Radiation Measurements 39 (2005) 585 – 594

www.elsevier.com/locate/radmeas

Fission-track dating of SouthAmerican natural glasses: an overview

G. Bigazzia,∗ , J.C. Hadler Netob , P.J. Iunesb , A.M. Osório Arayac
a Istituto di Geoscienze e Georisorse, C.N.R., Via G. Moruzzi, 1, 56124 Pisa, Italy
b Instituto de Física Gleb Wataghin, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, UNICAMP, 13083-970 Campinas SP, Brazil
c Departamento de Física, Química e Biologia, Universidade do Estado de São Paulo, UNESP, 19060-900 Presidente Prudente SP, Brazil

Received 13 February 2004; accepted 30 September 2004

Abstract
Although many glass-bearing horizons can be found in South American volcanic complexes or sedimentary series, only
a relatively few tephra and obsidian-bearing volcanic fields have been studied using the fission-track (FT) dating method.
Among them, the volcanics located in the Sierra de Guamaní (east of Quito, Ecuador) were studied by several authors. Based
upon their ages, obsidians group into three clusters: (1) very young obsidians, ∼ 0.2 Ma old, (2) intermediate-age obsidians,
∼ 0.4. ∼ 0.8 Ma old, and (3) older obsidians, ∼1.4. ∼1.6 Ma old. The FT method is also an efficient alternative technique for
identification of the sources of prehistoric obsidian artefacts. Provenance studies carried out in South America have shown that
the Sierra de Guamaní obsidian occurrences were important sources of raw material for tool making during pre-Columbian
times. Glasses originated from these sources were identified in sites distributed over relatively wide areas of Ecuador and
Colombia.
Only a few systematic studies on obsidians in other sectors were carried out. Nevertheless, very singular glasses have
been recognised in South America, such as Macusanite (Peru) and obsidian Quiron (Argentina), which are being proposed as
additional reference materials for FT dating.
Analyses of tephra beds interstratified with sedimentary deposits revealed the performance of FT dating in tephrochronolog-
ical studies. A remarkable example is the famous deposit outcropping at Farola Monte Hermoso, near Bahia Blanca (Buenos
Aires Province), described for the first time by the middle of the 19th century by Charles Darwin.
Considering the large number of volcanic glasses that were recognised in volcanic complexes and in sedimentary series,
South America is a very promising region for the application of FT dating. The examples given above show that this technique
may yield important results in different disciplinary fields.
© 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fission-track dating; Obsidian provenance studies; Tephrochronology

1. Introduction obsidians showed great potentialities for geochronological

Natural glass is an important material for FT dating.
Obsidian-bearing volcanics cover large areas in several
regions of the earth. The FT dating method applied to
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 050 315 2283;
fax: +39 050 315 3280.
E-mail address: g.bigazzi@igg.cnr.it (G. Bigazzi).
studies in these areas, and also in case of very young vol-
canics.
Numerous distal tephra were recognised in sedimentary
series, and glass is the only datable phase of many of them.
Many of these tephra do not allow application of other dating
techniques. For this reason, although FT dating often pro-
duces low precision ages compared with other methods, es-
pecially in case of young rocks, this technique significantly

