Analysis of Slips and Other Inorganic - Spencer

Society for American Archaeology
Analysis of Slips and Other Inorganic Surface Materials on Woodland and Early Fort Ancient
Ceramics, South-Central Ohio
Author(s): Spencer J. Cotkin, Christopher Carr, Mary Louise Cotkin, Alfred E. Dittert and
Daniel T. Kremser
Source: American Antiquity, Vol. 64, No. 2 (Apr., 1999), pp. 316-342
Published by: Society for American Archaeology
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2694282 .
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ANALYSIS OF SLIPS AND OTHER INORGANIC SURFACE MATERIALS
ON WOODLAND AND EARLY FORT ANCIENT CERAMICS,
SOUTH-CENTRAL OHIO
Carr,MaryLouise Cotkin,AlfredE. Dittert,

SpencerJ.Cotkin,Christopher andDanielT. Kremser
Petrographic analysesweremadeof386 utilitarian potteryvesselsfrom23 datedcomponents of18 EarlyWoodlandthrough

earlyFortAncientperiodsites(ca. 1150 B.C.-A.D. 1300) in south-central Ohio. The analysesrevealthata significantper-
centage(11.6 percent)ofthe386 vesselsbear uncolored(i.e., unpigmented)pottelyslipsand washes,thatthesesuifacemate-
rials werecommon(>56 percent)amongthe23 sampledcomponents, and thattheywereproducedthroughout mostof the
examined sequence,includingtheearliestEarlyWoodland,whenpottery
prehistoric makingbeganintheMidwest.In contrast,
a literaturereviewindicatesthatuncoloredslips and washesare unrecorded waresin theprehistoric
for utilitarian Eastern
Woodlands,thatbothcoloredand uncoloredslipsare unknown foranyceramicsoftheEarlyWoodlandperiod,and thatcol-
oredslipsor washesinthepre-Mississippian Midwesthavebeenobservedinonlylowfrequencies. Electronmicroprobe analy-
sis ofsevensherdsshowthecompositional similarityoftheclaysofslipstotheclaysoftheirassociatedvesselbodies,indicating
thattheslipsweremadefromthesamerawclaysas thebodies,butwithno or littleadded rocktemperandlorwiththesieving
oftheslip clay.Contextualanalysesgivefurther insights,includingthepossibleuses ofslipsand washesfordecorationand
todecreasevesselwallpermeability.Calciteand apatitecoatingson thevesselsurfacesalso wereobservedand are interpreted.
ResultsindicategreatercontinuitybetweentheMidwestern and Southeastern UnitedStatesin ceramictechnology thanprevi-
ouslythought, and suggesta needforcautionin electronmicroprobe and INAAchemicalstudiesofMidwestern ceramics.
Se realizaronandlisispetrograficos a 386 vasijasde ceramicautilitaria de 23 componentes provenientesde 18 sitiosde la parte

sur-centralde Ohio fechadosdesdelafase WoodlandTemprano hastala parteinicialdelperiodoFortAncient(ca. 1150A.C B
1300D.C.). El andlisisreveloque unprocentajesignificativo (11.6%) de las 386 vasijastienenengobesy recubrimientos sincolo-
racion(estoes, sinpigmento), que estassuperficiesfiueroncomunes(>56%) entrelos 23 componentes muestreados, y quefueron
producidasa lo largode la mayorpartede la secuenciaprehist6rica examinada,incluyendo la mas temprana que coresponde a
Woodlands Temprano, cuandose iniciala manufactura de cerarmicaen la regiondel Mediooeste(Midwest)Norteamericano. En
contraste,una revisionen la literatura indicaque los engobesy recubrimientos sin coloracionno se registraron en las vajillas
utilitarias
de la prehistoria de la regi6nWoodlandsdel Este,que las cerarmicas del periodoWoodlandsTemprano nopresentan
engobesconcoloro sincolo; y que los engobeso recubrimientos concoloren el periodopre-Mississippi del Mediooestese han
observadosolamenteenfrecuencias bajas. El resultadodelanalisisde microsondeo de electronespracticadoa sietetiestosmiles-
trauna composicion similarentrelas arcillasde los engobesy las arcillasde los cuerposde las mismasvasijas,indicandoque
los engobesfueronhechosde las mismasarcillasque las arcillasusadaspara fabricarlos cuerposde las vasijas,perosindes-
grasanteso con unapequenacantidadde desgrasantes de rocay/ocirniendolas arcillasdel engobe.Los analisiscontextuales
proporcionan datosadicionales,incluyendo losposiblesusosde engobesy recubrimientos para decoracionypara reducirla per-
meabilidadde las paredesde la vasija. Tambinfueronobservadose interpretados los recubrimientos de calcitay apatitasobre
las supetficies
de las vasijas.Los resultados indicanunamayorcontinuidad enla tecnologiaceramicadelMediooestey el Sureste
de los Estados Unidosde lo que anteriormente se habiapensado,y sugierela necesidadde tomarcon cautelalos analisisdel
microsondeo de electrones y los estudiosquimicosINAAde las ceramicasdel Mediooeste.
A rchaeologicalceramicvesselsand sherds washes,paints,

commonlybear varioustypesof surface foodresidues,
smudge sooting,
deposits,
andmineralcoatings
carbonized
from
precipitated
materials
thatcanprovideimportant areamongthemorecommonkindsof
infor- groundwater
mationonvesselmanufacture,use,andpostdeposi- surfacematerialsthatcanbe diagnostic.
tionalalterations
(Hally1983;Rice 1987:147-152; Althoughsomesurfacematerials can be identi-
Rye 1981:40-46).Slips,floatedsurfaces,glazes, fiedandanalyzedwiththenakedeyeorlow-power
SpencerJ. Cotkin* Department of GeologicalSciences,University
of Illinois,Urbana,IL 61801
ChristopherCarr and AlfredE. Dittert* Department ofAnthropology, ArizonaStateUniversity,Tempe,AZ 85287
Mary Louise Cotkin* 910 HartwellDr.,#3,Savoy,IL 61874
Daniel T. Kremser* Department ofEarthandPlanetaryScience,Box 1169,One BrookingsDrive,Washington in
University
St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130-4899
American 64(2), 1999,pp. 316-342
Antiquity,
? 1999bytheSocietyforAmerican
Copyright Archaeology
316

REPORTS 317
microscopy, moredefinitive studiescan be made utilitarian exchange patterns during theWoodland in

usingthemethods ofpetrographic microscopy. Pet- south-central Ohio by one of us (Carr).The study
rography is appliedmostcommonly inarchaeology has includedchronometric, petrographic, electron
toidentifyandquantify addedandnaturally occur- microprobe, neutron activation, andx-radiographic
ringinclusions inthebodyofceramicvessels(e.g., analyses(Carr1990,1992;CarrandHaas 1996;Carr
Ferring 1985;Ferring andPerttula 1987;O'Malley andKomorowski 1995;CarrandRiddick1990;Elam
1981;Shepard1976;Stoltman 1989,1991),butits etal. 1992).Theslips,washes,andcalciteandapatite
use forstudying surfacematerials has precedents coatingson theceramicsdiscussedhereweredis-
(e.g.,Rye1981:54;Shepard1976).Thepowerofthe coveredunexpectedly byone ofus (M. L. Cotkin)
petrographic approachis enhancedwhenitis cou- during thecourseofthepetrographic work,andsub-
pledwithmicroanalytic techniques suchas instru- sequently wereverified by othersusingreflected-
mentalneutronactivationanalysisand electron lightmicroscopy andtransmitted-light petrographic
microprobeanalysis,whichallow thechemical microscopy (A. E. Dittert,S. J.Cotkin),as wellas
analysisofbulksamplesandindividual constituentsSEM photography andelectron microprobe analy-
(Carr and Komorowski1995; Freestone1982; sis (D. T. Kremser).
KamilliandLamberg-Karlovsky 1979;Mommsen
etal. 1988). GeneralNomenclatureof SurfaceMaterials
Petrographic and electronmicroprobe methods In thispaper,thetermsurface materialis usedtorefer
areusedhereto identify thesurface materials on a toanymaterial thatoccursontheexterior orinterior
largesampleofWoodland andearlyFortAncient util- surfaceof a vessel.Surfacematerialsare distinct
itarianceramicvesselsfromOhio.Inall,386 sherds fromthesherdbodyin color,composition, or tex-
from23 archaeological components wereexamined ture.Usuallythereis a cleardiscontinuity between
petrographically. Particular attentionisgiventochar- thesurface material andthebody,exceptinthecase
acterizingtheuncolored(i.e., unpigmented) slips of "floatedsurfaces"(see below). Some surface
andwashesinthissample,andindocumenting their materials areappliedintentionally (e.g.,slips,floated
frequency and distribution through time,because surfaces, glazes,paints,washes,smudgedeposits),
thesecoatingshaverarelyifeverbeenrecognized whereasothersare theunintentional byproduct of
onpre-Mississippian, utilitarianceramics oftheEast- someculturalactivity (e.g., soot,carbonizedfood
ernWoodlands.Moreover, slippingin Middleand residues)orpostdepositional process(e.g.,precipi-
LateWoodlandcontexts is generally considered to tatedmineral deposits).
be moreofa Southeastern practice,andmuchrarer A slipis a surfacematerialthatcan be definedoper-
intheMidwest. Thedatapresented herequalify these ationally byits(1) discontinuity from thevesselbody,
views,and implygreatertechnological similarity (2) finetexture, beingcomposedpredominantly of
andcontinuity amongtheceramicsoftheSoutheast clayandsilt-size particles,and(3) paucityorcom-
andMidwest.Ouridentification ofuncoloredslips pletelackoftemper particleslikethosethat havebeen
andwashesonMidwestern ceramics alsohaveimpli- addedtothepasteofthevesselbody.Othercharac-
cationsforhowtheceramicsoftheEasternUnited teristics ofa slip,whichdistinguish itfromtheves-
Statesshouldprobably be screened petrographicallysel bodyin mostcases,areits(4) distinctive color,
in preparation forelectron microprobe and instru- (5) different claychemicalcomposition, and(6) ori-
mentalneutronactivationanalyses,if accurate entationof particles (Rye 1981:54; Shepard
determinations of clay chemistry are to be made. 1976:191-193).Theseproperties derivefromhowa
Some understanding of the function(s)of the slipis created(Rye1981:36-37,41). Theclaysand
observedslipsandwashesis gainedthrough a con- siltsofa slipareappliedas a fluidsuspension toan
textualstudy ofthefunctions, sizes,andstyles ofves- unfired, consolidated andshaped, partiallydriedves-
selsonwhichthesecoatings occur,andwhether they sel,creating thediscontinuity between thevesselbody
occuron exterior and/or interiorsurfaces. In addi- anditsslip.The suspension mayincludesomefine
tiontoslipsandwashes,calciteandapatitecoatings orcoarserockparticles thatarenatural totherawclay
areeachdocumented fora fewsherds. or,lesscommonly, addedfinetemper particles(Shep-
Thepresent contribution ispartofa broader study ard 1976:253).The suspension mayormaynotbe
ofceramictechnology andthedevelopment oflocal, wet-sieved orwater-settled, toremove sandorgravel-

318 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 64, No. 2, 1999]
sizednaturalrockinclusions andplantmaterial (Rye tert, torefer toa slipora washthatspecifically has

