)Do ceramics producedin different
studythe effectiveness of consolidation and
timeperiodsdifferin thinsection?(3) Can
otherconservation treatments.Althoughother
ceramicmanufacturing methodsbe deduced
methodsof analysis mayalsobe used,Rossi- froma studyof ceramicstructures andhow
Manaresi(1982,39) notedthat"Anaccurate
is alwaysnecessary theyhavebeenalteredby firingconditions?
petrographic analysis (apoint Feltscompared thinsectionsmadefromthe
overlookedin somepaperson causesof
ceramics andfromsoilsamplestakenin and
asfirstof allthe natureof the object
alteration), aroundTroy. Mostceramicsampleswere
to be studiedshouldbe known. Moreover,
foundto haverockandmineralinclusions
petrographic analysis oftenproducesinfor-
nativeto thelocalregionandseenin the local
mationaboutthe causesof alteration,
soils(suchasquartzite, a greenhornblende
particularlyif it concernsallpartsof the stone
fromthe surfaceinwards."Thinsectionshave trachyteporphyry, siltstone, anda strongly
foliatedmicaschist).In a smallpercentage of
beenusedin studiesof buildingstonesmadeof
the objectstheinclusionsconsistedof minerals
porous limestone (Kozlowskiet al. 1990);
volcanic rocks such as andesite,tuff, and
androckfragments not seenlocally(suchas
basalticlava). Therefore,these objectswere

JAIC 33(1994):115-29
120 CHANDRAL.REEDY

purification.The purityof the clayincreased

overtimeandwasaccompanied by anincrease
in the useof addedtempers.A lackof internal
preferred orientation of grainsandthe
haphazardly distributed porosityshowedthata
minimumof working doneduringthe
was
shapingprocess.Firingoccurredin a reducing
atmosphere, producinggraypotterywith
reducedironoxidesandsmallamounts of carbon
fromorganicmatter.However,frequent
patchesof oxidizedmaterials showedthatthe
Fig.5. Internalstructuralalignment ina ceramic thin firingconditionswerenotwell controlled.
sectionindicatingthatthevesselwasshapedon a Veryfew sherdsreachedtemperatures high
potter'swheel.Planepolarized light,32x enough to cause calciteto disintegrate.
Overtheyearsa largenumberof successful
provenance studiesof ceramicvesselshaveused
hypothesized to be imported. The imported thin-section petrography (Peacock1970;
waresalsoseemedto differfromlocalonesin Williams1983). Thesestudiesusuallyinvolve
shapingandfiringtechniques.Shapingtech- analyzing thelarger-grained temperingmaterial
niques identified through thin sections include and comparing potentialgeologicalsources
it to
the useof a potter'swheel, which is indicated (forexactpinpointing of manufacturing sources)
by internalalignmentof poresandplaty and or to temper materialfrom otherceramic
rodlikemineralfragments (fig.5). The degree samples(forrelatingobjectsthatmighthavea
of firingwasestimated qualitatively by observing commonsource).Thesestudieshaveinvolved
whetherthe claymatrixhadbeenpartially ceramictraditions froma widerangeof regions
vitrified,whethercalcitehadbeenthermally suchastheAmericanSouthwest(Shepard
dissociated, andwhethertherewerethermal 1942),Greece(Farnsworth 1964)andtheWest
changesapparent in mineralssuchasquartz. Indies(Donahueet al. 1990).
Potteryandsoilsfromvariousarchaeological One particularly interesting exampleis work
stratawereexaminedfortemporalchanges. carriedout on sand-tempered PacificIsland
The earliestsherdswereveryporous(upto ceramics.Thisworkhelpedto reconstruct the
20%of a typicalthinsectionconsistedof historyof thesettlingof theislandsby providing
spherical andellipticalvesicles).Throughtime evidenceforthemovementof peoplefromone
therewasa clearchangein technologytoward islandor islandgroupto another(Dickinson
smallergrainsizefortemperingmaterials, less andShutler1974;DickinsonandShutler1979;
porosity, and an increasing percentage of Dickinsonet al. 1990). Islandpotterswere
objectsproduced on a wheel. Only a few relatively restrictedin theirchoiceof whereto
mineralogical differences were found among obtain sand tempers,generallyto thoseavailable
the differentstrata. withintheirislandor localislandcluster.After
The thin-sectionstudysuccessfully identified petrographically characterizing the sandsof 50
a varietyof manufacturing approaches. The islands and 15 major island groups,the
earliestclaysshowedfine,stream-rounded researchers wereeasily to identifylocal
able
naturalinclusionsof quartz,feldspars, micas, versusimportedceramics.Whenobjectsfound
andcalciumcarbonate minerals, indicating that on one islandwere clearlymade elsewhere,the
detritalsiltswerecollectedwithlittleor no patternsof pasthumanmovement could be