1350-4487/$ - see front matter © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.radmeas.2004.09.006
586 G. Bigazzi et al. / Radiation Measurements 39 (2005) 585 – 594
contributed to the reconstruction of chrono-stratigraphy of
sedimentary series.
South America is not an exception as regards abundance
of natural glass. Several stately volcanic edifices where mul-
tiple volcanic glass occurrences can be found are present in
the Andean regions. In addition, glass-bearing tephra beds
intercalate many sedimentary series located also at a great
distance from volcanic fields.
This work represents a short review on the application of
FT dating to South American glasses, aimed at illustrating
its performance.
2. Fission-track analysis of glasses
Very singular glasses, important for FT dating, were
recognised in South America, such as “Calite” and
“Macusanite”. Both these glasses can be found not in situ
near Cali (Colombia) and in fluvial–glacial deposits around
and in the ignimbritic field of Macusani (Peru), respectively.
To the first glass pre-Columbian populations had attributed
magical powers. The mystery of the origin of Calite per-
sisted for a long time. Only recently it was concluded,
mainly based on its chemical composition, that this glass,
considered before by some authors a tektite, is an obsidian
from a Pliocene disappeared occurrence (Poupeau et al.,
1999, and references therein). Calite also has a historical
importance for FT dating, since this glass was one of the
samples used by Storzer and Poupeau (1973) for testing the
plateau method for correcting thermally lowered FT ages.
Macusanite is a peculiar obsidian dated for the first time
as soon as the FT dating method was invented (Fleischer and
Price, 1964). This glass was the subject of systematic studies
and was proposed as a reference material for FT dating
(Balestrieri et al., 1998, and references therein; Osorio Araya
et al., 2003).
Although many glass-bearing horizons can be found in
South American volcanic complexes or sedimentary se-
ries, only relatively few obsidians and tephra have been
studied using the FT method. Only very rarely FT data
on glass have been compared with those determined us-
ing other techniques. Examples are Macusanite, average
FT age 4.64 ± 0.17 Ma (determined at Campinas) and
5.20 ± 0.11 Ma (determined at Pisa), average 40 Ar.39 Ar
age 5.12 ± 0.03 (Osorio Araya et al., 2003) and glass Qu-
iron (Bigazzi et al., 2005). However, comparison of FT
ages with those measured with other methods in other areas
of the earth proves that this technique yields reliable data.
2.1. Obsidian studies
FT dating of obsidian has a twofold significance. This
technique is an efficient tool for chrono-stratigraphical stud-
ies in volcanic areas. In addition, the FT parameters—track
densities and age—can be used for provenance studies of
obsidian artefacts. As a matter of fact, the first significant
Fig. 1. Orographic sketch map of Ecuador. Majestic volcanic
edifices are present in the Andean region, such as Chimborazo
(6310 m), which is the highest peak of Ecuador, or Cotopaxi
(5911 m), the world’s highest active volcano: (1) coastal region, (2)
Cordillera Occidental, (3) Inter-Andean Depression, (4) Cordillera
Real, (5) Sub-Andean zone, (6) Amazonian platform, (7) Sierra de
Guamaní area (modified after Bigazzi et al., 1992).
study of South American obsidians had been carried out by
Miller and Wagner (1981) with an archaeometrical point of
view. These authors studied some geological samples from
Peru, Bolivia and the Sierra de Guamaní in the central sector
of Cordillera Real (east of Quito, Ecuador, Fig. 1) and sev-
eral artefacts from pre-Columbian sites. The results of the
Miller and Wagner’s FT study are summarised in Table 1
(for technical details see Miller and Wagner, 1981). As ex-
pected, most of the obsidians showed a reduction of the
DS /DI ratio. This indicates that (1) the analysed obsidian
samples suffered partial annealing of spontaneous tracks due
to their low thermal stability over geological time (Storzer
and Wagner, 1969), and that (2) the FT “raw” ages are re-
duced ages (referred to as “apparent” ages) unless a tech-
nique for correcting thermally lowered FT ages is applied.
Miller and Wagner used the plateau method proposed by
Storzer and Poupeau (1973) (Fig. 2).
The very poor data set on geological samples prevented
correlation of most of these artefacts with specific natural
sources. The artefacts from Ecuadorian sites cluster into
two groups: one group with a spontaneous track density of
around 500 cm−2 , and the other group with a track density
about ten times higher (around 5000 cm−2 ). The plateau
ages are slightly lower than 0.3 Ma for the first group, and
between 1.7 and 2 Ma for the second one. Miller and Wagner
(1981) concluded that the older group did not originate from
the obsidians represented by samples 041 and 042 from east
of Quito, because the uranium content is different. Anyway,
similarity of age indicates that the unknown source very
 G. Bigazzi et al. / Radiation Measurements 39 (2005) 585 – 594 587

Table 1
Data from an early fission-track study of South American obsidians

Sample
(×1015 ) (cm−2 ) S (cm−2 ) I (cm−2 ) DS /DI App. age (Ma) Corr. age (Ma)
Geological samples
Mullumica M1 0.515 450 62,800 — 0.19 —
Mullumica M2 0.515 520 62,000 — 0.21 —
Quito 041 0.848 2200 51,800 0.79 — 1.81
Quito 042 0.836 1800 116,000 0.78 0.68 1.78
Artefacts
Ecuador
El Inga 075C 0.836 4100 155,000 — 1.10 1.72
El Inga 075D 0.836 430 127,000 — 0.15 —
El Inga 075E 0.836 6.3 126,000 0.98 0.00206 —
La Esperanza 078A 0.836 410 77,400 — 0.22 0.21
Palmar 094A 0.704 511 111,000 — 0.16 —
Palmar 094B 0.704 390 85,000 — 0.16 —
Palmar 094D 0.704 5100 136,000 — 1.31 2.01
Palmar 094E 0.704 410 101,000 — 0.14 0.25
Palmar 094L 0.704 3400 121,000 — 0.98 —
Palmar 094M 0.704 5000 117,000 — 0.15 0.29
Palmar 094O 0.704 5800 126,000 — 0.16 —
Palmar 094T 0.704 4100 115,000 — 1.25 1.89
Alofa 079A 0.836 9900 119,000 — 3.5 6.4
Colombia
Cerro la Tefa 080A 0.836 1000 160,000 0.36 0.26 2.0a
10 0.89 0.00260 0.0034; 0.0036a
Cerro la Tefa 080C 1.10 12 185,000 ∼1 0.0037 —