1981:36-37).Oftentherawclayusedtomakea slip pigment within it,andthatis usedincreating deco-
is different
fromtherawclayusedtomaketheves- rativeelements orinfilling spaces.Itmaybe added
selbody,inordertoachievesomeaesthetic orfunc- toa vesselbeforeorafter firing.
tionalend.Less frequently, thesamerawclaymay Afloatedsurfaceis distinct froma sliporwash.
beusedforboththeslipandthebody.Consequently,A floatedsurfaceis operationally characterized by
a vesselbodyanditsslipmayormaynotdiffer in (1) a gradient of texture and composition fromits
chemicalcomposition andcolor.Also,colorants are outersurfaceto thevesselbody,rather thana dis-
often, butnotalways,addedtoslips. tinctboundary betweenthefloatedsurfaceandthe
Eithertheinterior orexterior ofa vessel,orboth, vesselbody;(2) predominantly clayandsilt-size par-
maybe slipped.Procedurally, a slipcan be applied ticles;(3) a complete lackofcoarserparticles, save
bydipping a vesselina claysuspension, pouring the thoseprotruding intothefloatedsurfacefrom theves-
suspension overorintothevessel,orwipingthesus- sel body;and(4) a claychemicalcomposition sim-
pensiondirectly on thevessel'ssurface. Wipingon ilarto thatof thevesselbody.A floatedsurfaceis
thesuspension mayresultin lateraldiscontinuitiescreatedbywetting thesurface ofa vesselandcare-
orspatiallyfrequent inthethickness
irregularities of fullywipingitwitha hand,stone,bone,gourdrind,
the slip, as well as particleorientation(Rice orsomeother firm,smooth material.Thisactionsep-
1987:149-151; Rye 1981:20,41). aratesfinerand coarserparticleswithinthevessel
Slipsareappliedfordecorative purposes, topro- bodyand bringsthefinerones up to thesurface.
videa smoothsurface thatis pleasinginitself, use- Whena hardsmoothing implement isused,theaction
fulforlaterburnishing and/or painting,orthatserves also tendsto alignflatparticles parallelto theves-
as a vehicleforthepaint.Theymaybe appliedover selwall,whichincreases thesmoothness ofthesur-
thewholevessel,as withcolored"filmed" ceramics face. Floated surfaces are sometimescalled
intheEastern Woodlands, ordiscontinuously within "self-slips" or"puddledsurfaces" (Rice 1987:151),
incisedor otherwise demarcated or undemarcatedalthough theterm"self-slip" hasotherdefinitions as
zones (e.g., Belmontand Williams1981; Griffin well (Shepard1976:192). A keydifference of a
1952:118-119).Slipsalso decreasethepermeabil- floatedsurfacefroma slip and a washis thatthe
ityofa vessel'swallsbyfilling theirporeswithfine floatedsurface doesnotinvolvetheaddition ofclay
claysandsilts,although thisadvantage maynothave andothermaterials tothevesselwall,whereasa slip
beenrecognized bythepotter (Shepard1976:191). anda washdo.
In turn,forcookingvessels,less permeablewalls A glazeis a coatingofglassthatmeltedinplace
influencetheflowof fluidsand transfer of heat andfusedontothebodyofa vessel.Producing a glaze
through them,and thereby affectboththeheating requires theuse ofa kilntoachievebothhightem-
effectiveness of thevesseland itssusceptibility to peratures andeffective temperature control, or the
thermalspallingand thermalcracking(Schiffer use ofa fluxthatallowsfusingatlowerfiring tem-
1990;Schiffer etal. 1994). peratures.Thesetechnologies wereunknown inthe
A wash,as usedherefollowing A. E. Dittert,has prehistoricEasternUnitedStatesand,thus,arenot
all thedistinguishing, andpotentially indistinctive,considered further here.
characteristicsofa slip,butis verythin.Itsthinness Surfacematerials thatarenotslips,floatedsur-
isnotattributable topostdepositional surfaceerosion faces,glazes,orwashesarereferred toherecollec-
but,rather,to theextrafluidity of theappliedsus- tively as coatings. This category includes
pensionand/or themethod ofapplication. Cross-cul- encrustations of soil precipitates,foodresidues,
turally,washesoftenarecolored,butneednotbe. smudgedeposits, soot,andso on.
Rye(1981:41)andRice(1987:151)usedthetermin
a morerestrictive way,to speakof a pigment, or Slips in EasternU.S. Prehistory
lime-based stuccolayer,thatis appliedto a vessel. Thissectionbriefly outlinestheuseofslips,washes,
Ryeuseditfora layeraddedbeforefiring, whereas andfloated surfaces onWoodlandthrough LatePre-
Riceuseditfora layerappliedafter as inthe historicceramicsin theEasternUnitedStates,as
firing,
case of"fugitive" paints. currentlyunderstood. Itis basedonanextensive lit-
Theterm,paint, isusedhere,following A. E. Dit- eraturesearch,as wellas personalcommunications

REPORTS 319
withkeyMidwestern, Northeastern,andSoutheast- 1960:30;McGregor1958:40,42,43).Thesesurface

ernarchaeologists whohavebroad,firsthand knowl- treatments areseensomewhat morecommonly but
edge of theceramicrecordsof theseregions(see stillin lowfrequencies attheMannSitein Indiana
acknowledgments). A primary conclusion ofthissur- (Kellar1979:103-105;MarkSeeman,personal com-
veyis thatalthough coloredslipsandwasheshave munication 1996),whichhas a southeastern orien-
beenreasonably welldocumented, uncoloredslips tationin manyof its characteristics. On coarser,
andfloated surfaces havenot.Discussionisrestrictedutilitarian MiddleWoodland vessels,coloredslipsor
herelargelyto qualitativetemporaltrendsin the washeshavebeenobservedonlyincidentally. For
occurrence of thesesurfacematerials; informationexample,Kenneth Farnsworth (personalcommuni-
onthefrequencies ofspecificslippedceramictypes cation,1996) has seen onlyone or two Illinois
is givenintheendnotes. Havanasherds withredororangeslipsorwashesdur-
In theEasternUnitedStates,coloredslips or inghisthreedecadesoffieldwork inthelowerIlli-
washeshavebeenobserved inonlylowfrequencies noisvalley.No coloredslipsorwashesarereported
or notat all in mostarchaeological phasespriorto intheliterature definingMiddleWoodlandutilitar-
theMississippian Period,anduncolored slipsonutil- ian ceramictypesin Ohio (Morton1984; Prufer
itarianwares are notrecorded.Cole and Deuel 1965:18-59).
(1937:38) definedWoodlandceramicsin partby IntheSoutheast, thepracticeofcoloring fineves-
theirgeneralabsenceofslipsandpaints. selswasmorecommonthanintheMidwest, partic-
Most EarlyWoodlandceramicsare thought to ularly inthesouthern lowerMississippi valleyduring
havenotbeenslippedwitheithercoloredoruncol- theearlyMarksville period.There,suchvesselsare
ored suspensions. No examples are cited in knownin rareamountsfromeveryadequateearly
Farnsworth andEmerson's(1986) comprehensive,Marksville ceramicsample(BelmontandWilliams
editedvolumeon EarlyWoodlandphasesoverthe 1981:23;Toth1977).InthenorthernYazoo Basinof
EasternWoodlands, or in PetersenandHamilton's thelowerMississippi,duringtheDoor and Twin
(1984) reviewof EarlyWoodlandceramicsin the Lake phases,zonedredtreatments, redfilmsover
Northeast andMidwest, orinPetersen andSanger's whole vessels, and red washes over incised or
(1991:126-131)reviewofceramics oftheMaritime stampedvessels were common(Belmont and
Provinces. BelmontandWilliams'(1981) survey of Williams1981:23;JamesStoltman, personalcom-
paintedpottery in thesouthern lowerMississippi munication 1996).Redslipping andwashingappar-
valleyconcludesthatwhatlittleevidencehas been entlydidnotpersistintothelateMarksville period,
brought forward forpaintedceramicsin theTche- save in thelowerYazoo duringthelateIssaquena,
functe period(Tchefuncte Red,Phillips1970:164) whenredslipsoverentire vesselswereappliedocca-
is now waning(Belmontand Williams1981:23). sionally. AlongtheGulfcoastofFlorida, intheCrys-
However, floated surfacesweredocumented byGrif- talRiverareaoftheSantaRosa-Swift Creekregion,
fin(1950-1958)on BayouLa BatrePlainvessels, lowfrequencies ofa painted, redzonedtype(Pierce
in theTombigbeeandAlabamadrainages, and by ZonedRed)anda blackresist-dye type(Crystal River
FordandQuimby (1945;seealsoThorne andBroyles Negative "Painted") are known (Willey
1968:81) forOrleanspunctated vesselsinthelower 1949:391-392).
Mississippi valley. Uncolored slipsonfineandcoarseMiddleWood-
DuringtheMiddleWoodland,in theEastern landceramicsarevirtually unknown intheEastern
UnitedStates,coloredslipsorwasheswereapplied UnitedStates.Floatedsurfaces, apparently madein
overentire vesselsandwithin zonesofvesselsinvery preparation forburnishing, havebeennoticed onfine
low frequencies. The slippedvesselsare all finer Hopewell seriesvessels in Illinois by Kenneth
typesthatoccurmoreoften inmortuary thandomes- Farnsworth (personalcommunication, 1996).
ticcontexts. DuringtheLateWoodland, recorded coloredslips
IntheMidwest, inIllinois,
MiddleWoodland ves- andwashesare,again,lessfrequent intheNortheast
selswithredslipsorwashesovertheir entire surface UnitedStatesthantheSoutheast. Coloredceramics
orwithin zones,andblacknegative slippedorwashed areunknown intheLateWoodlandofIllinois(Ken-
vessels,are foundregularly butin verylow fre- nethFarnsworth, personalcommunication 1996;
quencies (e.g., Griffin1952:118-119; Hoffman Griffin 1952;JamesStoltman, personalcommuni-

cation1996).ForOhio,nonewas foundbyCarr's bichrome, and polychromevessels (Griffin

(1985) ceramicinventory or is reported in recent 1967:190;Walthal1980).In Illinois,coloredslips
reviewsofLateWoodlandceramics(Barkes1981; firstoccurredaroundCairo,aboutA.D. 700-800
Morton1984;Seeman1980).Thisabsencerelates, (JamesStoltman, personalcommunication 1996),
in part,to thelackof continuity of fine,Hopewell and werecommonly usedlaterat Cahokiato pro-
seriesceramics, whichsometimes bearcoloring, into ducefiner,
smoothed vesseltypes(e.g.,PowellPlain,
thesubsequent LateWoodland. RameyIncised).Red,yellow,andblackslipswere
IntheSoutheastern UnitedStates,vesselswithred produced.
slipsor washesovertheirentirety or withinzones Incontrast,
veryfewcoloredceramics havebeen
werecommonin theearlyLateWoodlandWeeden foundintheFortAncient culturesofthemiddleand
Island1and2 (according tothePercy-Brose chronol- upperOhiodrainage. In theLittleMiamivalley,the
ogyin Milanichet al. 1984:79,in contrast toWil- Madisonville siteproduced a smallbowlwithblack
ley's1949chronology) ceramic complexofsouthern paintedlines and circleson its interior (Hooten
GeorgiaandAlabama andnorthern Florida(Milanich 1920:Plate 24b).Fewerthan0.3percent ofthesherds
etal. 1984:185;Sears1948,1956;Willey1949:422), from theAnderson village(A.D. 1250-1450)onthe
in therelatedWoodvilleand Quafalorma ceramic LittleMiamihavecoloredslipsorwashes,andthese
horizons oftheBaytown Periodinthesouthern lower arezonedblackorreddesigns(Don Bier,personal
Mississippi valley (Belmont and Williams communication 1996). Oehler(1973:8-9, Figure
1981:26,32;Milanichet al. 1984:186;Thorneand 10a)andCowan(1986:137)report thata fewsherds
Broyles1968:47,57,106), and in Southeastern-ori- fromnegatively painted jarsandhoodedwaterbot-
entedsouthern Indiana(Walthal 1980:165-172). Red tles,whichcouldbe imports fromtheLowerOhio
andwhiteslippedceramicsalsoareknownfromthe ValleyAngelPhaseortheAmerican Bottom, occur
Quafalorma horizonoftheYazoo Basininthelower attheTurpinphasesitesofTurpinFarmon theLit-
Mississippivalley(Phillips1970:155-156).All of tle Miamiand Statelineon theGreatMiamiriver
thesevesselsarefine"mortuary" waresthatoccur (A.D. 1000-1250),butnotat youngersitesof the
onlyinburialmounds, or"prestige"waresthatoccur Shomaker andMariemont Phases(A.D. 1250-1650)
proportionally morefrequently in mortuary than inthearea.Further uptheOhiodrainage, Fox Farm
domestic contexts (sensuMilanichet al. 1984:130; saltpanswithinterior red(fugitive?)coloraredoc-
Milanich1994:185; see also Cordell1984:198). umentedby 16 sherdsfromHardinvillage,Ken-
Plainandstamped "utilitarian"vesselspredominate tucky, ontheOhioriver(Hanson1966).A fewFeurt
in villagesitesofthelowerMississippivalley,and Plainsherdswithfugitive redochreon theirinteri-
plain,punctated, andincisedutilitarian vesselspre- orsarereported fortheMcCunesiteontheHocking
dominate in theMcKeithen WeedenIslandvillage river(Murphy 1975:303).Fourblacknegative-resist
site.In theWeedenIslandvillagecomponent of carbonpaintedor smudgedsherdsand one black
Kolomoki, plainsand-tempered andWeedenIsland positivepaintedsherd(.042 percentof 12,000
typesherdsaremostcommon, followedbyincised sherds),mostlikelylocallyproduced,are known
sherds and some punctated sherds (Sears from thePhiloII siteontheMuskingham river (Gart-
2
1948:27-30).After theBaytown period(laterLate leyetal. 1975,1976),butnotfromtheneighboring
Woodland)inthelowerMississippivalley,colored Philo I, Richards,and Tysinger PhiloPhase sites
ceramicswereabsentorinfrequent inmostphases. (Jeff Carskadden, personalcommunication 1998).
ThesameholdsforlateWeedenIslandinthenorth- No otherexamplesof color-slippedor washed
ernFloridaandsouthern GeorgiaandAlabamaarea ceramictypesarereported inthedefinitive literature
(Milanichetal. 1984:80-81). forthevariousFortAncient phasesinthemiddleand
In thelatePrehistoric, coloredslipsandwashes upperOhiodrainage, includingtheBaum-Baldwin-
becamemorepopularinpartsofboththeMidwest BrushCreek,Anderson, Feurt-Clover, Fox Farm,
andSoutheast whereMississippian cultures thrived. Philo,andYate-Madisonville phases(Carskadden
MostMississippian complexes, andparticularly the 1999; Church1987; Essenpreis1982:133-158;
MiddleMississippian culturesofthecentral Missis- Graybill 1981;Griffin 1943;Heilman1980;Marwitt
sippi,lowerOhio, and Tennesseedrainages,fre- et al. 1984; Mills 1906, 1917; Pruferand Shane
quentlymaderedslipped,blacknegativeslipped, 1970:38-74; Skinneret al. 1981), as well as the