JAIC 33(1994):115-29
 THIN-SECTION PETROGRAPHY IN STUDIES OF CULTURAL MATERIALS
Fig. 6. Materialfrom a Gandharanterracotta
Thedarkchunks
sculpture. area hematite-rich
clay terracotta sculpturethatis muchmorecoarse-grained
andthelightonesarethefine-grained
sand
component (mainly
quartz).Planepolarized
light,32x dark-colored grainsarehornblende,anamphibole
retraced.Sincethe differently tempered
ceramicsdidnot differsignificantly in visual
or
appearance quality and materialsfor
manufacturing ceramicsare readilyavailable
on
allthe islands,the authorsfeltthattheaddition
of foreign-tempered exampleswasmorelikely
dueto movementof peoplethanto a ceramics
trade.In additionto thepresence,size,and
shapeof diagnosticminerals, inclusionswithin
mineralgrainswereveryimportant.For
example,glassinclusionswithinplagioclase and
pyroxenegrainsindicatedthattheyderived
fromvolcanicsourcerocks.
Someceramicpetrographers aremore
interestedin understanding thewidercontextof
ceramictechnologythanin provenance
(Hodges1963;Freestoneet al. 1982;Middleton
andFreestone1991). Althoughtheydrawon
methodsof sedimentary petrography andsoil
micromorphology, theynote thatsince
ceramicsaremadeby humans,themethodsof
geologistsarenot sufficientforunderstanding
ceramicfabricvariations causedby human
interactionswithrawmaterials.Thusceramic
petrographers areworkingto developtheirown
methodsto describeceramicfabricsin sucha
wayasto highlightboththenatureof the raw
121
Fig.7. Material
froma different
Gandharan
thanthatin figure6. Mostof the chunky
mineralthatis a prominentconstituentof many
detritalsediments.Planepolarized
light,32x
materials andthe effectsof ceramictechnology
(Whitbread 1989).
3.2 TERRACOTTA SCULPTURES
Sinceit is a coarseceramicmaterial,
terracotta shouldtheoretically be suitablefor
provenance studiesby thin-sectionpetrography.
It tendsto havehighamountsof heavyminerals
(suchasolivine,zircon,hornblende, hyper-
sthene,garnet,tourmaline, rutile,epidote,and
chloritoid) knownto be extremelysensitive
indicators of provenance (Morton1985).
However,no majorstudiesfocusingon petro-
graphyof terracotta sculptures haveasyet been
published.
In a pilotstudyof threeGandharan terracotta
sculptures, major differences were found in the
coarse-grained fractions(Reedy1992a). A
hoodedfemalefigurecontaineda fine-grained
quartzin a hematite-rich clay,with accessory
amountsof muscovite,gypsum,anhydrite,
carbonates, clinopyroxene, andironoxides(fig.
6). A femalebustalsocontainedprimarily
fine-grained quartzalongwiththe clayand
accessories of plagioclasefeldspar,muscovite,
chloritoid,andhypersthene.However,a
beardedheadwasformedwitha materialthat
JAIC33(1994):115-29
122 CHANDRAL. REEDY
lookedquitedifferentfromtheothertwo in
thinsection. The quartzfractionwascoarser,
butthe moststrikingdifference wasthatthe
amphibolemineralhornblende waspresentasa
majorconstituent(fig.7). Thirteendifferent
accessory mineralsandlithicfragments were
alsopresent.The variationseenhereindicates
thatthin-sectionpetrography of terracotta
sculpturesmightvery well be usefulin
between
distinguishing periodsandplacesof
as well asin
production studyingthe materials
andtechnologyemployedby craftspeople.
3.3 ARCHITECTURAL CERAMICS
Architectural ceramicssuchasbricksand
terracottatilesareamenable to thin-section
studiesforidentification of components,
provenancestudies,assessment of deterioration,
or monitoringof conservation treatments.In
one example,thinsectionsof bricks,rooftiles,
andfloortilesfromYork,England,were
studiedfroma varietyof medievaland
postmedieval structures.The resultsshowed
thatalthoughthe majorityof York'sceramic
buildingmaterials wereof localmanufacture,
somewereimportedto theareaduringvarious
periods(Betts1991). Amongthe materials
manufactured locally,somefunctionaland
chronological differencesbecameapparent
of
throughanalysis grain distribution.
size
(Grainsizedistribution fora thinsectionis an
estimateof the fractionof grainsin eachof
severalsizeclasses.)
4.GLASS AND GLAZES
4.1 GLASS
Glass,asa noncrystallinematerial,doesnot
normallyrevealanyusefulinformation in thin
section. However,opticalmicroscopy hasat
timesbeena usefuladjunctto x-raydiffraction
andelectronmicroscopy forstudyingdevitri-
ficationprocessesin glass,the developmentof
cracksand crackprofiles,and inclusionsthat
reflectthe productionhistory,homogeneity,and
stabilityof glass(Porai-Koshits1973; Simmons
JAIC33(1994):115-29
et al. 1982). Forexample,someof themineral
inclusions foundin 19th-century glassinclude
wollastonite, diopside,cordierite,andquartz
(Barger et al. 1989).
4.2 GLAZES
The studyin thinsectionof glazeson
ceramics, asin the caseof glass,canbe usedto
identifycrystallineinclusions.In addition,a
thinsectioncanhelpto determineif any
interactionshaveoccurredbetweenthe ceramic
bodyandtheglaze. Asone example,thin
sections,in conjunction withothermethodsof
havebeenusedto studyKorean
analysis,
celadons(Newman1991;KohChoo 1992).
Theseobjectsconsistof stonewarewitha pale
greenor greenishblueglazethatresembles jade
in colorandtexture.Theywereproducedin
Koreafromaboutthelate9thcenturyinto the
15thcentury.The earliestworksweremodeled
on Chineseceladons,butdistinctively Korean
formsandtechniques evolved.A varietyof
factorscontribute to the visualappearanceof
the glaze. Theseincludethe presencein the
glazeof bubbles,undissolved rawmaterials such
asquartzgrains,andminerals suchasanorthite
andwollastonite thatformduringfiringof the
glaze. Interactions betweenthe glazeandthe
ceramicbodycanalsocontributeto the visual
effect,whenthebodyabsorbs someof the light
transmitted the
by glaze and decreasesits
brightness.
5. MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS
5.1 CLAYCORE MATERIALSFROM
BRONZES
Hollow-castmetalsculptures frequentlyhavean
innerclaycorematerial.Thisclayis oftenonly
sun-driedratherthanbakedor fired,so it is not
strictlyclassified
asa ceramicmaterial.The
strengthof a firedceramicis not requiredfor
thisapplication.Furthermore, fine claysarenot
necessarysince plasticityis not important. A
majorsandcomponentis advantageoussince it
helpsto preventgasbubblesduringcastingby
 THIN-SECTION PETROGRAPHY IN STUDIES OF CULTURAL MATERIALS 123