—neutron fluence. S (I )—spontaneous (induced) track density. DS /DI —spontaneous to induced track size ratio. App. age—apparent
age. Corr. age—plateau or (a ) size-corrected age. Etching conditions: 5–7 min in 16% HF at 120 ◦ C. Data are presented here in a reduced
form; for further details, see the original paper (after Miller and Wagner, 1981).

probably is (or was) in that region. The younger source

Fig. 2. Plot of data to illustrate the plateau age determined by Miller
and Wagner (1981) on artefact 094M from Palmar, an Ecuadorian
pre-Columbian coastal site. Each experimental point represents a
determination made after cumulative thermal treatments of 5 h at the
temperatures indicated in abscissa. S (I ) refers to spontaneous
(induced) tracks. /0 is the track-density reduction (normalised to
the original density 0 ) of the spontaneous and induced tracks. The
induced track density reduces more quickly than the spontaneous
track density. The plateau condition is attained when spontaneous
and induced tracks suffered an identical annealing amount, detected
by an identical density reduction (redrawn after Miller and Wagner,
1981).
remained unidentified.
Miller and Wagner’s data contain remarkable examples of
the potential of FT dating. Two artefacts (075E and 080C)
have a DS /DI ratio ∼ 1 and unexpected young ages. These
authors concluded that the ages of 2060 and 3700 a of sam-
ples 075E and 080C dated some events of complete track an-
nealing. By experience, a percentage of artefacts (∼ 5.10%)
have the possibility of being able to reveal an ‘archaeologi-
cal age’. This happens when a thermal event, which occurred
during the use of the artefacts, produced total annealing of
pre-existing tracks (Fig. 3).
Arias et al. (1986) published age determinations for some
artefact splinters found near El Inga, one of the archaeolog-
ical sites studied by Miller and Wagner (1981). FT data of
these samples are consistent with those of the two groups of
artefacts identified by Miller and Wagner (1981). New infor-
mation can be extracted from these results. To have found
near El Inga artefacts of the younger group (moreover, in
association with those of the older group considered origi-
nated generically from the Cordillera Real) which had been
identified previously by Miller and Wagner (1981) only at
Palmar, in the coastal region, allows to infer that also their
unknown source is (or was) very probably located in the
Cordillera Real.
588 G. Bigazzi et al. / Radiation Measurements 39 (2005) 585 – 594

Fig. 3. Track-size distributions of obsidian from South America. The analysis of the track-size distribution is an efficient tool for deciphering
thermal histories of natural glasses. Due to the low stability of fission-tracks during geological times, commonly obsidians show a reduction
of the sizes of the spontaneous tracks in comparison with those of the induced tracks, assumed as reference of undisturbed tracks. This is
the case of the obsidian from Cerro Yanaurcu, Ecuador (DS /DI = 0.87, Table 2). Two artefacts from Ecuadorian sites studied by Miller and
Wagner (1981) revealed complex thermal histories. For artefact 075E a DS /DI value ∼ 1 indicates that spontaneous tracks are unaffected
by partial annealing. An unexpected young age was determined on this sample (2060 a, Table 1). Miller and Wagner (1981) concluded that
artefact 075E experienced a heating event that occurred during its use that completely erased pre-existing tracks. The tracks observed by
them were due to fissions that occurred afterwards. Therefore, the determined age was an “archaeological age”, because it dated the use
of the artefact. Artefact 080A is a rare example of bimodal distribution of sizes of spontaneous tracks. In this case the thermal event was
not intense enough to completely erase already accumulated tracks. From the two track populations, characterised by “small tracks” and
“large tracks”, respectively, it was possible to determine the formation age of glass (“geological age”, ∼ 2 Ma) as well as the age of the
use (“archaeological age”, ∼ 3500 a) of the artefact (partially redrawn after Miller and Wagner, 1981).

A more detailed study on obsidians of the same region,

aimed at constraining the chronology of the volcanic activ-
ity in the Sierra de Guamaní, was carried out by Bigazzi
et al. (1992). Three groups of obsidian occurrences have
been mapped, recognised mainly by differences in their stage
of preservation.
The first group includes volcanic centres located in the
northern part of the study area (Fig. 4) that are well preserved
morphologically. The Mullumica and Callejones flows are
relatively large outcrops, both totally formed of obsidian.
The Mullumica flow is a large silicic lava flow, with an es-
timated volume of ∼ 2 km3 . The flow consists of two over-
lapping lobes. The Callejones flow is smaller but otherwise
similar to Mullumica, consisting of a flow 3 km long with
an estimated volume of ∼ 0.5 km3 . Yurac Paccha is a small