REPORTS 321
Osborne,Manion,and Gistphases(Turnbowand wares.Nearlyall ofthevesselsarecoarselymade,

Henderson 1986; Turnbowand Sharp 1988: withlargeraveragetemperparticlesizes,thicker
279-294). Turnbowand Henderson(1992) report walls,lightcolors,and onlyplainor simplecord-
no color-slipped orwashedceramicsin theirinten- marked surface treatment, incontrast tomorefinely
siveanalysisof4,414sherdsfromsixFortAncient made,ceremonial-mortuary wareswithsmaller aver-
components in northeastern Kentucky. In sum,it age particlesizes, thinner walls, darkcolors by
appearsthatcoloredslips and washeswerevery reducedfiring, andpolished,incisedsurfacetreat-
rarely produced byFortAncient peoplesoftheMid- ment.A fewvesselsinthesample(n = 12,3.1 per-
dle andUpperOhiodrainage. centof386 sherds)aredistinguished bymoderately
InthePlaquemine Mississippian complexes ofthe elaboratedsurfacetreatments, darkercolors,or
southern lowerMississippi valley,coloredceramics tetrapodal bases,buthavenevertheless beenidenti-
remained absentorrarefrom variousphasesuntilthe fiedas utilitarianonthebasisoffunctional anddepo-
Historicperiod(Belmontand Williams1981:26; sitionalcontextual criteria.4Thesefewvesselswe
ThorneandBroyles1968:45,73). Thesameis truein callelaboratedutilitarian vessels,incontrast tothe
northern Florida,wherecoloredceramics werelack- ordinaty, utilitarianvesselsthatpredominate inthe
ing in WeedenIslandIV andV untiltheMission sample.Ourfocuson utilitarian vesselswas based
Period,after1700(Griffin 1951:150;Sears1956:46; on thesampling constraints ofa differentproject.
Smith 1951:117,132,171; Vernonand Cordell Each oftheselectedsherdscomesfroma differ-
1993:424).3 entvessel,as indicatedbytheirvisualand x-radi-
Uncolored slipshavebeenrecognized onlyrarely ographiccharacteristics, whichwereassessedby
onutilitarianceramicsoftheWoodlandandMissis- themethodsof Carr(1993), and by theirprove-
sippianPeriods,inboththeMidwestandSoutheast niencesofdeposition. Thus,theobservations made
(David Brose,personalcommunication 1996). In aboutthesurface materials onsuccessivesherdsare
somelocales,thissituation mayreflect theactual independent.
paucityofuncolored slippedvesselsinthearchaeo- The 386 sherdsstudiedherefromeacharchaeo-
logicalrecords. However, theabsenceofuncolored, logicalcomponent are a portionof a muchlarger
slippedutilitarian vesselsalso mayrelateto two sample(oftenhundreds ofsherdsfromtensofves-
methodological factors:(1) thelack of systematic selspercomponent) thatwas selectedbyoneofus
petrographic examination of utilitarian ceramics (Carr) so as to maximizetherepresentation of
fromthesetimesandplaces,and(2), thetraditional ceramicvariationwithinthecomponentand the
emphasis placedontempering materials andtextur- numberof potters responsible forthevessels.The
ingtechniques thansurface
rather materials indefm- dimensions ofvariation considered inselectingboth
ingceramictypesandchronologies in theEastern thelargersampleandthesmaller, 386-sherd sample
UnitedStates(Belmont andWilliams1981:19).The includeonesthatcanvaryamongpotters: minorstyl-
studymadeheresuggeststhattheselattertwofac- istictraits suchas thedirection, spacing,andwidth
torsaremorepertinent totheceramicsoftheOhio ofcordmarks, thewetness ofpasteduring cordmark-
Woodland, andthatuncolored slipsaremorecom- ing,andpastecolor;andtechnological features
such
monthanpreviously observed. as themineralogy,fractional density,andmodalsize
of temper particles,as revealedx-radiographically
AnalyticalSample and Methods (Carrand Riddick1990). In contrast to thelarger
The386sherdsanalyzedherefortheir surface mate- samplefrom eachcomponent, the386-sherd sample
rialscomefrom23 datedcomponents of 18Wood- does notencompassthefullrangeof utilitarian
landandearlyFortAncient periodsitesintheScioto, ceramicvariation withinthecomponent, giventhe
Muskingham, andOhio drainages of south-centralsmallnumber ofsherdsandvesselsselected;norare
Ohio(Figure1). Thecomponents andsherdsrange ceramicvariants withinthe386-sherd samplerep-
intimefrom about1150B.C toA.D. 1300,ina fairly resented proportional totheir frequencies within
the
eventemporal Mostofthesitesarehabi- component.
distribution. Thus,itis notpossibleto makeinfer-
tations,ratherthanmortuary or otherceremonial encesaboutdifferences inthefrequencies ofsurface
sites,andall ofthesherdsappearto be fromutili- materials amongtheindividual components. How-
tarianvessels ratherthanmortuary-ceremonialever,comparisons aremorefeasibleamongbroader

0 H I0
F ~~~~//
DD Lickinglomter
Figure 1. Map of Ohio showingthe locations of Woodland and early Fort Ancientarchaeologicalsites fromwhich
ceramic samples were selectedand studiedhere. Lettersreferto sites forwhichsamples were used in thisstudyand
are as follows:CC-Continental Construction;DD-Darby Dan; D-Decco; DLC-Dominion Land Co.; F-Florence;
G-Greencamp; H-Harness-28; HB-Howard Baum; MH- Mabel Hall; Mc-McGraw; Mu-Murphy; MC-
Mound City; NC-Newark Campus; PS-Phillip Smith; ST-Scioto Trails; T-Toephner; W-Waterplant; WSC-
W.S. Cole
sets of components fromdifferent timeperiods, Nearlyallofthe386ordinary andelab-
utilitarian
whicharerepresented bymoresherds. oratedutilitarian
sherdsprobably camefromwide-
Thecharacteristicsreported belowforeachstud- mouthed, subconoidal-to-round vessel formsthat
iedvessel(e.g.,vesseldiameter, presenceofvarious servedmultiplepurposes, suchas cookingandstor-
indicatorsofthermal stress)arebasednotonthesin- age, liketheircorrelates in Illinois(Braun1983).
gle sherdrepresenting it withinthesmaller,386- Theformsandfunctions ofthevesselsfromwhich
sherdsamplebut,rather, on theseveralto many thestudiedsherdsoriginated wereinferred fromthe
sherdsthatwerefoundx-radiographically tobelong knownrecordof reconstructed Woodlandvessels
to itin thelargersample.Thesesherdssometimes fromOhio,theirforms andusecharacteristics (e.g.,
camefromdiverselocationson thevessel,as indi- wearmarks, wallspallinganddelamination patterns,
catedby theirvarying morphology, and cracktypes,
thickness, carbonizedfoodresidues), andthemor-
theirnotconjoining. Mostoftheindividual sherds phologyand characteristics of thesherdsin com-
thatwere examinedto characterizeeach vessel parison.Some sherds,especiallyfromtheMiddle
rangedinsizeprimarily betweenca. 5 and 10cmin Woodland Periodonward, havesootcarboncoatings
some dimensionon theirsurface,althougha few ontheir exteriors
and/orcarbonized foodresidues on
wereas largeas a fifth
ofthevessel'sarea.Eachves- theirinteriors
(see below),givingdirectevidenceof
sel's diameterwasestimated fromthecurvaturesof theirvesselshavingbeenused in cookingfoodor
multiple sherdsorientedvertically
accordingtotheir heatingnonfood items.Thisis trueofboththeordi-
morphology andsurface treatment. naryandelaborated utilitarianvessels.

REPORTS 323
All 386 ofthesherdsconsidered here,as wellas tralOhiorevealedeightcategories ofsurface mate-

almostall fromthelargersample,comefromves- rials,basedontheir petrographic andchemicalchar-
sels thatweretemperedwithcoarse (1-3 mm), acteristics: (1) slips,(2) washes,(3) paints, (4) floated
igneousrockfragments andsingle-mineral crystals. surfaces,(5) apatite coatings, (6) calcitecoatings, (7)
Mineralscommonly present includequartz,plagio- externalopaque carboncoatings,and (8) internal
clase,alkalifeldspar,muscovite andbiotitemicas, opaquecarboncoatings. Burnishing, polishing, and
pyroxene, amphibole,and opaques (cf. Carrand rubbing surface treatments alsowereobserved occa-
Komorowski 1995).No limestone orshell-temperedsionally. Theseandthecarboncoatings arenotdealt
ceramicswereincludedinthesample. withhere,becausetheyaregenerally welldescribed
Allofthe386 sherdswereanalyzedwitha petro- inarchaeological literatureontheWoodlandPeriod
graphicmicroscope fora largesuiteofmineralogi- oftheEastern UnitedStates(e.g.,Braun1983;Grif-
andtechnology-sensitive
cal,textural, traitsoftheir fin1952;Prufer 1965).Unlessotherwise specified,
pasteandtemper. Observations weremadeusingboth percentages ofsherdsdiscussedbelowpertain tothe
plane and cross-polarized, transmitted light,at 386 sherdsample.
100-200X magnification, bytwoprofessional geol-
ogistswithexpertise in petrographic, microprobe,Slips
and/orSEM work(S. Cotkin, M. L. Cotkin).Surface Thesearethemostabundant formof claysurface
materialsinaddition
tocarbon residues (slips,washes, materials in thesample,occurring on 38 to40 (ca.
andcalciteand apatitecoatings)wereencountered 10 percent) ofthe386 sherds.In linewiththedefi-
unexpectedly,leadingtomoreextensive studyofthe nitionofslipsgivenabove,thoseinthesampleare
materials.Theentiresampleof386sherds wasexam- distinguished from theirassociatedvesselbodiesby
ined3 ormoretimesbytheCotkinstofindall pos- texture and/or color,andthetwophasesarealways
sibleexamplesofslips,washes,carbonresidues, and separatedby a well-developed discontinuity. The
othersurfacematerials. All sherdsbearingslips, slipsconsistpredominantly of clay and silt-sized
washes,paints,floats,calcitecoatings, apatitecoat- quartz,together withminoramountsof silt-sized
ings,oranomaliessuspected tobe these,totaling 53 feldspar andmica(Figure2A-C). Mostoftheslips
sherds,werethenexamined byA. E. Dittert.5 He was lackthecoarserockparticles thatwereaddedas tem-
abletoconfirm, disconfirm, and/or clarifythenature pertotheclayofthevesselbody.Approximately 60
of each coating.Dittert's observations weremade percent ofthe38 to40 vesselswithslipshaveslips
twice,witha reflected-light, stereo-zoomscope at withparticles thatgenerally areless than0.1 mm.;
40Xmagnification, andthenwitha transmitted-light theseareoftenroundedandappeartobe natural to
petrographicmicroscope usingbothplaneandcross- theslipmatrix. In contrast, addedtemper particles
polarizedlight,primarily at40X magnification and inthevesselbodiesofthesesamplescommonly are
up to 400X. The twoperiodsof observation were 1 to3 mm.Theremaining 40 percent ofthevessels
separated by 10 months, providing a checkon the withslipshaveslipsthatweretoo darkto charac-
work.Unsectioned sherds werenotavailable formak- terizefortheir particle sizedistribution or,lesscom-
ingfreshbreaksandexamining themforevidenceof monly, hadsomerockfragments thatareas largeas
thesurface materials. 3 mm,angular, andthatcouldhavebeenaddedor
totheslipmatrix.
natural
Descriptionof SurfaceMaterials In general, thesepetrographic observations indi-
Ourinvestigationofthe386 sherdsfromsouth-cen- catethattheslipswereusuallymadewithrawclay
Figure2 (over). Images ofsurfacematerialsand theirassociatedsherdbodies. In backscatteredelectron(BSE) images,
brightareas are materialswithhighaverage atomicnumber(mostlyFe-richminerals);dark areas are thosewithlow
average atomicnumbers(mostlyquartz and feldspars).Clay mineralscontainsomeFe and displaymediumgraytones.
The photomicrographs were taken in plane polarized light.(A) A BSE image of a typicalslip, on sample 26-194. The
slip is at thetop ofthe imageand is clearlydiscerniblefromthesherdbodyby a discontinuity. The scale bar is 0.1 mm
long.(B) A BSE imageofa slip on 32-A13.A coatingof organicmaterial(black in image,markedby an arrow) occurs
betweenthe slip and the sherd body.Its originis discussed elsewhere.The scale bar is 1.0 mm long. (C) A photomi-
crographofa slip on sample40-E01,whichdates to 1150 B.C. ? 100 radiocarbontime(calibrated1390/1330B.C.; ETH
3312; Carr et al. 1996). The widthof the image is 2.0 mm. (D) A BSE image of a calcite coating(top), whichappears
whitein theimage,on sample47-D06. The extremelywell-rounded,black areas are voidsthatrepresentgrains--prob-
ably quartz-that were pluckedduringthinsectioning.The scale bar is 1.0 mm long.