facilitatinggas release. Materialcollected at

local streambeds is usuallysufficient,so this
type of materialcan often be usefulfor grouping
objectsaccordingto place of manufactureas
long as the variationwithin a single region is
less than the variationbetween regions. Results
have been successfulfor studiesof South Asian
sculpturesand Renaissancebronzes(Milamet
al. 1988; Reedy 1991) (fig. 8).
Because of the sandynatureof most clay
core materials,some of the most usefulpetro-
graphicwork has come from in-depth studiesof Fig.8. A sandyclaycorefroma Renaissancebronze.
variationin the quartzgrains. Since quartzis by Thelight-coloredgrainsareprimarily the
quartz;
farthe most abundantmineralin sediments,it darkmatrixis primarily
clay. Crossed
polarized
light,
32x
has received much attentionin geology as a
source indicator,and many featuressuch as
texture, size, shape,and inclusionshave been
identifiedas importantfor provenancework
(Scholle 1979; Folk 1980) (figs.9 and 10). For
example,lattice dislocationin quartzcan pro-
duce grainsmade up of a numberof subcrystals
with differentcrystallographic orientations,
calledpolycrystallinequartz. Such lattice
dislocationmay be more common in meta-
morphic rocks, so this quartzfeaturemay
indicatesedimentswith metamorphicsource
rocks, especiallyif the boundariesbetween quartz,in whichmorethan
Fig.9. Polycrystalline
subcrystalsare suturedratherthan straight arepresentwithina singlegrain.
threesubcrystals
Differentsubcrystals
go extinctat different
degreesof
(Adamset al. 1984; Basu 1985). In additionto
rotationof themicroscopestate,producinga patchy
quartzstudies,noting the presenceor absence effect.Crossedpolarized
of numerousaccessorymineralsis an important light,32x
partof thin-section studiesof clay core materials.