←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
Fig. 4. Geological sketch map of the Sierra de Guamaní, in the
Cordillera Real east of Quito (Ecuador): (1) metamorphic basement
of the Cordillera Real, (2) undifferentiated basal volcanic complex,
(3) volcaniclastic deposits filling the inter-Andean depression, (4)
obsidian lava flows, (5) non-vitrophyric silicic volcanic centres,
(6) andesitic lava flows, (7) volcanic products of the Antisana stra-
tovolcano, (8) inferred normal faults of the inter-Andean depres-
sion, (9) Cordillera Real watershed, (10) eruptive vents and craters,
(11) studied Obsidian samples. L.P.: Loma Pishanga (redrawn after
Bigazzi et al., 1992).
 G. Bigazzi et al. / Radiation Measurements 39 (2005) 585 – 594
outcrop of obsidian blocks located north of the Callejones
flow. The Potrerillos volcano is a small polygenetic centre
with obsidian occurring only in late breccias deposits close
to the vent.
The second group is composed of obsidian outcrops that
probably belong to different lava flow-units which were
closely associated in space and time, and probably erupted
from a multi-vent centre. El Tablon is an ancient obsidian
lava flow cropping out on the west flank of the Cordillera
Real. It is deeply cut by the Pifo glacial valley and faulted
by border faults of the Inter-Andean depression. Very sim-
ilar obsidian is exposed on the northern side of the Pifo
Valley and on Loma Pishanga. These obsidian flows have a
volume of ∼ 4 km3 .
The third group consists of erosional remnants of obsid-
ian flows in the upper part of the oldest volcanic succession
in the region, the basal volcanic complex (BVC) of Barberi
et al. (1988). The obsidians found in the Loma Quisca-
tola and Cerro Yanaurcu outcrops are fragments belonging
to volcanic breccia deposits with crystallised matrix. The
Rodeo Corrales obsidian blocks belong to a secondary de-
posit, near Cerro Yanaurcu, that contains a high percentage
of fresh glassy obsidian.
In the Ecuadorian highlands, obsidian has been reported
from palaeo-Indian sites dating back to 9000–10,000 years
ago. Archaeological research carried out at the Mullumica
and Quiscatola outcrops has found evidence of quarrying in
pre-Colombian times, from ∼ 3500 BC to the time of the
Inca invasion (ca. AD 1450).
Analytical results are shown in Table 2 (for technical de-
tails, see Bigazzi et al., 1992), where data regarding some
artefacts from pre-Colombian sites of the Guayas and Man-
abí provinces of Ecuador are also shown. The plateau tech-
nique (Storzer and Poupeau, 1973) for correcting thermally
lowered FT ages was applied. Three groups of ages can be
recognised for the obsidian rocks studied:
(1) Very young obsidians, slightly less than 0.2 Ma old, were
sampled from the Mullumica and Callejones flows and
the Potrerillos volcano. A K–Ar age of 0.09±0.03 Ma is
also available from a dacite sample from the Potrerillos
volcano (Barberi et al., 1988).
(2) Intermediate-age obsidians, with ages around 0.4 Ma for
the Yurac Paccha sample and about 0.80 Ma for the Loma
Pishanga sample. The latter age confirms that the sample
is from the rocks of the El Tablon lava field, for which
an FT age of 0.81 Ma had been determined (Arias et al.,
1986). A K–Ar of 0.81 Ma is also available (Barberi et
al., 1988).
(3) Older obsidians, with ages between ∼ 1.4 and ∼ 1.7 Ma;
they come from outcrops located in the upper part of
BVC: Cerro Yanaurcu, Rodeo Corrales and Loma Quis-
catola.
Comparison of FT data of archaeological artefacts with
those of natural sources of Tables 1 and 2 can be a puzzling
589
task. FT parameters of those studied by Arias et al. (1986)
and of similar artefacts studied by Miller and Wagner (1981)
suggest that none of the outcrops represented by samples
of Table 2 can be their source. Analytical data for some
of the artefacts reported in Miller and Wagner (1981) are
similar to data for the young obsidians as well as for the
older obsidians of Table 2. FT data shown in Table 2 of all
artefacts from three coastal sites of Ecuador indicate that
they originated from the Sierra de Guamaní studied sources
(see also Marcos et al., 1998).
Age determinations on obsidians from the Cotopaxi Vol-
cano are now available (Table 3). This volcano, which dom-
inates the middle portion of the Inter-Andean depression
south-east of Quito, is the highest active volcano on earth. It
is well known for the magnificence of its cone topped by ice
and for its very dangerous historical eruptions. The eruptive
history of Cotopaxi developed during different phases. A
more ancient volcano, named Palaeo-Cotopaxi, was initially
characterised by large explosive eruptions during which rhy-
olitic Plinian falls and ash-flows were deposited. Following
the early strong explosive phase, an andesitic explosive and
effusive eruption activity took place to build up a small stra-
tovolcano slightly to the south of the present cone.
After a long-lasting erosive period, volcanic activity re-
sumed in the Cotopaxi area producing three large rhyolitic
Plinian eruptions. A cone-building phase characterised by
emission of andesitic lava and pyroclastic material followed.
The growth of the cone was interrupted by a slope failure
producing a giant debris avalanche that flowed in the Rio
Pita Valley.
Obsidian blocks were sampled from the pyroclastic ash
flow deposits of the eruptions that occurred during the var-
ious phases of activity of both Palaeo–Cotopaxi and Co-
topaxi. The younger ages of Table 3 have a high experi-
mental error, due to very low spontaneous track densities
and the presence of microlites which made difficult the cor-
rect identification of fission-tracks in a large portion of the
surface of samples from Cotopaxi. Nevertheless, the ages
determined on these obsidians confirm the potential of FT
dating also in case of very young glasses and contribute to
constrain the chronological evolution of the volcanism of
the Andean region. For the first time the onset of the activity
of the Cotopaxi volcano has been dated.
A significant contribution to a better knowledge of the
potential sources of raw material of the Andean region
and of circulation of obsidian during pre-Columbian times
was given by the FT group of the University of Grenoble
(Dorighel et al., 1998; Poupeau et al., 1999). These authors
analysed obsidians from the ignimbritic complex associated
to the Paletará caldera (Colombia) and numerous artefacts
from several sites located in the Colombian and Ecuadorian
highlands and from Pacific Ocean coastal sites. These au-
thors compared the results of the application of FT dating
with those of provenance studies performed on the same
sample-set based on the chemical composition determined
by particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) and obtained
590 G. Bigazzi et al. / Radiation Measurements 39 (2005) 585 – 594