7-
'904
C AR.
N.,
M-6
NIS'

REPORTS 325
w ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A
*~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4
.- ..:
3
* X \
of \~~~~~~

326 AMERICANANTIQUITY [Vol. 64, No. 2, 1999]
fromthesamesourceas thevesselbody,butwith- depressions, butin almostall cases,at leasta thin

outaddinganytemper, oronlyveryfinetemper. Pre- slipremnant extendsontohigher partsofthevessel
sumably, a mass of clay was gathered, somewas bodysurface. The maximum thickness oftheslips
retained formaking theslipofa pot,andtheremain- studied hereis0.6mm.Alloftheslipsappeartohave
derwas tempered, kneaded,andwedgedin prepa- beenfired;theyarenotunfired, fugitive clayslips
rationforforming thepot.This reconstruction is addedafter firing.Thepoorpreservation ofmanyof
supported by electronmicroprobe analysesof the theslips,as well as theirsimilarity to theirassoci-
chemicalcompositions oftheclaysandsiltsin the atedvesselbodiesincolor,distinguishes themfrom
slipsandthoseinthevesselbodies(see below).Itis themarkedly apparent slipsfoundontheaboriginal
unclearwhethertheslip clays were sieved(Rye pottery oftheAmerican Southwest.However, all of
1981:36) to removeanynaturalrockinclusions thesurfacecoatingswe identified as slipsmeetthe
greater than1mm.indiameter; inclusionsofthissize standardcriteriafor definingslips (Shepard
occuroccasionally within theslips.Long-term water- 1976:191-193),as enumerated above.
settling of theslipclaysseemsunlikely, giventhe
generally similarclayandsiltparticlesize distribu- Washes
tionandmineralogical contents oftheslipsandthe A fewexamples(n = 4 or 5; ca. 1 percent)were
finefraction ofthebodypastes.Thehypothesis that observedinthe386-sherd sample.Theircharacter-
thesurface materialsidentified
hereas slipsare,alter- isticsaresimilar tothosejustdescribed fortheslips,
natively, soildepositsthathaveadheredto theves- buttheyaremuchthinner. The coatingsdefinedas
sel is notborneoutbythesimilarclay-silt textural washeshaveflatexterior andconsequently
surfaces,
distributions,andthesimilar chemical compositions,cannotbe considered erodedslips.
oftheslipsandthefinefraction ofthebodypastes.
The widegeographic areaanddiversegeomorphic Paints
environments inwhichthearchaeological siteswith Oneexample(ca. 0.3percent) wasfoundinthe386-
slippedceramicsare locatedalso challengethis sherdsample.It wouldhavelookedred-brown on
hypothesis. thevessel.Itconsistsofclaysthatcontain fine,ruby
The claysintheslipsareusuallyverysimilarin red-colored crystals andgrains,as wellas fineinclu-
theircolor,chemistry, andmineralogy to theclays sionsofotherminerals. Theredpigment comprised
oftheir associatedsherdbodies.Thisisprobably the ca. 40 percentof thecoating'svolume.It was not
primary reasonwhytheslipshavegoneunnoticed analyzedchemically foritscomposition, butisprob-
byarchaeologists whohavereliedon macroscopic ablynonspecular hematite.
characterization of Woodlandceramics(see also
FloatedSurfaces
Shepard1976:191-192).Most of theslipsrange
froma lighttanto a mediumbrowninplanepolar- Floatedsurface arerare(n = 1 or2;ca. 0.3-0.5per-
izedlight, andarethesamecolororsomewhat lighter cent)in the386-sherd sample.Becausefloatscan
thantheirassociatedvesselbodies.Someslipshave sometimes be subtlein theirdistinction fromplain
somewhat reddish,greenish, andgrayish hues,but surfaces, it is possiblethata fewfloatswerenot
arewithin thecolorrangeofnatural clays.A fewslips detectedin the386-sherdsample.The floatsthat
arequitedark,andmaybe purposefully orinciden- wererecognizedhave a characteristic gradient of
tallycoloredslips.6 textureandcomposition fromtheiroutersurfaces to
Slipsareoftenputon vesselstocreatea smooth thevesselbodies.Theyconsistof predominantly
surfacethatcan be polished,burnished, orpainted clayandsilt-size andlackcoarsersandand
particles,
(Shepard1976:192).Noneoftheslipsobserved here gravel-sized rockparticles,save temperthatpro-
appearstohaveservedthesepurposes. trudesintothemfrom thevesselbody.Alltheexam-
Thepreservation qualityoftheslipsvariescon- ples appeartohavebeenmadewitha yielding wet
siderably. In manysamples,onlysmall,discontinu- hand,ratherthana stoneor otherhardmedium,
ous patchesof slip are well preservedin their becausetheirsiltparticles aresomewhat jumbledin
thickness. Commonly, thesurfaces of theslipsare orientation instead ofwell-alignedandparalleltothe
degradedandraggedy. Occasionally, thepreserved vesselwall. No chemicalcompositional analyses
portions arerestricted to pocketswithincordmark weremadeofthefloated Hand-rubbed
surfaces. and

REPORTS 327
smoothedsurfacesworkedduringtheleather-dryelectron microprobe (see below).The coatingsand

stage,whichwerenottabulated withthewet-hand thevesselbodyjoin at a distinct boundary. In one
floatedsurfaces, alsowererare(n = 3; ca. .8percent) case, the coatingwas comprisedof individual,
in the386-sherd sample;however, thiswas so pri- packed,roundedgrains,someofwhichpenetrated
marily becausethesamplewaschosentoexcludefine intothevesselbody,as ifan unfired, semi-dry ves-
ceremonial-mortuary waresthatcommonlybear selhadplacedona "sandy"surface. Minoramounts
them,and elaboratedutilitarian wareshave them ofclay,silt,andorganic materialwereadmixedwith
onlyoccasionally (seeabove).Surfaces identified as theapatite.Inthesecondcase,thecoatingwas solid
rubbedorsmoothed didnotevidencetheseparation witha granular internal Likemanyslips,
structure.
andraisingoffineparticles tothevesselsurface. bothexamplesof apatitecoatingsoccurin small
Thehypothesis thatthesurface materials identi- patches,andarethicker within thelowsandthinner
fiedhereas slipsare,instead, floatedsurfaces, was onthehighsofa vesselbodysurface, probably from
seriouslyconsideredand rejectedforseveralrea- erosion. Thecoatings rangetoa maximum thickness
sons.(1) Allofthesurface coatingsthatDittert iden- of.5 mm.
tifiedas slips meettheprimarycriteriathatare
standardly usedtodefineslipsanddistinguish them CalciteCoatings
fromfloatedsurfaces(Shepard1976:191-193;see Thesewereidentified ononlytwosherds(ca. .5per-
also Rye 1981:54),andthatareenumerated above. cent)inthe386-sherd sample.Theyconsistofvery
Theseincludethesharpdiscontinuity oftheslipclay finecalcitecrystalsandminoramountsof quartz,
fromthebodyclay,a particlesize distribution pre- clay,andsilt(Figure2D). On one vessel,thecrys-
dominated byclayand silt-sized particles, andthe talsarewellpackedandorganized, as iftheypre-
paucity orlackofthekindsoftemper particles added cipitated onthevessel.Onthesecondvessel(Figure
tothevesselbody.(2) Noneofthesurface coatings 2D), thecalcitecrystals arejumbledin theirorien-
identified as slipshas a gradient ofparticletexture tationandnotso tightly packed,as iftheyhadbeen
and/or composition thatforms a continuum fromits applied.Inbothcases,thecoatingsarelong,contin-
outersurfaceto thevesselbody,whichifpresent uouslayers. Thedeposits havea maximum thickness
wouldindicate a floatedsurfacewherefineparticles of0.3 mm.
havebeenseparated andraisedfrom thevesselbody. Theinterpretationofthefirstvessel'scalcitecoat-
(3) Floated surfacesand slips were easily and ingas a precipitate from thesurrounding soilisprob-
modallydistinguished from eachotherbytheabove lematic.In moistclimates, suchas thatinOhio,soil
criteria.(4) The examplesclassified as slipsversus calciumgenerally takesformsthatarehighlysolu-
floatsagreeintheirfeatures withthosefoundpetro- ble andflushed fromthesoilbygroundwater(Carr
graphically byDittert intheethnographically known 1982:160).It is possiblethatthecalcitecoatingon
slippedversusfloatedpotteryof contemporary atleastthesecondvesselrepresents theattempts of
Southwestern NativeAmericantribes.(5) Cord- a Woodlandpotter tousefinely ground limestone to
marked vesselsthatwereidentified as havingslips, makea largelyimpermeable coating.Such a coat-
whichoccuroverthecordmarking, didnotexhibit ingmighthaveenhancedtheliquid-holding capa-
intercord peaks of thebody clay thathad been bilityof a cookingvessel or the soil-waterand
rounded off,whichwouldhavebeenthecase ifthe humidity restrainingcapabilitiesofa storage vessel.
bodyclayhadbeenrubbedwitha wethandorsim- Calciteistheprimary constituentoflimestone, which
ilartooltoproducea float. is a commonrockthatwas availableto potters in
south-central Ohio. Finelygroundlimestoneis a
ApatiteCoatings ofnatural cement
majoringredient (versusPortland)
Thesewerefoundononlytwosherds(ca. .5percent) (ASTM 1955:1,24).Whenfirstwettedand subse-
in the386-sherdsample.Theyare amberto light quentlydesiccated,finelygroundlimestonewill
olive-coloredsurfaceswithveryfine,pseudo- harden intoa durableandlargely impermeable layer,
isotropic grains.Thegrainscouldnotbe notidenti- suchas thatfoundonatleastoneoftheOhiosherds.
fiedpetrographically, as theydid not resemble Roundedvoids,possiblyindicating quartzgrains
developedapatitecrystals in igneousrock;instead, pluckedfromthecalcitecoatingduring itsthinsec-
theywereidentified bytheircomposition usingan tioning(Figure2D), mayhavebeenincidental, or

purposefully added,as mineralaggregates (espe- dehydrated duringfiring (e.g.,Franklin andVitale