5.2 PLASTERS AND CEMENTS

Plastermay containburntlime, gypsum,clay,
sand,water, and organicmaterials.It is used as
a coating for architecturalsurfacessuch as walls
and floorsand may also be used to produce
objectssuch as beads,figurines,or vessels.
Thin-section petrographyis used to identifythe
variouscomponents of a plasterand their
respectiveproportions. It can also give
Fig.10.Polygonized quartzis differentiated
from
informationsuch as grainsize, mineral quartzby beinglimitedto two or
polycrystalline
impuritiespresentin the sandor lime, textural threesubcrystals
presentwithina singlegrain.
characteristicsof minerals,and degreeto which Crossedpolarizedlight,80x

JAIC33(1994):115-29
124 CHANDRAL.REEDY
componentssuchasshellwerecrushedduring
processing.Barnett(1991)haspointedoutthat
opticalmineralogy is generallythe easiestand
least-expensivemethodof distinguishing among
gypsum,lime,andclayin plasters.Thesethree
componentsvarygreatlyin birefringence,
indicesof refraction, andmorphology.
GorenandGoldberg(1991)foundthatsince
thinsectionsprovideinformation on grain
texturesandinterrelationships, theyweremore
usefulthanothertechniques(suchasx-ray
scanningelectronmicroscopy,
diffraction, and
elementalanalysis) forreconstructing Neolithic
limeplasterproductiontechnologyin northern
Israel.Thin-sectionanalysis wasalsothe
primarymethodof a majorstudythatcharac-
terizedthe calcareous cementsusedin pre-
HispanicMesoamerican buildingconstruction
(Hyman1970). Besidesjustidentifying the
majorcomponents,Hyman was able to discern
the typesof microfossils presentin thelimeand
the grainsizeanddegreeof rounding.With
thisinformation he coulddeducethe environ-
mentin whichthe limestonemusthaveformed
andthusnarrowedthe possiblelocaleswhereit
couldhavebeencollected.KlemmandKlemm
(1991)usedthinsectionsto characterize mortar
samplesfromthe pyramiddistricts of the Old
Kingdomin Egypt.Contraryto earlierasser-
tions,theydetermined thatbothgypsumand
limemortarswereused.
Althoughplasterof parisis a veryfine-
grained,highlyprocessedmaterial, it, too, is
amenableto thin-sectionstudies.Variation in
thisgypsum-based material is foundin features
suchasparticlesize;the presenceof mineral
contaminants or additionssuchasquartz,
carbonates, clay;andthe percentage
and of
variousanhydrite andgypsumphases(natural or
high-temperature anhydrite; dihydrate, alpha
hemihydrate, or betahemihydrate phasesof
gypsum)(Kuntze1984). Sincegypsum
dissolvesrelativelyeasilyin water,thin-section
preparationof gypsum-containingmaterials
must use an oil-basedpreparationmethod.
JAIC33(1994):115-29
5.3 FRESCOES
Petrographic analysis haspotentialusefulness
in the studyof conservation treatments for
frescoes.One commonproblemis the
consolidation of surfaces thatarecrumblingand
friabledueto excesshumidity.Vagts(1993)
includedthin-sectionanalysis aspartof her
research intothepotentialof colloidalsilicain a
sol-gelform(Ludox-SM colloidalsilica
dispersed in water)forconsolidation of friable
surfaces of frescoes.Thinsectionsof consoli-
datedandunconsolidated sampleswere
compared to examine the effectof the consoli-
dationaswellasthedepthof penetration.The
unconsolidated samplehada muchmore
fractured appearance thanthe consolidated one.
In addition,it waspossibleto seethatthe silica
dispersion hadpenetrated approximately 3 mm
intothesurface,althoughthepenetration was
veryunevenacrossthe surface.One advantage
of a standard thinsectionis thatthe mineralogy
andmicrotexture of the frescocaneasilybe
characterized aspartof the study--important
considerations foranystudyof deterioration
andtreatment of a material.Anotheris thatthe
structureandgrainrelationships canbe monitored
beforeandaftertreatment andanyother
potentially adversechangesnoted. Withthe
relativelylargeareaof a standard thinsection,
one canalsoeasilyobservethe degreeof
consistency in depthof penetration of the
consolidant.
5.4 SLAGS
Slagsarewasteproductsfromthe reduction
of metalsfromores. Theyarefrequently
presentin archaeologicalcollectionsandat
historicsites. Mostcommonin suchcollections
areslagsfromcoppersmeltingandironsmelting
andsmithing.Tin andleadslagsarealso
sometimesencountered.The valueof slagis
not alwaysrecognizedby curators, andsome-
timesirreplaceablecollectionshavebeen
destroyedto makespacefor objectsmore readily
recognizableas culturalartifacts(MacMahon
 THIN-SECTIONPETROGRAPHY
IN STUDIESOFCULTURALMATERIALS 125

