A summary of the

geology of Singapore

Deliverable of the project Consultancy Services for the Study of Stra graphy and
Structural Geology for Applica on to Geological Modelling (BCA T‐570/2015)

Bri sh Geological Survey

2018

This document provides a useful reference guide to the geology of Singapore through
presenta on of key figures, tables and summaries. It is intended to accompany the main
outputs of this project. References are provided throughout, to guide the reader to more
detailed informa on.
A brief geological history of
Singapore
Singapore lies at the southern end of Peninsular
Malaysia, in a region dominated by the geological
history of two con nental fragments (Indochina‐
East Malaya and Sibumasu) that separated from
the supercon nent of Gondwana during the
Palaeozoic. These fragments are now joined
together, along with rocks assigned to the
Sukhothai Arc terrain, along the trace of the
Bentong‐Raub Suture Zone.
The oldest rocks in Singapore
Singapore’s oldest rocks are thought to be the
siliciclas c sedimentary rocks of the Sajahat
Forma on, which crop out on the island of
Pulau Sajahat in north‐eastern Singapore. The
sediments were probably deposited in the late
Carboniferous to early Permian and they have
been thermally metamorphosed by the intrusion
of grani c and associated mafic intrusive rocks of
the eastern part of Singapore.
For more informa on please refer to: L , A G, G
logical Studies Report for Singapore. Bri sh Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/17/140. and G
S, K , T I, D M R AND L , K W. 2018. Bedrock Stra graphy of Singapore. Bri sh Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/18/001.
Intrusive Rocks
Geological evolu on of Singapore, Triassic to early Jurassic (a er Goodenough et
al., 2014).
Main con nental blocks of SE Asia, a er Metcalfe (2011) and Hall (2009).
, M R, D , T J H, K , R S, B , T P, K , T I, D , M R L , KW. 2018. Interpreta ve Geo-
, M R, L , A G, D , T J H, B , T P, K ,R
The igneous rocks of the Bukit Timah Centre crop out on
the north‐east side of the Bukit Timah Fault Zone and
underlie much of the ground in the eastern part of
mainland Singapore, o en concealed beneath younger
rocks. The centre is composed of five, lithologically dis nct
major intrusions (Choa Chu Kang Granodiorite —tonalite
Pluton, Gombak Gabbro—granite Pluton, Dairy Farm
Quarry Granite—rhyolite Pluton, Simpang Granite
Pluton, and Pulau Ubin Granite Pluton). U‐Pb zircon ages
indicate that the major intrusions were emplaced
sequen ally, but probably discon nuously, within a period
of around 55 million years, star ng early in the Permian
Period (c.285 Ma) and finishing late in the Triassic Period
(c.230 Ma). The persistent and localised nature of the
magma sm during this me suggests it is a product of the
same long‐lived tectonomagma c event. The rocks of the
Bukit Timah Centre are cut by a set of dykes (Singapore
Basalt—andesite Dyke‐swarm). The Pulau Sekudu Quartz‐
monzonite Pluton was emplaced into the Pulau Ubin
Pluton in the late Cretaceous Period (c.98 Ma), causing
the country rocks to be thermally metamorphosed.
The Permian and Triassic plutons are considered to have
formed in magma chambers in the roots of the southern
con nua on of the Sukhothai Arc. Mel ng above a
subduc on zone produces calc‐alkaline, I‐type plutons and
andesi c to rhyoli c erup ons. Over me, the character
and loca on of the magma sm changed as the arc
matured. Abrupt termina on of arc‐related magma sm at
230 Ma is probably linked to the detachment of the
subduc ng oceanic slab (i.e. “slab break‐off”). Rapid upli
and unroofing of the Bukit Timah Centre plutons followed,
typical of the processes that characterise many island arc
se ngs.
Triassic (to possibly lowermost Jurassic) volcanic forearc succession
Arc magma sm was ongoing throughout the lower part of the Upper Triassic, when the lower, marine‐dominated part of the Jurong
Group (Breakwater, Tuas and Pandan forma ons) was deposited. These sedimentary rocks, which crop out on the south‐west side
of the Bukit Timah Fault Zone and underlie much of the ground in the south‐west part of mainland Singapore, are interbedded with
significant volumes of extrusive volcanic rocks (mainly ignimbrite deposits created by pyroclas c flows) and tuffaceous sediments,
which erupted c. 240 Ma ago, a me possibly represen ng the peak of ac vity in the Singapore sector of the Sukhothai Arc. The
Nanyang and Kent Ridge members represent par cularly thick accumula ons of these extrusive volcanic rocks in the Tuas and
Pandan forma ons.