ciallysand)arecommonly addedtocementtopro- 1985). (2) The slipshavelesseramountsof anhy-
duceconcrete. drous,coarse-sizequartzand feldspargrainsthan
theirassociatedceramicbodies.Although carewas
ChemicalStudies takenintheelectron microprobe analysestoaimthe
To further characterize thesurfacematerials ofthe probebeamtowardareasofthepastelackingthese
Ohioceramics studied here,10sherds wereanalyzed grains, itis likelythatsomewereincluded, andthat
forthechemistry oftheirsurface materials andbod- fewerwereincluded intheassaysoftheslips,where
iesbyelectron microprobe techniques.7 Sevenexam- theyarelessabundant, thanintheassaysofthesherd
ples withslips,twowithcalcitecoatings,and one bodies,wheretheyaremoreabundant. Thispattern
withanapatite coating (Table1)wereselected. Spec- agreeswiththeidentification ofthesesurface mate-
imenstypicalof thesecategoriesin theirpetro- rialsas slips.
graphically observable characteristicswerechosen. A secondpattern foundinTable1 is thatmostof
Pointrather thanbroad,rasteranalysesweremade thesurface materials havelowersilicacontents than
inorder toavoidtemper particles
andtofocusonclay theirassociatedsherdbodies.The lowersilicacon-
constituents oftheceramicpastesandsurface mate- tentsoffiveofthesevenslipsrelative totheirbod-
rials,orcalciteorapatite coatings whererelevant. The ies mostlikelyreflects thelowerfractional volume
elemental assays,expressed inweight percent oxide, ofcoarser-grained quartzandfeldspar particlesinthe
werenormalized to 100percent toeliminate several slips,andthelowerprobability ofhitting themwhile
extraneous factors (Table1,footnote), as is custom- probingthesherds.Again,thisresultaccordswith
aryin mineralogical and ceramicresearch.Raw, theidentification of thesurfacematerials of these
unnormalized percent totalsalso arereported. sevensherdsas slips,whichhavefiner texture than
Thechemical composition ofthesherd bodiesand theirassociatedvesselbodies.The low silicacon-
slipsareplottedinFigure3, whereoxidesofmajor tentsof thethreecalciteand apatitecoatingsstem
rockandmineral-forming elements (Ti,Al,Fe,etc.) fromthenon-silicate natureof calciteand apatite.
aregraphed against themostabundant oxideinrocks, Theminoramounts ofSiO2inthesecoatingsprob-
clays,and ceramics,SiO2. Such plots,knownas ablyresultfromtheadmixture of quartz,feldspar,
Harkerdiagrams,are commonlyemployedin andclayfrom thesherdbodyorthesoilinwhichthe
igneousgeologyto visuallycomparethecomposi- sherdwas buried.
tionofmultiple samplesofrocksofseveraltypesthat The thirdpattern in Table 1 andFigure3 is the
arerelatedstratigraphically or otherwise. The dia- generaloverlapinthecompositions oftheslipsand
gramsareequallyvaluableandfullyanalogousfor sherdbodies.Thispattern corroborates twoconclu-
visuallycomparing multiple samplesofceramicof sionsdrawnfrom petrographic observations: (1) The
several kinds-heretwokinds, theslipclayandbody slipsweremadewithrawclayfrom thesamesource
clay. as thevesselbody,butwithout theaddition oftem-
per,and/or withthesievingoftheslipclay;and(2)
DiscussionoftheChemicalData wereadded,withthepossibleexcep-
no colorants
Inspection ofTable1 andFigure3 revealsa number tionof twosherdsthathavehighmanganesecon-
ofpatterns. First,mostofthesurface materials have centrations (see below).
lowerrawunnormalized percenttotalsthantheir cor- The similarity oftheslipsto theirvesselbodies
responding sherdbodies.Thelowerrawtotalsofthe incomposition andtheirlackofaddedcolorants in
surfacematerials reflect theirhavingmorevolatile mostifnotall cases,alongwithethnographic infor-
constituents (mostly H20, butforsomesamplesalso mation, suggest thattheslipsmayhavebeenapplied
C02). Two explanations of thissituation are most forsomepractical purpose, ratherthanaesthetic rea-
likely.8(1)Theslipsandcalciteandapatitecoatings sons.Arnold(1985) foundcross-culturally thatdec-
mayhavebeenmorerehydrated thantheceramic orativeslipandpaintmaterials areusuallyobtained
bodiesby groundwater whileburied.Even minor fromdifferent sourcesthantheclaysusedto make
amounts ofweathering ofa ceramic during burialcan their associated vessels,often atsignificantdistances
add modestamountsofH20 to itsoutermost layer fromthepotter's residence, ranging between2 and
by rehydration of some clay mineralspreviously 800km,andusuallygreater than10km.Incontrast,

REPORTS 329
byElectronMicroprobeAnalysis.a
Table 1. ChemicalCompositionofVesselBodies and SurfaceMaterialsas Determined
Sample 26-194 36-162 34-B47 40-EOI 28-C40

Element body slip body slip body slip body slip body slip
Sio2 58.78 61.60 57.61 54.18 55.08 51.77 62.48 60.86 58.80 55.11
TiO2 0.50 0.94 1.00 0.71 0.85 0.48 0.67 0.60 0.58 0.65
Al203 25.45 19.73 23.60 22.59 22.48 23.74 24.38 19.08 20.49 15.71
FeO 6.05 8.98 8.95 11.06 11.21 9.90 5.38 11.63 5.81 8.20
MnO .bdb 0.19 0.16 0.10 .bd 0.14 0.29 0.08 .bd 9.30
MgO 2.22 2.00 2.25 2.15 1.75 2.22 1.46 1.93 1.79 1.18
CaO 0.80 1.25 1.73 2.93 2.87 4.50 0.35 1.05 2.62 4.01
Na2O 0.27 0.25 0.43 0.25 0.44 0.36 0.23 0.21 0.45 0.20
K20 5.31 3.92 2.70 4.61 2.74 4.75 4.50 4.01 5.04 2.31
P205 0.63 1.13 1.56 1.41 2.58 2.15 0.27 0.54 4.42 3.33
Normalized
Total 100.01 99.99 99.99 99.99 100.00 100.01 100.01 99.99 100.00 100.00
Raw Total 90.54 75.16 86.60 72.93 80.35 71.32 82.46 84.95 86.04 69.64
....... ............... . ...... .... .. .... .... ..... ...... ........ .......... ...... ....
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Sample 32-A13c 33-A18 34-157 47-181 47-D06

apatite calcite calcite
Element body slip body slip body coating body coating body coating
Sio2 65.32 58.20 51.57 51.70 58.47 8.19 57.19 0.75 66.39 .bd
TiO2 0.43 0.32 0.90 0.86 0.93 0.06 1.41 .bd 0.43 .bd
Al2 3 18.73 20.02 25.78 16.87 23.33 5.62 18.53 .bd 19.32 .bd
FeO 6.48 7.36 10.08 8.84 5.73 1.42 15.33 0.12 5.96 .bd
MnO .bd .bd .bd 2.02 .bd 0.27 0.11 0.03 .bd .bd
MgO 1.80 3.00 2.48 3.23 2.21 3.93 2.10 1.48 2.06 0.99
CaO 2.11 5.68 2.75 7.15 3.35 44.60 1.59 57.02 1.90 55.97
Na2O 0.13 0.18 0.21 0.13 0.68 .bd 0.60 0.03 0.21 0.02
K2O 2.76 4.55 3.77 4.62 2.86 0.59 2.45 0.02 3.59 .bd
P205 2.21 0.69 2.48 4.58 2.46 35.32 0.69 0.42 0.15 0.22
Normalized
Total 99.97 100.00 100.02 100.00 100.02 100.00 100.00 . 100.01
Raw Total 94.11 62.63 91.31 71.18 89.59 69.23 81.34 59.87 96.01 57.20
aThe probedataareexpressedin termsofweightpercentoxide,as is customary in mineralogical
literature.Analysesofideal,
materialsproducerawtotalsof 100 percent,withabsoluteanalyticaluncertainties
volatile-free ideallyin therangeof ? 0.5
1.0 wt.percent.However,therawanalyticaltotalsforthesherdbodiesand surfacematerialsstudiedherevaryfrom57 to 96
percent.The low totalsresultfromseveraleffects, including:(1) theinabilityof theelectronmicroprobe to analyzeelements
oflow atomicweight(e.g., C andH in carbonateminerals, organicsubstances,as boundhydroxyls, or as molecularH20); (2)
themicroporosity of thearchaeologicalartifacts (Freestone1982), whichdecreasesthenumberof x-raysemittedfromthe
sampleduringanalysis;and (3) thefine-grained natureof thematerials,whichenhancesabsorption of emittedx-rays.Thus,
all analyses,exceptthoseforcalcitecoatings,are normalizedto 100 percent(Freestone1982), in orderto facilitatecompar-
isonsamongsamples.By normalization is meantthattheweightpercentoxidevaluesof a givensample(tablecolumn)have
beenproportionally increasedso as to sumto 100 percent.Calcitecoatingsarenotnormalizedbecausetheirrawanalysescan
be directlycomparedwiththeideal compositionof calcite.
Normalization is theoretically
appropriate forcomparing multiplesamples,so longas therelativedegreesofabsorption or
emissionof generatedx-raysof variouswavelengths, pertaining to variouselements,remainsequal acrosssamples,despite
any differences in theirmicroporosity. This conditionseems to characterize thisanalysis.No significant (i.e., data pattern
altering)correlations werefoundbetweentheraw totalsof samples(measuresof absorptiondue in partto samplemicrop-
orosity)andtheirnormalizedpercentconcentrations forthe10 elementsassayed.A smallbias of 2.5-3.0 percentmaypertain
to thecalciumlevelsof a fewsampleswithrawtotalsbelow72 percent(i.e., highermicroporosity).
bbd = belowdetectablelevelof about0.03 wt.percent.
c Sherdbody32-A13 also contains0.03 wt.percentCr203.
themajority of claysused forvesselbodieswere materials

toobtaindecorative forceramics.TheOhio
gathered fromsourceslessthan5 kmfromthepot- Woodlandslipsexamined heredo notappeartofol-
withmanysourceslessthan2 kmdis-
ter'sresidence, low thisethnographicpattern,possiblyindicating
areoftenmadein order
tance.Thus,specialefforts thandecorative
theirhavinghad a practicalrather