1988). However,slagsarean extremely Agresti,A. 1990.Categorical

dataanalysis.
New York:
importantmaterial forreconstructing past JohnWiley.
metallurgicalprocesses. Thin-section petrog- Allman,M., andD. F. Lawrence.1972.Geological
raphyis generallydonealongwithother laboratory New York:Arco.
techniques.
techniques suchasx-raydiffraction andelemental H-G. 1982.Theidentification
Bachmann, ofslagsfrom
analysis identify compositionof slagand
to the London:Instituteof Archaeology.
archaeologicalsites.
itsvariouscomponents(Bachmann 1982).
A widevarietyof minerals mightbe visible Barger,M. S., D. K. Smith,andW. B. White. 1989.
Characterizationof corrosion
productson oldprotec-
in slagthinsections,includingmanysilicates,
tiveglass,especially
daguerreotypecoverglasses.Jour-
oxides,andsulfides.Theseminerals provide nalofMaterials 24:1343-56.
Science
information aboutthe compositionof oresand
fluxesthatwereused. The amountof metallic Barnett,W. K. 1991.Opticalpetrography asa tool
inclusionsin slagindicatesthe efficiencyof forexamining gypsumandlimeplasterpyrotechnol-
smeltingoperations, sincethe goalwasto ogy.Journal ofFieldArchaeology
18:253-55.
removeasmuchof the metalaspossible. Basu,A. 1985.Readingprovenance fromdetrital
Furthermore, becausethe temperature of quartz.In Provenance ed. G. G. Zuffa.Bos-
ofarenites,
formationof mineralsis well understood, the ton:D. ReidelPublishing.
231-47.
identificationof mineralogicalcontenthelpsinBetts,I. 1991.Thin-section andneutronactivation
the reconstruction of temperature ranges analysisof brickand tile from Yorkandsurrounding
achievedduringsmelting. sites. InRecentdevelopments in ceramic ed. A.
petrology,
MiddletonandI. Freestone.London:British
6. SUMMARY MuseumResearchLaboratory. 39-55.

The primaryapplicationsof thin-section Chayes,F. 1956.Petrographic modal New

analysis.
York: JohnWiley.
to studiesof culturalobjectshave
petrography
beenforsimplecharacterization and Courtois,L. 1962-63.Examenmin6ralogique
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Despitepioneeringstudiesin Bouddhiques. ArtsAsiatiques 9:107-13.
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ShutlerJr. temper probableFijian
developmentof thistechniqueasa tool forthe origin in prehistoricpotsherdsfrom Tuvalu. Antiquity
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Donahue,J., D. R. Watters,and S.
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JAIC 33(1994):115-29
 THIN-SECTION PETROGRAPHY IN STUDIES OF CULTURAL MATERIALS 129

CHANDRAL. REEDYreceivedherPh.D.from Thispaperwaspresented in the Conservation

Re-
the interdisciplinary
Archaeology Program atthe searchandTechnicalStudiesupdatesessionatthe
of Los
University California, Angeles. Her disserta- 21stannualmeetingof theAmericanInstitutefor
tionresearch focusedon materialsanalysis artand
of Conservationof HistoricandArtisticWorks,June
archaeological and
objects on the South Asianregion. 1993,Denver,Colorado.ReceivedforreviewJuly
Afterservingasassociate conservationscientistatthe 29, 1993. Revisedmanuscript receivedJanuary19,
LosAngelesCountyMuseumof Art,shejoinedthe 1994. Acceptedforpublication 9, 1994.
February
facultyof the Universityof DelawareArtConserva-
tion Department.Shecoordinates theArtConserva-
tionResearchPh.D.Program andteaches
methodologyof scientificresearch,provenance and
authenticitystudies,
archaeologicaltheory, and
materialsandtechnologyof inorganicobjects.Ad-
dress:ArtConservation Dept.,Universityof
Delaware,303 Old College,Newark,DE 19716.

JAIC33(1994):115-29