A Middle Triassic volcanic erup on in the San area of Johor probably led to the deposi on of the Pengerang Forma on, a unit of
pyroclas c rocks that crops out mainly in south‐east Johor but also on Pulau Tekong in Singapore. This unit is broadly
contemporaneous with, but gene cally unrelated to, the pyroclas c rocks in the Semantan Basin. The upper part of the Jurong Group
(Bukit Resam Forma on) is dominated by onshore to marginal marine deposits. This unit includes the Clemen Member, which
contains palaeosols derived from the weathering of volcanogenic and volcanoclas c deposits. These dis nc ve strata are
unconformably overstepped by the marginal‐marine Fort Siloso Forma on, marking a return to more tectonically stable condi ons for
a me. These two forma ons compose the Sentosa Group. A period of significant fault displacement prior to the onset of the fold and
thrust deforma on is evident in the juxtaposi on of Jurong Group and Sentosa Group strata across the Henderson Road Fault in south‐
west Singapore.

End‐Triassic Indosinian collision and accre onary thrust tectonics

Arc magma sm and slab break‐off was followed by a period of collisional tectonics in the late Triassic to early Jurassic which marked
the culmina on of the Indosinian Orogeny in this part of Southeast Asia. In Singapore, the switch from marine (Jurong Group) to fluvial
(Sentosa Group—Labrador Park Forma on) deposi onal environments may reflect this plate‐scale change in tectonic regime.

The Jurong and Sentosa groups strata in south‐west Singapore have been deformed into a NE‐directed pa ern of inclined
asymmetrical folds and, as a consequence, are very weakly metamorphosed. Remnants of an overstepping fluvial/alluvial succession,
assigned to the Buona Vista Forma on, may represent a ‘piggyback’ succession incorporated into this fold and thrust collisional se ng
and are considered syn‐deforma onal deposits. Progressive tectonic shortening culminated in the development of a large‐scale NE‐
directed thrust system, ul mately marking final collision and docking of Sibumasu and East Malaya/SE Indochina. This tectono‐
stra graphical framework con nues along strike into South Johor in Malaysia, and poten ally also into Batam, Indonesia.

The degree of structural shortening affec ng the rocks of the Jurong Group and Sentosa Group is considerable; intensely schistose
non‐coaxially sheared rocks are associated with the Murai Thrust, and minor thrusts and ght upright to inclined and overturned folds
are recorded in several loca ons across the south‐west of Singapore. Strata are o en ver cal, and locally overturned. The age of the
deforma on is uncertain, but it must post‐date Upper Triassic deposi on of the sediments. Terminal collision (docking) marking
assembly of Sibumasu, the Sukhothai Arc, and Indochina‐East Malaya, and the end of deforma on, probably occurred by c. 200 Ma.

Cretaceous post‐orogenic overstep

Two dis nct early Cretaceous sedimentary successions overstep the Jurong Group and Sentosa Group strata. The older of these, the
Tebak Forma on, was first iden fied on Kusu Island, and consists of coarse‐grained, thick‐bedded, predominantly arenaceous
sandstone, deposited in a fluvial se ng. The Bukit Batok Forma on crops out in small isolated areas between the Tengah and
Queenstown planning areas. This forma on comprises interbedded, very fine‐ to very coarse‐grained sandstone and organic‐rich
mudstone deposited in a river delta. Neither of these forma ons displays the folding and weak metamorphism that occurs throughout
the Jurong Group and Sentosa Group strata.

Cretaceous to Cenozoic faul ng

The strata forming the Jurong and Sentosa groups are also transected by numerous mostly NNE—SSW striking bri le faults.
Subsequent to the deposi on of the Tebak and Bukit Batok forma ons, faul ng developed across Singapore in response to dextral
strike‐slip tectonics, further complica ng the pa ern of fractures and the distribu on of bedrock geological units. The age of these long
‐lived structures is unclear, but an Upper Cretaceous to early Cenozoic (Palaeogene) (<95 Ma) age seems likely.

Cenozoic deposi on
The Fort Canning Forma on, which occurs in boreholes in the Fort Canning district, is characterised by white, mature sandstone
boulders several metres in diameter enclosed within a clay matrix. The close spa al associa on with the Tebak Forma on suggest it
may be a weathered remnant of the Tebak Forma on. Much of the eastern part of mainland Singapore is covered by variably
cemented, Quaternary sands and gravels that extend northwards into Johor. These were probably deposited by broadly southwards‐
flowing, braided river systems. The sediments have been informally named ‘Old Alluvium’ in both Johor and Singapore, and are
assigned to the Bedok Forma on. Significant movement on the faults in Singapore appears to have largely ceased by the me the
Bedok Forma on was deposited. Some syn‐sedimentary slumping and instability has been recognised, and there is a strong spa al
associa on between the Nee Soon Fault and the western limit of the Bedok Forma on against the plutonic rocks of the Bukit Timah
Centre. The extent to which this fault (or the Seletar Fault) may have been ac ve before, during, or a er deposi on of the Bedok
Forma on is not clear. Minor offsets of bedding could be interpreted as fault displacements affec ng Bedok Forma on strata. A
regional considera on of fault history suggests that Cenozoic movements are likely on suitably oriented faults.