T b FG a-0
0.0 I C0 F
c XN e . g e
0.5 au0 D)[>t
I ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~ I I .I
I I
I
II I -
T-
12 C ae d 1 C e
B f
g B F
15A1203 G E D 0 E F
a Na 0
8 b E F A 3 b Ef
FeG a KG~dNa
12~~~
25 b
0.4
Lv
~~~~~~~~~25
0.6 ~~~~~~~03 E
e~~~~~~~~~
0.4 ~~~~~~D 02 C 47
0.0 g1F ~~~D f a~d

G FEt %SO
2 tQ $ > r:> 0 E0.2lgnationOd
25 AlExpl3naton
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
0 ~~~~~ ~~~~ I I II I IIII
Wt.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
SiI
I0
45 50 55 60 6
WtB B
Figure 3. Harker diagrams for normalizedanalyticalvalues. WeightpercentSiO2 is plottedagainst weightpercent

oxides of othermajor elements.For the most part, slips and theirassociated sherd bodies overlap compositionally.
Lines connectassociated slips (capital letters)and sherd bodies (lowercaseletters).Lettersreferto the followingsam-
ples: A = 26-194; B = 36-162; C = 34-B47; D = 40-EO1; E = 28-C40; F = 32-A13; G = 33-A18.
purpose.Thisissueis weighedfurther,
below,with bodypairsshowminordifferences in composition
contextual
data. thatareunpatterned,
varyingfromvesseltovessel.
A fourthcharacteristic
ofthedatais thattheslip- Thisis evident
inFigure3, wherethelinesconnect-

REPORTS 331
ing theelementalcompositions of slipsand their boundaries ofthecoatings(see above),andthelack

associatedbodiesvaryin lengthandorientation by ofapatiteprecipitates fillingvoidspaceswithin the
vesselforanygivenelement. Thislackofpatterningbodiesofthevessels.The origin(s)ofthecoatings
isbestexplained bynatural heterogeneitiesintheraw remainunclear.
clay,whichslightly andrandomly distinguish each Otherpatterns inTable1andFigure1 arelessrel-
slipfrom itsassociatedvesselbody.Thepattern also evantto thenatureof thesurfacecoatings,them-
accordswiththeinterpretation thatslipswerepro- selves.9
ducedfromthesameclaysas theirassociatedves-
selbodies. ContextualStudies
A fifth datapattern in Table 1 concernsman- The natureof theslipsand othersurfacecoatings
ganeseoxidecontents. Manganeseis a minorcom- wereelucidated furtherbystudying variousaspects
ponentin all of thesherdbodiesand mostof the of theircontexts: theirfrequenciesand time-space
surfacematerials. It rangesin concentration from distributions (Table2, Figure4), theirlocationson
belowdetectable limits to0.29wt.percent. However, vessels,andthesizesandestimated functions ofthe
intwoslips,on sherds28-C40and33-A18,MnO is vesselson whichtheyoccur.Severaltechno-func-
muchmoreabundant, comprising 9.30 and2.02 wt. tionalandculture-historical patternsareclear,as now
percent, respectively.In thesesamples,Mn resides described.
ina veryfine-grained (< 3.0 pmdiameter), dissem-
Frequencyand Time-SpaceDistribution
inatedphase.Thesmallgrainsizeprecluded identi-
ficationof thephase.It is unclearif theelevated Slips and otherapparently intentionally-produced
MnOcontents ofthesetwoslipsrepresent theinten- coatingson ceramicsarea commoncomponent of
tionaladditionofa manganese(black)colorant, or OhioWoodlandandearlyFortAncientceramics-
ifMn-rich clayswereunintentionally exploited. muchmorecommonthanarchaeological literature
Sixth,theanalysesofthecalcitecoatings inTable on theceramicsoftheMidwestUnitedStates(see
1 revealthattheircompositions are veryclose to above)wouldleadonetoexpect.Ofthe386 vessels
idealcalcite(CaCO3),whichis 56.0wt.percent CaO sampled, 38 haveslips,2 possiblyhaveslips,4 have
and 44.0 wt.percentCO2. Minorchemicalvaria- washes,1possibly hasa wash,and1hasa paint, total-
tionsfromtheseidealsmostlikelyarisefrommin- ing46 vessels,or11.9percent withintentional coat-
eralogicalimpurities (quartzand clay),fromsolid ings.An additional 2 vesselshavecalcitecoatings
solutionprocesses(i.e., theminorreplacement of thatmayhavebeenintentionally applied,makinga
Ca2+ byMg2+and/or Fe2+in thecrystal structureof total48 vessels,or12.4percent ofthesample.Forty-
calcite),andfromtheinclusion ofsmallamounts of fivevessels(11.6 percent)haveor probablyhave
calciumphosphate (Freestone etal. 1985). uncoloredslipsorwashes.Theonevesselwitha paint
Seventh,the amber-colored coatingconsists comprises 0.26 percent ofthesample,whichcom-
mostly ofapatite,Ca5(PO4)3(OH,Cl,F). Apatiteis a pareswellwiththe0-1 percent frequency ofcolor-
commonbutminorconstituent ofmanyrocks,and slipped or washed ceramicsthatare typically
is theprincipalinorganic constituent of bone and reported forWoodlandthrough earlyFortAncient
teeth.It was initially thought thatapatitecoatings timesinOhioandtheMidwest'.(Weexcludefrom
mightrepresent granulated bonymaterial thatwas thesecountsfloated surfaces,whicharenotcoatings,
deposited on vesselinteriors duringthecookingof andapatite coatings, whichmaynothavebeeninten-
foodsortheprocessing ofrawmaterials. However, tionally produced.)
bothexamplesofthecoatings occurontheexteriors Theproportion ofvesselshavingorlikelyhaving
ofvessels,andcontextual data(see below)suggest uncolored slipsandwashesinthesample,11.6per-
thatthevesselsprobably werenotusedforcooking. cent,is probablya reasonableestimate of thepro-
Thesuggestion thattheapatitecoatings precipitatedportion of all vesselswithslipsin thecomponents
ontheexterior ofthevesselswhenbonewas soaked studied. Thesherdsexamined herewereselectedso
in them,inpreparation forworking bone,is ethno- as tomaximizetherepresentation ofceramicvaria-
graphically reasonable(Carr1982:236-237,Table tionalonga largenumber ofdimensions (seeabove),
32; Semenov1964:159).However, theideadoesnot andthustomaximizethenumber ofpotters respon-
seemlikely,giventhedistinct formof theinternal sibleforthevessels.

c >
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REPORTS 333
25-
Slips and washes
20
15
CD 10-
C-
5-
0
10
C Paints
2 5~
0) I
EW MW ELW LLW FA
Figure 4. Distributionof surfacematerialsby archaeological time period. In particular,the percentagesof sampled
sherdsfromthe Early Woodland (EW), Middle Woodland (MW), Early Late Woodland (ELW), Late Late Woodland
(LLW), and early FortAncient(FA) periodsthathave slips,washes,and paints.
The commonality ofslipsandwashesinWood- Onlyfourcomponents wererepresented bysamples

landandearlyFortAncient componentscanbemea- of 11 ormoresherdsandwouldbe expected, prob-
suredinwaysotherthanvesselfrequency. Ofthe57 tohave1 ormorevesselswithslips,but
ablistically,
proveniences sampledfortheirceramics,22 (38.6 didnot:Florence(n = 15),MoundCityAssociation
percent) haveoneormorevesselswithslipsorpos- 64 (n = 17),MoundCityAssociation 65 (n = 31),and
sible slips,and 3 (5.3 percent)additionalprove- W.S. Cole (n = 14). None of thethreesitescom-
nienceshaveone or morevesselswithwashesor prisedbythesecomponents shareanycommon loca-
possiblewashes,totaling 25 proveniences
(43.9per- tion,age,orcultural affiliation.
cent).Ofthe23 archaeological components consid- Thecomponents withvesselsbearinguncolored
ered,13 (56.5 percent)haveone or morevessels slipsandwashes,orprobableones,10 arelocatedin
withslipsorpossibleslips.Threecomponents have a variety ofgeomorphic contexts,in all adequately
vesselswithwashesorpossiblewashes,buttheyare sampled riverdrainages,
includingthecentral Scioto;
amongthe13thathavevesselswithslips.Morethan itstributaries-Paint Creek,DarbyCreek,and the
halfofthe10 archaeological components foundto Olentangy River;andtheLicking.11Thewidespread
lackvesselswithslipsarerepresented
byonlya small distributionofvesselswithslipshelpstoaffirm them
sampleof sherds:Mabel Hall (n = 2), Toephner (n as products ofhumanintention ratherthanprocesses
= 1), Darby Dan (n = 3), Decco Association4 (n = ofnature.
7), Decco Association1 (n = 2), andGreencamp (n Uncoloredslips and washesvaryin theirfre-
= 4). It is notpossibleto inferwhetherthesecom- quenciesovertheEarlyWoodlandthrough theearly
ponentsactuallylackvesselswithslips,orwhether FortAncientperiods,rangingbetween0 and 18.4
theobserved absencerelates sampling. percent(Table2; Figure4). The temporal
toinadequate distribu-

tionoffrequencies oftheuncolored slipsandwashes beginning, ofitsdevelopment inOhio,atleast.Trac-

generally followstheknowntemporal distributioning thetime-spacedistribution of thistraitmight
ofcolor-slipped orcolor-washed waresinOhio.The provea usefulmeansforunraveling thequestionof
uncoloredslipsand washesdocumented hereare thepath(s)of diffusion of pottery makingintothe
mostcommonin theMiddleWoodland(18.4 per- northern EasternUnitedStates(c.f.manyauthors in
cent),rareorabsentintheLateWoodland, andrise Farnsworth andEmerson1986;Peterson andHamil-
in popularity againat theone earlyFortAncient ton1984).
periodsitesampled(16.7percent) (Figure4). Color- Calcitecoatingsarefound onlyintheEarlyWood-
slippedceramicsarefoundinOhioduring theMid- land,andatonesite(Florence). Itmaybe significant
dleWoodland, areunknown fortheLateWoodland, thatatFlorence, slipsarenotfound, despitetheade-
and again are foundin theFortAncientPeriod, quatesizeofthesampleofstudied vesselsfrom there
although less commonly thanintheMiddleWood- (n= 15).Perhaps calcitecoatingswereusedatFlorence
land(see above).The generally paralleltemporal as a functionalequivalent toclayslipselsewhere.
distributionsof uncoloredand coloredslipscould
implythatuncoloredslipswereapplied,at leastin SlipLocation,VesselSize,and VesselFunction
part,fora decorativepurpose-to help createa Thepossiblereason(s)whyuncolored slips,washes,
smooth, aesthetically pleasingvesselsurface. Con- andcalcitecoatings wereappliedtovesselsareclar-
textualdata patterns supportthishypothesis (see ified,somewhat, by considering theirlocationson
below).Atthesametime,slipsandwashesmayalso, vessels,thesizesofthevessels,andtheirevaluated
oralternatively, haveservedtodecreasetheperme- functions. Fivepossiblereasonsforapplication are
abilityofa vessel'swalls(Rice 1987:232;Shepard assessedhere:(1) tocreatea smooth decorative sur-
1976)and/or tocreatea smooth surface thatwaseas- face;(2) tocoverthecoarserpasteofa vessel'swalls
ierto clean.A hintat thesealternative functions is witha finer,smoother surface thatis easiertoclean;
raisedbythefactthatuncolored slipswerefoundon (3) to decreasethepermeability ofa vessel'swalls
7.0 percent of theEarlyWoodlandvesselsand 8.1 forthisdirectend;(4) todecreasethepermeability
percent oftheEarlyLateWoodlandvesselsexam- ofa cookingvessel'swallsinordertoindirectly alter
ined,yetno coloredslipsorwasheswerefoundon theirsusceptibility to thermalshock;and (5) to
studiedvesselsoftheseages,andnonearereported decreasethepermeability ofa cookingvessel'swalls
in theliterature on EarlyWoodlandandEarlyLate inordertoincrease theheating effectiveness ofa ves-
WoodlandceramicsfromOhio.Thus,atleastEarly sel.Mostoftheseideasarenotmutually exclusive.
Woodland andEarlyLateWoodland uncolored slips, Decoration.Theideathatatleastsomeslipsand
andperhaps thosefrom otherperiods, mayhavebeen washesweredecorative is supported byfourdatapat-
appliedforpurposes otherthandecoration. Thispos- terns,beyondthetemporalinformation discussed
also is investigated
sibility further,below. above.First,theyare locatedmostcommonly on
itisculture-historically
Finally, significantthatthe onlytheexterior ofvessels(n = 21; 46.6 percent of
slippedvesselsfrom EarlyWoodlandcontexts occur 45 slippedor washedvessels),wheretheywould
on early,thickvarieties probably havinga barrelor havehada visualimpact,oron bothsides(n = 13;
flower-pot form, andoccurin4 proveniences, some 28.9 percent). Theyare locatedless frequently on
withearlydates:Continental Construction Associa- onlytheinterior (n = 8; 17.8percent) oron aninde-
tions 40 and 42, 1150 B.C. ? 100 (calibrated terminable side(n = 3; 6.7 percent) ofa vessel.
1390/1330 B.C.; ETH 3312);DominionLandCom- Second,ofthe45 vesselsthatwerefoundtobear
panyAssociation56B, 490 B.C. ? 100 (calibrated slipsorwashes,12(26.7percent) areelaborated util-
510/430B.C.; ETH 3071); PhillipSmithAssocia- itarianwaresshowingotherextraattention to sur-
tion48A,410 B.C. ? 90 (calibrated 400 B.C.; ETH facetreatment and/or bodyform.This26.7 percent
3481); andPhillipSmithAssociation49A+B, 335 is disproportionately highcompared tothepercent-
B.C. ? 100(calibrated 380 B.C.; ETH 3310).All of age ofthetotalsampleof386 vesselscomprised of
thesedateshavebeenevaluated as acceptable(Carr elaborated utilitarianwares(3.1 percent), indicating
andHaas 1996).Thus,itwouldappearthatthetech- a significant association between slipsorwashesand
nique of slippingpottery was an integralpartof elaborated utilitarianvessels.
ceramictechnology fromthebeginning, ornearthe Third,ofthe12elaborated utilitarianvesselswith

REPORTS 335
slipsorwashes,itcouldbe determined petrograph-washesbearsmacroscopic indicators ofhavingbeen