Table 2
Fission-track analysis of Ecuadorian obsidians, geological samples and artefacts

Sample Heating S NS I NI DS /DI Age (±1 ) I.S.

Sierra de Guamaní
Mullumica flowa — 440 111 130,700 1054 0.96 0.17 ± 0.02
(Laguna Yanacoche) 3 h, 300 ◦ C 220 82 55,700 1374 1.00 0.20 ± 0.02
Mullumica flowa — 420 163 141,500 2180 0.91 0.15 ± 0.02
(Abrigo 2) 2 h, 200 ◦ C 395 154 107,700 2416 1.03 0.18 ± 0.02
Mullumica flowa — 430 150 138,100 1024 0.96 0.15 ± 0.01
(Abrigo 26 de Mayo) 2 h, 250 ◦ C 295 158 85,200 1259 1.03 0.17 ± 0.01
Mullumicaa — 440 139 130,200 1433 0.95 0.17 ± 0.02
(Upper flow) 2 h, 250 ◦ C 215 71 62,100 1204 1.01 0.18 ± 0.03
Callejones flowa — 400 174 126,500 1495 0.97 0.16 ± 0.01
(Sample 2) 2 h, 250 ◦ C 283 198 84,700 1253 0.97 0.17 ± 0.01
(Callejones flowa — 355 91 109,300 1935 0.95 0.16 ± 0.02
Sample 3) 3 h, 300 ◦ C 205 104 46,600 1399 1.00 0.22 ± 0.02
Potrerillosa — 255 23 69,600 597 1.05 0.18 ± 0.05
Yurac Pacchaa — 690 66 105,300 1298 — 0.33 ± 0.04
2 h, 250 ◦ C 395 45 53,500 365 — 0.37 ± 0.06
El Tablon flowa — 1400 421 110,900 2725 0.89 0.63 ± 0.06
(Loma Pishanga) 2 h, 200 ◦ C 1110 333 67,800 2003 1.00 0.81 ± 0.05
Rodeo Corralesa — 3680 416 187,900 1122 0.74 0.97 ± 0.06
2 h, 250 ◦ C 3080 321 113,800 1367 0.98 1.35 ± 0.09
Cerro Yanaurcua — 4600 560 195,300 1460 0.87 1.17 ± 0.06
2 h, 250 ◦ C 3440 628 117,000 1052 1.02 1.46 ± 0.07
Loma Quiscatolaa — 4870 846 222,300 1328 0.76 1.09 ± 0.05
2 h, 250 ◦ C 4070 601 125,400 1131 0.97 1.61 ± 0.08
4 h, 250 ◦ C 4010 1045 126,000 1327 1.02 1.58 ± 0.07
Artefacts
Real Alto 2b — 4410 426 191,400 1144 0.83 1.15 ± 0.07 Y.Q.
(Guayas) 5 h, 220 ◦ C 4780 447 143,600 1081 0.99 1.66 ± 0.09
Real Alto 3b — 4520 349 175,700 1096 0.93 1.28 ± 0.08 Y.Q.
(Guayas) 5 h, 220 ◦ C 4620 535 159,000 1194 0.99 1.44 ± 0.07
S. Isidro 1 (Manabí)b — 438 31 134,800 661 0.91 0.16 ± 0.03 M.
S. Isidro 9 (Manabí)b — 509 108 148,000 1024 0.97 0.17 ± 0.02 M.
Pechicheb — 4480 606 221,700 1125 0.75 1.01 ± 0.05
(Guayas) 5 h, 220 ◦ C 4870 555 149,200 1123 1.03 1.62 ± 0.08 Y.Q.