icallyfor10whether thecoating occurredontheexte- heatedandusedforcooking;theylackmacroscopic
riororinterior surface.In 8 outof10 (80 percent) of carbondepositson theirinteriors and exteriors,
thesecases,thecoatingoccurred whereit affected delaminated walls,andspallmarks. Thus,itappears
thevisualappearanceof thevessel:on eitherthe thatduringtheearlyFortAncientperiod,slipsand
exterior surface,orboththeexterior andinterior sur- washesdidnothavetheprimary function ofmaking
faces,ofthevessel. thesurfaces ofcookingorothervesselsmoreclean-
Finally,of 34 vesselsobservedto haveslipsor able,as dietshifted towarda focuson maize.The
washeson theirexterior surfaces,26 (76.5 percent) lackofa predisposition forslipsandwashestohave
havesuchcoatings overrough, cordmarked surfaces, beenappliedtointerior surfaces inearlier timessup-
notplainsurfaces as one mightexpect.Applying a portsthisconclusion forthosetimes,as well.
slip,or less likelya wash,to a cordmarked vessel VesselWallPermeability. Thehypothesis thatslips
couldhavebeena stylistic alternativetopartialhand- andwasheswereappliedtodecreasevesselwallper-
smoothing thesurface,ormayhavebeena meansfor meability as an endinitselfis supported bydataon
givinga vessela culturally-appropriate tintorshade. thesize andtheprobablefunction(s) ofthestudied
An uncounted butsignificant numberof slipsare vessels.In particular, minimizing wallpermeability
lighter incolorthantheirassociatedvesselbodies. isessential toa long-term, drystorage vessel,inorder
The practices ofcordmarking a vesselandthen toexcludeoutsideairhumidity orsoilwater(ifthe
putting a sliporwashovertherough-textured sur- potis placedwithina pit)fromthecontents ofthe
facemayseematodds,buthasanalogselsewhere in vessel.Minimizing wall permeability maybe less
theEasternUnitedStates.In thenorthern Yazoo crucialtonewcookingvesselsthatareuseda short
basin,intheDoorandTwinLakephasesoftheearly time (a few hours) forboiling and simmering
Marksville Period,redwasheswereplacedoverves- (Tankersley andMeinhart 1962:230),andbecomes
selsdecorated byincisingandsixdifferent kindsof less important through thelifetime of thecooking
stamps(BelmontandWilliams1981:23). vesselas itswallporesbecomecloggedwithfood
Thefactthatslipsandwasheswereappliedtothe residuesandsoot.Minimizing wallpermeability is
interiors of21 (46.6percent) ofthe45 vesselsbear- unnecessary forcookingvesselsusedtoroastfoods,
ingthemindicates thatsomeofthesecoatingswere andisdisadvantageous forthoseusedtosteamfoods.
appliedforotherthandecorative purposes. Wenow Thesegeneralizations beingtrue, ifprehistoric Ohio
examinefourotherpossibilities. pottersappliedfine-grained, closed-pore slipsand
Cleaning.The hypothesis thatslipsandwashes washestovesselwallsatleastinparttodecreasetheir
wereintended to forma smoother, morecleanable permeability, one wouldexpectto findslips and
surface losesfavorwhenthelocationofslipsis con- washesmorefrequently ondrystoragevesselsthan
sideredby timeperiod.The onlyperiodin which on cookingvessels.Thispattern seemsto holdfor
there is a predispositionforslipstobelocatedonone theOhiovesselsstudied.On thebasisofa number
particular vesselsurfaceis theearlyFortAncient. offunctional itappearsthat29 ofthe45
criteria,12
This was a timewhengreaterdietaryimportance vessels(64 percent) withslipsorwasheswereused
wasplacedonmaize,whichwascookedbyboiling, forstorage. Ofthe36vesselsthathaveslipsorwashes
andwhichresulted ingreater percentages ofpotsthat andthatareofa moderate diameter (25-45 cm)use-
becamecarbon-caked ontheir interiorsthanhadpots fulforcooking, soakingmaterials, orstorage, 27 (75
inprevious ages.Theceramiccollections from large percent)appearto havebeenusedfordrystorage.
FortAncientvillagesbear out thispattern(Carr Thesedataaccordwiththehypothesis thatslipsand
1985).In thissituation, one wouldexpectslipsor washeswereappliedtothestudiedvessels,at least
washestohavebeenplacedon atleasttheinteriors sometimes, todecreasetheir wallpermeability as an
ofvessels,ifthesecoatingswereintended tomake endinitself.
vesselsmoreeasilycleanable.However,of the24 Further support fortheidea can be foundin the
vesselsdatingtothisperiod,nonehas interior slips factthatslipsandwashesoccuron eithertheinte-
or washes.All fourof thevesselshavingslipsor rioror exterior or bothsidesof vesselsthought to
washeshavethemon theirexterior surfaces, alone. havebeenusedforstorage. Thisempirical distribu-
In addition, noneof thefourvesselswithslipsor tionagreeswiththelogicthat,tokeepthecontents

of a storagevesseldry,it does notmatter whether term enhancement ofa pottery-vessel'sthermal effi-

theinteriorortheexterior ofthevesselismadeimper- ciency. Exteriorslipping canenhancea vessel'sther-
meableby slippingor washing.In contrast, which malefficiency temporarilyalmostas muchas interior
side(s)andthenumber ofsidesofa cookingvessel slipping, butis counteracted bythespallingthatis
thatareslippedhas a markedeffect on itsthermal encouragedby theexterior slip. Internalslipping
efficiency and its susceptibility to thermalshock increases thermalefficiencywithout causingspalling
(Schiffer 1990;Schiffer etal. 1994). (Schiffer 1990:378).
Italsois perhapssignificant thatofthe34 vessels
withslipsorwashesontheir exteriorsurfaces, a high CalciteCoatingLocations,VesselSize,and
percentage (78.8percent) havesuchcoatings placed VesselFunction
overcordmarks. Forming a vesselwallwitha cord- Bothvesselswithcalcitecoatings havethemontheir
wrappedpaddlehas theeffectof pushingtemper exterior surfaces,following themostcommonpat-
particlesto thecenterofthewall,raisingthefiner- ternforclayslipsandwashes.Thissituation supports
grained, closed-pore claymatrix tothesurface (Rye theidearaisedearlierbythetime-space distribution
1981:85;personalobservation onpetrographic thin ofcalcitecoatings, thattheycouldhavebeena func-
sections),compacting thepaste(Rice1987:137),and tionalequivalent toclayslips.In addition, likemost
insmallstresscracksthatarisewhenshaping vesselswithclayslips,thetwoexampleswithcal-
filling
thewall(Holstein1973:78,81),thusmakingitless citecoatingslackmacroscopic evidenceofhaving
permeable to liquids.Placinga sliporwashovera beenusedforcookingor otherheatingtasks.This
cordmarked surface canbe seenas anadditional step pattern, inconjunction withtheconcrete-like phys-
thatwastakentoaugment vesselwallimpermeabil-ical natureof thecoatings(see above),supports a
itybeyondthatalreadybegunwithcord-wrappedmorespecific idea,thatcalcitecoatings,likeslipsand
paddling. washes,mayhavebeenappliedto drystorageves-
ThermalShock.The idea thatslipsand washes selstodecreasethepermeability oftheirwalls.The
wereappliedtocookingvesselstodecreasetheper- sizeofthevesselsdoesnotsupport orrefute thisinter-
meability oftheirwalls,in orderto indirectly alter pretation: bothof thevesselswithcalcitecoatings
thesusceptibility oftheirwallstothermal shock,is have mediumsizes thatwouldhave made them
notwellsupported bytheavailabledata.As previ- usableforstorageora variety ofothertasks.
ouslynoted, mostofthevesselswithslipsandwashes
ApatiteCoatings
appeartohavebeenusedfordrystorage rather than
cooking.Also,slipsandwasheswereplacedinsig- Apatitecoatingswereobservedon two vessels,
nificantpercentages ontheexterior as wellas theinte- whichdatetotheEarlyWoodland andMiddleWood-
riorsurfacesof the studiedvessels. In contrast, land.In bothcases,thecoatingsoccuron exterior
protecting cookingvesselsconsistently from thermal surfaces ofvessels.TheEarlyWoodlandvesselhas
shockthrough slippingrequires thatoneortheother a mediumsize (26 cmindiameter) thatwouldhave
surfacebe systematically coated.Whichsurface beenmanageableforeithercookingor storage.It
shouldbe slippeddepends onwhether thermal crack- bearsnomacroscopic indicatorsofhavingbeenused
ingorthermal spallingis moreproblematic (Schif- withheat.TheMiddleWoodland vesselhasa flatbot-
feretal. 1994),giventhekindsandsizesoftemper tomandis large-at least53 cmin diameter-and
used,andtheformandthickness ofthevesselwalls. bearsnomacroscopic signsofhavingbeenusedfor
Thermal Efficiency.Thehypothesis thatslipsand cookingorotherheatingtasks.Thesetraits suggest
washeswereaddedto cookingvesselsto decrease a stationary vesselthatwasusedmostlikelyfordry
thepermeability oftheirwalls,in orderto increase storage.
theirthermal efficiency,also is notwell supported
bythedata.Again,most(64 percent) ofthevessels Conclusions
withslipsor washesappearto havebeenusedfor Ouranalysisofa verylargesampleofWoodland and
drystoragerather thancooking.Also,abouthalf(n earlyFortAncientvesselsfortheirsurfacemateri-
= 21; 46.7 percent)of the45 vesselswithslipsor als hasa number offindings thatareculture-histor-
washeshave themexclusivelyon theirexteriors, icallyandmethodologically significant.
whereasinternal slipping is preferable forthelong- (1) Uncolored slips,washes,andother apparently

REPORTS 337
intentionally producedcoatingswereaddedtoutil- seemto havebeenmadeof thesamerawclaysas

itarianvesselsfromprimarily domesticcontexts in theirassociatedvesselbodies,butusuallywithnone
significant percentages during theWoodland through orlittleofthetemper thatwas addedtothebodies,
earlyFortAncient periodsinsouth-central Ohio(ca. and/or withtheseivingof naturalstoneinclusions
1150B.C.-A.D. 1300).Allslipsdocumented inpre- fromtheslipclay.Petrographic andelectron micro-
viousarchaeological literature fortheEastarecol- probestudiesofthevesselssuggestthis.
ored,and mostare on finelymadevesselsof the (8) Itappearsthatuncolored slipsandwasheswere
kindsmostcommonly foundinmortuary contexts. applied,atleastinpart,forthedecorative purposeof
(2) The uncoloredslipsand washesfoundhere creating a smooth vesselsurface. Thishypothesis is
occurinmuchgreater frequencies thanthoseofcol- supported bythefactsthatuncolored slipsandwashes
oredslipsandwashesdocumented in thepre-Mis- are distributed in timesimilarto coloredslipsand
sissippian MidwestorEastern UnitedStatesatlarge. washesinOhio,thatslipsaremostcommonon the
Uncolored slipsandwasheswerefoundon 11.6per- exterior surfaces ofvessels,andthatslipsarefound
centofthe386 vesselsexamined, in43.9percent of indisproportionately highpercentages onelaborated
the57 archaeological proveniences sampled,andin utilitarian vesselsshowing otherforms ofextraatten-
at least56.5 percent ofthe23 archaeological com- tiontosurface treatment and/or bodyform.
ponentsconsidered. In contrast, coloredslipsand (9) Uncoloredslipsand washesmayhavealso
washesrangefrom0 tolessthan5 percent ofmost beenappliedtovesselsfora nondecorative purpose,
Woodlandthrough LatePrehistoric ceramicassem- specifically to decreasevessel wall permeability.
blagesinOhioandtheEasternUnitedStates. Almosthalfof thevesselsbearingthesecoatings
(3) Theuncolored slipsandwashesoccurwithin havethemononlytheir interiors,whichwouldhave
widelyspreadarchaeological components locatedin beenpoorlyvisibleandless likelydecorated, oron
a varietyof geomorphic contextswithinall ade- boththeirinteriors andexteriors.Additionally, most
quatelysampledrivervalleys,including thecentral ofthevesselswithslipsorwasheslackmacroscopic
Scioto;itstributaries-Paint Creek,DarbyCreek,and indicators ofhavingbeenusedinheating tasks,and
theOlentangy River;andtheLickingRiver. weremorelikelyusedfordrystorage. Inthesecases,
(4) It appearsthatthetechnique ofslippingpot- closed-pore slipsandwashescouldhavebeenuse-
terybecamean integral partofceramictechnology fulin reducing vesselwallpermeability to outside
earlyinitsdevelopment inOhio,atleast.Uncolored air humidity, or to soil waterif thevesselswere
slips occuron theearliestpottery in our sample, placedwithinpits.Significantly, morethanthree-
datedtoca. 1150B.C. radiocarbon time,andinsig- fourths ofthevesselswithslipsorwasheshadthem
nificant percentages, averaging 7.0 percent,within placedovercordmarking, whichis another meansfor
EarlyWoodlandcomponents datingbetween500 reducingvessel wall permeability. Not supported
and300 B.C. TheseEarlyWoodlandvesselsareall weretheideasthatslipsandwasheswereappliedto
typologically "thick"varieties thatprobably had a cookingvesselstodecreasethepermeability oftheir
barrelorflower-pot shape. walls,thereby indirectly decreasing thesusceptibil-
(5) Thetemporal distribution ofgreaterandlesser ityoftheir wallstothermal shockandincreasing their
frequencies ofuncolored slipsandwashesinsouth- thermal efficiency.Someevidence wasfoundagainst
central Ohiogenerally followstheknowntemporal thehypothesis thatslipsandwasheswereappliedto
distribution ofcoloredslipsandwashesthere. makevesselcleaningeasier.These issuesrequire
(6) Thecommonness ofcoloredslipsandwashes further investigation.