NS (NI )—spontaneous (induced) tracks counted. DS /DI —spontaneous to induced track-size ratio; Age: apparent or plateau age (Ma).
Heating—thermal treatment imposed for the plateau age determination. I.S.—identified source (Y.Q.—Cerro Yanaurcu—Loma Quiscatola;
M.—Mullumica). Etching conditions: 120 s in 20% HF at 40 ◦ C. Parameters used for age calculations:  =5.802×10−22 cm2 ;  =1.55125×
10−10 a−1 ; F = 8.46 × 10−17 a−1 ; 238 U/235 U isotopic ratio = 137.88. The induced track density was normalised to a neutron fluence of
1 × 1015 cm−2 (referred to the standard glass IRMM 540), in order to make comparison of data easier. Data have been revised according
to the new calibration system adopted here; a: after Bigazzi et al. (1992); b: after Marcos et al. (1998).

very consistent data. This study proved that FT dating may
be an efficient alternative technique for obsidian. Results of
obsidian provenance studies in this region (Fig. 5) can be
summarised in the following way:
(1) The Colombian raw material appears to have been used
only locally. On the contrary, obsidians from the Sierra
de Guamaní are encountered in widely dispersed sites
of Ecuador and of the Colombian Pacific coast. Arrows
shown in Fig. 5 correlate these coastal areas with the
sources located in the Ecuadorian highlands. The iden-
tification of these obsidians associated also to archaic
cultures (onset of the II Millennium BC, Real Alto site)
turned out to be an important factor for reconstructing
an early coast–sierra exchange network (Marcos et al.,
1998).
(2) Several artefacts, including a relatively abundant popula-
tion of samples with FT ages in the range 0.25–0.30 Ma,
originated from unknown sources. However, the simi-
larity of FT parameters points for these artefacts to the
Sierra de Guamaní. This provenance of these glasses
is also suggested by the identification made of arte-
facts of this group also in settlements and workshops of
the Sierra de Guamaní area (Miller and Wagner, 1981;
Bigazzi et al., 1992; Dorighel et al., 1998; Poupeau
et al., 1999).
 G. Bigazzi et al. / Radiation Measurements 39 (2005) 585 – 594 591

Table 3
Fission-track dating of obsidians from the Cotopaxi Volcano (Ecuador)

Sample Heating S (cm−2 ) NS I (cm−2 ) NI DS /DI Age (±1 ) (Ma)

CTX 45-P.C. 1020 492 438,000 1271 0.83 0.43 ± 0.03

3 h, 250 ◦ C 860 276 293,000 1703 1.01 0.54 ± 0.04
CTX 46-P.C. 770 212 353,000 1365 0.85 0.40 ± 0.03
3 h, 250 ◦ C 750 126 264,000 1279 0.99 0.52 ± 0.05
CTX 67-C. 620 82 383,000 740 0.88 0.30 ± 0.03
Size corrected age — — — — — 0.37 ± 0.05
CTX 73-C. 25 11 261,000 1134 0.96 0.017 ± 0.005
CTX 92-C. 9 2 202,000 1169 — 0.008 ± 0.006

Etching conditions: 120 s in 20% HF at 40 ◦ C. For obsidian CTX 67 the presence of numerous “spurious” tracks prevented unambiguous
track identification in the sample prepared for the plateau age determination. The formation was estimated based upon the DS /DI ratio,
using the size-correction method approach (Storzer and Wagner, 1969). The neutron fluence (referred to the standard glass IRMM 540) was
3.70 × 1015 cm−2 . P.C. and C. denote Palaeo–Cotopaxi and Cotopaxi, respectively.

2.2. Tephrochronology

Although the 40 Ar.39 Ar method is commonly preferred

Fig. 5. Location of Colombian and Ecuadorian obsidian sources and
archaeological sites, subjects of obsidian provenance studies using
the FT method. The El Inga, Palmar and La Esperanza sites were
studied by Miller and Wagner (1981). The Real Alto, S. Isidro and
Pechiche sites were studied by Marcos et al. (1998). The remaining
sites were studied by Dorighel et al. (1998) and Poupeau et al.
(1999). Data on Sierra de Guamaní obsidians are from Bigazzi
et al. (1992). Those referring to the Cotopaxi Volcano are original
data (Table 3). The remaining data on obsidian potential natural
sources are results of the studies performed by the Grenoble FT
group quoted above.
Systematic studies on obsidians in other sectors of South
America were not carried out. Only few dispersed data are
available, such as those on the Quiron obsidian (Argentina),
which is being proposed as a new additional reference ma-
terial for FT dating (Bigazzi et al., 2005).
to FT dating for its higher precision, many tephra do not
contain mineral phases datable with this technique. Heavy
minerals, such as apatite and zircon, are suitable materials
for FT dating and their use may be an efficient alterna-
tive. However, only some tephra yield these minerals. For
these reasons, FT dating of glass plays an important part in
tephrochronology, because glass is the only datable phase of
many tephra and only this dating technique can be applied.
Considering that commonly track counts on glass follow
Poisson distributions, the predominating contribution to the
experimental error of an FT age on glass is given by the num-
ber of spontaneous tracks one can count. Larger numbers of
spontaneous tracks correspond to smaller errors. The con-
ditions which make it easier to count more tracks in shorter
times in order to determine more precise ages are related
to grain sizes, spontaneous track density and the portion of
surface of glass where tracks can be easily identified and
counted. The larger these parameters are, the more precise
ages can be determined.
Very rarely the FT method was applied for tephrochrono-
logical studies in South America. Nevertheless, the few
data available prove the potential of this technique. The
tephra layers that were studied intercalate sediments of
the Andean region of the Mendoza Province and of the
southern coast of the Buenos Aires Province, Argentina
(Fig. 6). The only datable phase of these tephra was glass
and the only applicable method was FT dating. FT ages
determined on populations of glass shards from these vol-
canic levels are shown in Table 4. Also glass Purupurini,
from Peru, has been included for its methodological im-
portance, although geological settings are not well known
yet. Purupurini yielded a very young age (see below): just
very rarely such young ages have been determined on
glass shards.
592 G. Bigazzi et al. / Radiation Measurements 39 (2005) 585 – 594

Some of the glasses of Table 4 were dated using the
point-counting approach (Fleischer et al., 1965; Naeser
et al., 1982). This technique makes it easier to analyse larger
surfaces in shorter times, especially in case of low sponta-
neous track densities. For this reason it was possible to ob-
tain an age of 0.053 ± 0.008 Ma, with a relatively low error
(15%), for Purupurini, in spite of its very young age and its
correspondingly low spontaneous track density (170 cm−2 ).
Fig. 6. Location of tephra bearing sedimentary deposits of Ar-
gentina dated using the FT method.
Glasses 929901, 900407-2 and 920203 are from tephra
interstratified with alluvial sediments of the Río Mendoza
valley. Although their FT ages have large experimental er-
rors (0.150±0.050, 0.134±0.032 and 0.260±0.025 Ma, re-
spectively), these data allowed constraining the chronology
of the Punta de Vacas glaciation, the onset of which followed
the Oxygen Isotope Stage 7 interglacial period (Espizua and
Bigazzi, 1998).
Glass 920423-1 also was dated using the point-counting
technique. For this reason its age, 0.226 ± 0.025 Ma, has a
satisfactory precision. This glass was deposited most proba-
bly during the Oxygen Isotope Stage 7 interglacial period on
an old drift unit called Poti-Malal, and underlies another old
drift unit called Seguro. The age determination made shed
light upon the timing of the Poti-Malal (Early Middle Pleis-
tocene) and Seguro glaciations (tentatively pre-Wisconsin,
penultimate glaciation) of the Río Grande basin (Mendoza
Province) (Espizua et al., 2002).
Glass Santa Clara, collected from an Atlantic Ocean
coastal silt and sand deposit, is a further example of the po-
tential of FT dating. Although only a low precision age was
measured for this glass (0.021 ± 0.007 Ma), due to its very
low spontaneous track density (54 cm−2 ), it was possible
to quantify with a number an age for several sedimentary
deposits with the same stratigraphic position of the Buenos
Aires Province (Argentina). The only information available
before was “very young, Upper Pleistocene?”.
Glass Viedma CP (Carmen de Patagones) is the only phase
of a tephra, where a detrital component is virtually absent,
which overlies a continental sedimentary sequence consist-
ing of an alternation of fluvial clays and silts, aeolian sands
and coastal deposits. Application of FT dating allowed hav-
ing a chronological datum (4.41±0.50 Ma) for a continental
sedimentary sequence of unknown age.
“October 19th. The Captain landed for half an hour at
Monte Hermoso (or Starvation point as we call it) to take
observations. I went with him and had the good luck to
obtain some well preserved fossil bones of two or three sorts

Table 4
Fission-track ages of glasses from South American tephra beds

Glass S (cm−2 ) A. age (±1 ) (Ma) P. age (±1 ) (Ma)

Purupurinia 170 0.050 ± 0.011 0.053 ± 0.008

929901b 560 0.180 ± 0.040 0.170 ± 0.050
900407-2b 370 0.086 ± 0.017 0.134 ± 0.032
920203b 260 0.300 ± 0.090 0.260 ± 0.150
920423-1c 320 0.184 ± 0.039 0.226 ± 0.025
Santa Clarad 54 0.021 ± 0.007 —
Viedma CPd 5500 2.76 ± 0.30 4.41 ± 0.50
MH 1e 2630 1.17 ± 0.14 1.73 ± 0.39
MH 2e 3640 1.08 ± 0.15 1.48 ± 0.25