insomeportions oftheSoutheast during theMiddle (10) Onlyone exampleof a paintedvesselwas
Woodland, LateWoodland, andLatePrehistoric peri- foundtheamongthe386 vesselsexamined.It was
ods, and the commonnessof uncolored slips paintedredandwas earlyFortAncientinage.This
throughout mostof theWoodlandand earlyFort .26 percent ofthesample,andtheredcolor,corre-
Ancientperiodsin south-central Ohio, impliesa spondswellwiththeminorincidence ofredorblack
greater continuity betweentheMidwestandSouth- paintedceramicsreported in theliterature forthe
eastUnitedStatesin ceramictechnology thanhas MiddleWoodlandthrough earlyFortAncientPeri-
previously beenrecognized. ods intheMidwestandupperOhioRivervalley.
(7) The uncoloredslipsand washesfoundhere (11) Calcitemayhavebeenaddedintentionally

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REPORTS 341
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Turnbow, C. A., andW.E. Sharp theelaboratedutilitarian vesselsare 25 to 35 cm in diameter
1988 Muir:AnEarlyFortAncientSite intheInnerBluegrass. and somebearcarbonizedorganicresidueson theirinteriors,
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net,Frankfort. to 20 cm diameter, HopewellSeriesvessels.In ceramictypo-
Vernon, R.,andA. S. Cordell logical terms,fortheMiddleWoodlandperiodforexample,
1993 A Distributional andTechnological StudyofApalachee
McGrawPlain,McGrawCordmarked, andtypologically sim-
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sionsofLa Florida,editedbyB. G. McEwan,pp.418-441. ilar vessels are definedhere as ordinary, utilitarianvessels
Walthall, J.A. and predominate the Middle Woodlandsample.Chillicothe
1980 PrehistoricIndiansof theSoutheast.University of Incisedvesselsare definedhereas elaboratedutilitarian ves-
AlabamaPress,University, Alabama. sels, onlyone exampleof whichis includedin the sample.
Willey,G. R. Otherkindsof elaborated,utilitarian MiddleWoodlandves-
1949 Archaeology of theFloridaGulfCoast. Smithsonian sels,suchas thosewithwidelyspaced,thincordmarks,have
MiscellaneousCollections113. Smithsonian Institution, no standardtypologicalname. No southeasternstamped
Washington, D.C. waresare includedin thesample.
5. Dittertwas trainedunder Anna Shepard, StanleyA.
Notes
Stubbs,and FlorenceEllis. He has a long recordof experi-
1. In the Mann site's village areas excavatedby Kellar in ence in workingwithslippedand unslippedceramicsin the
1966-1967, of 24,801 recoveredsherds,only 67 (0.3 per- SouthwestUnitedStates(e.g.,Dittert1987, 1991; Dittertand
cent)had red slips or washesovertheirentirety, and only 1 Plog 1980; Hedges and Dittert1984).
had a redslip or washwithinzones (Kellar 1979:103-105). 6. The lightercolorof some slip claysrelativeto bodyclays
2. Forexample,in MoundsA, B, andC oftheWeedenIsland does not appearto have been caused by oxidationdifferen-
McKeithensite,whichwere constructed betweenA.D. 350 tials duringfiring,because the color differencesbreak
and 500, of 60 vessels recovered,28 percentwereWeeden sharplyat the boundarybetweenthe slip and vessel body,
Island Red or Zoned Red. These weremade of nonlocalas ratherthanforma continuum of colorchange.It is possible
well as local clays(Milanichet al. 1984:123,161). The com- thatthedarkershadesof thevessel bodies resultfromtheir
pletelyred slippedvessels wereprimarily effigyformsand clayshavingbeenkneadedwithwaterenrichedin fineorgan-
werefoundpredominantly in MoundC, whichwas a burial ics, whichdarkenedthebodies upon firing.In contrast, the
mound.The zonedredvesselswereprimarily plateformsand slip wouldhavebeen producedwithoutorganically enriched
werefoundmainlyin MoundB, whichwas a headman'sres- water.Thishypothesis, whichcouldbe testedin partbyrefir-
idence.Bothof thesekindsof vesselswerefoundonlyvery ing thesherdsat a highertemperature thantheywereorigi-
rarely in the McKeithen village ceramic assemblage nallyfired(Rice 1987:344-345,427-428) was notexamined
(Milanich1994:185; Milanichet al. 1984:133, 161), consti- further. The presenceof organicadditivesor othercolorants
tutingthemas "mortuary" or"prestige"wares.In contrast,in in thequitedarkslips,likewise,was nottestedby refiring.
theMcKeithenvillagecomponent, whichdatesbetweenA.D. 7. The chemicalcompositionswere determined on a JEOL
200-750, completelyred slipped and zoned red slipped 733 electronmicroprobeanalyzerat Washington University
sherdsrespectively compriseonly2.5 percentand0.9 percent by one ofus (Kremser).An accelerating potentialof 15 kV,a
of the totalceramicassemblage,respectively(n = 13,164; beamcurrent of20 nA,anda beamdiameter spotsize of5 pm
Milanichet al. 1984:63). At theKolomokisite,red slipped were employedas operatingconditions.X-ray intensities
vesselscomprised8.8 and 11.5 percentofthesherdsfoundin wereconverted to oxideweightpercents usingtheprocedures
two large refusebasins (n = 3,837; Sears 1948:27-30; see ofBence andAlbee (1968) andAlbee andRay (1970). Simple
also Sears 1956:46). oxides and silicateswere used as standards.Each reported
The red slip of a WeedenIsland vessel can occuron its analysisis theaverageof threeor morespotanalyses.
exterior, interior, or both surfaces.Interiorslips are found 8. A thirdexplanationof the lower analyticaltotalsof the
moreso on plateanddishforms;exterior slipsoccurmoreso slips, in particular, is possible at least in theory.The slips
on beaker,jar, and bowl forms(Ann Cordell,personalcom- may retainmore hydrousphases than the vessel bodies
munication1997; Milanich et al. 1984:146-151; Sears because theslips werefiredafterthevessel bodies,at lower
1956:19;Willey1949:409-422). temperatures and/orforshortertimesthanthe bodies (i.e.,
3. The Mission Period saw the productionof Mission Red two-stage firing). Some roughly similar ethnographic
Filmedceramics(plates,and to a lesserextent,beakersand analogs(e.g., Fontanaet al. 1962:77-78), and otherceramic
jars), both fullypaintedand paintedwithinzones, in fre- indicatorsbeyondthescope of thisarticle,suggestthatthis
quenciesof ca. 1-5 percent.These ceramicswererelatedto idea shouldbe retainedfornow and investigated further.

9. The phosphoruscontentsof mostof thesherdsand slips 11. The main-streamOhio Rivervalleyis representedbyonly
are elevatedrelativeto most geologic materials.Common one site (Mabel Hall) withtwo sherds,none of whichhad
geologicalmaterialssuchas graniteand shalecontain0.1 to slips.
0.2 wt. percentP205 (e.g., Cox et al. 1979; Boggs 1987). 12. Of the45 vesselsfoundto have slipsor washes,two(4.4
Most soils containsimilaramountsof P2O5 butcontentsof percent)are large, having estimatedminimumdiameters
0.4 wt.percentP205 are notunusual(Bohn et al., 1985). In between55 and 60 cm. Theypresumably had thecommon,
contrast, theOhio sherdshaveP205 contentsfrom0.3 to 4.6 wide-mouthjar, Woodland form,and were so large and
wt.percent. immobilethattheymoreprobablywereused forstationary
The highpercentages of phosphorusin thesherdsdo not drystoragethanfortheprocessingofrawmaterialsrequiring
reflectthephosphoruscontentsof local lithologicmaterials soakingand/or heating,or othertasksinvolvingvesselmove-
and theirderivative clays.The geologyof southernOhio is ment.Neitherofthesevesselshas theabove-listed indicators
predominated by commonsedimentary rocksand glacialtill. of havingbeen heatedor used forcooking.The majorityof
It also is unlikelythattheelevatedphosphoruslevels in the the45 vesselswithslipsor washes(n = 36; 80.0 percent)are
sherdsand slips derivefromenrichedphosphoruslevels in medium-sized, having estimated minimum diameters
thesoilsin whichtheywereburied.It is truethatphosphorus between25 and45 cm.They,also,probablyhadthecommon
is an important elementofbiologicactivity and itscontentis wide-mouthed jar, Woodlandform,but were manageable
frequently elevatedin areas of humanhabitationand waste enoughin size thattheycouldhavebeenused fora varietyof
disposal(Carr1982:109-115).However,thevastmajority of tasks,includingcooking,processingof rawmaterials,or dry
phosphorus in soils is insoluble,boundas iron,aluminum, or storage.However,27 of these36 vessels (75.0 percent)lack
manganesecompounds,or organicsubstances.Instead,it macroscopicindicators ofhavingbeen used in heatingtasks,
wouldappearthattheelevatedP205 contentsoftheslipsand and againseemto havebeenused fordrystorage.
sherdbodies resultfromthe cookingof organicsubstances
withinthevessels.This sourceofenrichment has beendocu-
mentedfortheceramicsof otherregions(Duma 1972).
10. The terms,slipsandwashes,andtheircounts,includethe
few possible slips and possible washes fromthis point ReceivedApril27, 1997; acceptedSeptember
3, 1998; revised
onwardin thearticle,forpurposesof simplicity. October14, 1998


Analysis of Slips and Other Inorganic - Spencer

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Analysis of Slips and Other Inorganic - Spencer

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Society for American Archaeology

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Carr,MaryLouise Cotkin,AlfredE. Dittert,

Petrographic analysesweremadeof386 utilitarian potteryvesselsfrom23 datedcomponents of18 EarlyWoodlandthrough

Se realizaronandlisispetrograficos a 386 vasijasde ceramicautilitaria de 23 componentes provenientesde 18 sitiosde la parte

A rchaeologicalceramicvesselsand sherds washes,paints,

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microscopy, moredefinitive studiescan be made utilitarian exchange patterns during theWoodland in

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sizednaturalrockinclusions andplantmaterial (Rye tert, torefer toa slipora washthatspecifically has

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withkeyMidwestern, Northeastern,andSoutheast- 1960:30;McGregor1958:40,42,43).Thesesurface

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cation1996).ForOhio,nonewas foundbyCarr's bichrome, and polychromevessels (Griffin

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Osborne,Manion,and Gistphases(Turnbowand wares.Nearlyall ofthevesselsarecoarselymade,

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All 386 ofthesherdsconsidered here,as wellas tralOhiorevealedeightcategories ofsurface mate-

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fromthesamesourceas thevesselbody,butwith- depressions, butin almostall cases,at leasta thin

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smoothedsurfacesworkedduringtheleather-dryelectron microprobe (see below).The coatingsand

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purposefully added,as mineralaggregates (espe- dehydrated duringfiring (e.g.,Franklin andVitale

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Sample 26-194 36-162 34-B47 40-EOI 28-C40

Sample 32-A13c 33-A18 34-157 47-181 47-D06

themajority of claysused forvesselbodieswere materials

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0.0 g1F ~~~D f a~d

Figure 3. Harker diagrams for normalizedanalyticalvalues. WeightpercentSiO2 is plottedagainst weightpercent

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ing theelementalcompositions of slipsand their boundaries ofthecoatings(see above),andthelack

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U~~~~~~~~c c Oc) c9i ci c9i C C) C) C) C C oo c9i c mic9ti cn . 7:1==

a C| >)C) C) ) C) _cs ct C C) C) Ca C?N C )C )C ) c~c3 a~ >~ A A

o | | t-> s cD 0?o o <?s 4 o <> <~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~)

03 o n s <a X t ,O>09 <o; t

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The commonality ofslipsandwashesinWood- Onlyfourcomponents wererepresented bysamples

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tionoffrequencies oftheuncolored slipsandwashes beginning, ofitsdevelopment inOhio,atleast.Trac-

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slipsorwashes,itcouldbe determined petrograph-washesbearsmacroscopic indicators ofhavingbeen

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of a storagevesseldry,it does notmatter whether term enhancement ofa pottery-vessel'sthermal effi-

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intentionally producedcoatingswereaddedtoutil- seemto havebeenmadeof thesamerawclaysas

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as a permeability-reducing coating,functionally ReferencesCited

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ernOhio:A ViewfromthePhiloII Site.In Cultures before Ferring,

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ley:AStudy ofCulture ContactandDynamics. Unpublished otherhistoric,red-filmed ceramicsin easternAlabama and

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