A. age—apparent age. P. age—plateau age. Etching conditions: 90–120 s in 20% HF at 40 ◦ C.

a After Osorio Araya et al. (2000). bAfter Espizua and Bigazzi (1998). cAfter Espizua et al. (2002). dAfter Bigazzi et al. (1995). eAfter
Bigazzi et al. (1996).
 G. Bigazzi et al. / Radiation Measurements 39 (2005) 585 – 594
Fig. 7. Stratigraphic sketch of Farola Monte Hermoso (modified
after Bigazzi et al., 1996). The MH1 ash layer is composed of
rounded glass shards and an abundant detrital component (mainly
quartz and anorthitic plagioclase). Ash MH2 is made up of a
homogeneous population of sharp glass shards, lacking a detrital
component.
of gnawing animals......” In this way, Charles Darwin (1846)
described for the first time the famous deposit outcropping at
Farola Monte Hermoso (Fig. 7), near Bahia Blanca (Buenos
Aires Province).
Ages of glasses MH 1 and MH 2 (1.73 ± 0.39 and 1.48 ±
0.25 Ma, respectively) refer to two tephra layers interstrati-
fied with the sediments of this classic mammal deposit.
In spite of some attempts, no radiometric ages for this
important site were available before. The age of the Mon-
tehermosan had been inferred from other South American
deposits bearing the same fossil assemblage (see Bigazzi
et al., 1996, and references therein).
None of the glasses from these tephra had peculiar charac-
teristics which could facilitate the spontaneous track count-
ing procedure, with the exception of glass 920423-1 which
was characterised be relatively large grain sizes (between
∼ 0.150 and ∼ 0.5 mm). Nevertheless, they represented the
only opportunity of obtaining geochronological data for im-
Acknowledgements
portant sedimentary series.
3. Conclusions
This review on the application of the FT dating method
to South American glasses shows that this technique may
provide a solid contribution to geochronological studies of
593
obsidian-bearing volcanics and to provenance studies of ob-
sidian artefacts. Significant results have been attained by the
application of FT dating to obsidians of the north-western
regions of South America (Colombia, Ecuador and Peru).
Several chronological constraints have been obtained for
the activity of the majestic volcanic complexes of these ar-
eas. Provenance studies performed by various authors in
these regions have identified the Sierra de Guamaní in the
Cordillera Real (east of Quito) as the main source area of
raw material for tool making during pre-Columbian times in
these regions. However, numerous artefacts originated from
one obsidian occurrence which remained unidentified. This
proves that further field work is needed. However, this un-
known source might be inaccessible nowadays due to possi-
ble recent morphological changes produced by human activ-
ities and/or natural events. Numerous obsidian occurrences
were recognised in other Andean regions, but just very few
data are available for these glasses, such as for the Macu-
sani and Quiron obsidians which are being proposed as po-
tential additional reference materials for FT dating of glass
(Balestrieri et al., 1998; Osorio Araya et al., 2003; Bigazzi
et al., 2005).
Although, the precision of FT ages of glasses is commonly
lower than the precision of ages determined with other tech-
niques, such as the 40 Ar.39 Ar method, FT dating is the
only technique that can be used for dating many tephra, and
may give precious information in tephrochronological stud-
ies. Commonly heavy mineral phases, such as zircon and
apatite, are preferred to glass because potentially they yield
higher precision ages and do not require application of age
correction techniques. Therefore, FT dating on glass may
be regarded as a substitute for other techniques when these
are inapplicable. Nevertheless, glass plays an important part
in tephrochronology because it is the only datable phase of
many tephra. It may yield unique and precious information.
The results shown in Table 2 are an example of the poten-
tial of glass: all those tephra were not datable using other
phases or other methods.
Considering the large number of volcanic glasses that
were recognised in volcanic complexes and in sedimentary
series, South America is a very promising region for the
application of FT dating. Nevertheless, only very partially
the potentialities of this technique have been exploited in this
continent, and a lot of further work has to be done in order
to attain an adequate stage of knowledge in the research
subjects in which FT dating can be applied.
We wish to thank those colleagues who co-operated with
us in our work with South American glasses: F.P. Bonadonna
and G. Zanchetta (Pisa), M. Coltelli (Catania), L. Espizua
(Mendoza) and L. Bellot-Gurlet, O. Dorighel, E. Labrin and
G. Poupeau (Grenoble). We are grateful to two anonymous
referees for their careful reviewing and useful suggestions.
594 G. Bigazzi et al. / Radiation Measurements 39 (2005) 585 – 594
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