The youngest part of the succession in Singapore comprises unconsolidated, marine to terrestrial sediments of late Pleistocene to
Holocene age, which are assigned to the Kallang Group. Today these are found mainly in coastal areas and low‐lying valleys.
For more informa on please refer to: L , A G,
G , M R, D , T J H, K , R S, B , T P,
K , T I, D , M R L , KW. 2018. Interpreta-
ve Geological Studies Report for Singapore. Bri sh
Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/17/140.
A new stra graphical framework for Singapore, incorpora ng a diagramma c
representa on of the deposi onal sequence and main tectonic events
For more informa on please refer to: L , A G, G , M R, D , T J H, K , R S,
B , T P, K , T I, D , M R L , KW. 2018. Interpreta ve Geological Studies Report
for Singapore. Bri sh Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/17/140. and G ,M
R, L , A G, D , T J H, B , T P, K , R S, K , T I, D M R AND L , K W.
2018. Bedrock Stra graphy of Singapore. Bri sh Geological Survey Commissioned Report,
CR/18/001.
Summary of Pre-Cenozoic Sedimentary Environments and Lithologies
Environment Key Lithological and environmental characteris cs

Shallow marine Interbedded, cyclic successions at 10–15 m scale of carbonate rock and
pla orm or ramp siliciclas c rock.
Carbonate units typically 1–20 m thick.
Siliciclas c units typically 1–20 m thick.
Volcanogenic material (tuff and tuffite) is rare.

Deep marine to Moderately to well‐sorted, subangular to subrounded, quartz‐rich, mud‐

bearing
shallow Marine sandstones, o en rich in intraforma onal mud‐clasts.

Dark grey to black, laminated, siliciclas c mudstone.

Carbonate‐clast and granitoid‐clast rich conglomerate (debris flow depos‐

its).

Re‐worked volcanogenic material (bentonite/tuffite and greenish sand‐

Sea‐floor erup on The rock is clas c, and dominated by clasts of one type (andesi c rock).

Nanyang Member (Tuas Forma on) The igneous rock clasts typically have polygonal shape and a concentrically
zoned character (dark green rims and paler cores).

Clasts of dark grey mudstone and grey limestone usually are present in
subordinate propor ons.

Metre‐scale, normally graded layers.

Shallow marine Thickly‐bedded, homogenous micri c limestone in intervals 5–50 m thick.

carbonates – ramp Typically lack of carbonate allochems.

Occasional, isolated, thinly and thickly‐bedded layers of tuff and tuffite.

Rare, interbedded layers of sandstone and mudstone.

Pyroclas c flows The rock consists dominantly (and o en en rely) of lapilli‐tuff, with signifi‐
cant propor ons of fiamme, lithic fragments and crystals in an ash‐grade
Kent Ridge Member (Pandan Forma on) matrix.

Most fiamme are green, less than 50 mm long, moderately fla ened

(aspect ra os <8:1) and are aligned.

Most lithic clasts are less than 30 mm in size and formed of porphyri c
volcanic rock.

Entrained crystals up to 4 mm in diameter, consist of quartz and feldspar.

Shallow/marginal‐ Sandstone is dominant and usually banded, very fine to medium‐grained,

marine and inboard with clay‐rich laminae (indica ve of variable flow energy).
volcanic landscape Mud drapes on sedimentary structures in the sandstone (‘flaser lamina‐
on’) are common.

Sandstone packages commonly coarsen upwards (i.e. show reverse grad‐

ing) and have interbedded, thin layers of mudstone.

Thin (1‐3 metre thick) units of micri c limestone are developed occasional‐
ly.
Clemen Member (Bukit Resam Forma on) Fully terrestrial part of The unit consists mainly of palaeosol, typically interbedded andisol
the Bukit Resam (soil formed in volcanic ash) and ul sol (intensly weathered soils
Forma on formed in humid environments) in beds 5‐20 metres thick.

The altera on associated with palaeosol development produces

strong colours, which are diagnos c. In terms of the Munsell colour
system, the colours range from ‘weak red’ (10R 5/4) or ‘reddish
brown’ (2.5YR 5/4) to ‘reddish grey’ (2.5YR/10R 5/1). Coarse‐grained
sedimentary rock (e.g. conglomerate) is absent.

Braided to meandering 1‐30 metre‐thick packages of fine‐ to very coarse‐grained, poorly‐

fluvial system sorted, angular to sub‐angular, quartz‐rich and 1‐4 m thick mud‐
stone, thinly interbedded with very fine to medium‐grained, well‐
sorted sandstone.

Conglomerate beds have a dis nc ve clast assemblage that includes

conspicuous white vein quartz, volcanic rocks, extra‐forma onal
siliciclas c rocks and metamorphic rocks, and lack the rounded,
cobble to boulder‐grade clasts that characterise the Buona Vista
Forma on.

Marginal marine to Composed dominantly of clay‐ to silt‐grade, siliciclas c mudstone

fluvio‐deltaic interbedded with very fine‐ to fine‐grained, very well‐sorted, very
mature sandstone with sub‐angular sand grains.

Alluvial fan (alluvial and Conglomerate beds characterised by rounded, cobble‐grade clasts,
fluvial processes) comprised of white vein quartz, volcanic rocks, extra‐forma onal
siliciclas c rocks and metamorphic rocks that characterises the Lab‐
rador Park Forma on.

Braided fluvial Quartz‐rich, thickly‐bedded sandstone comprised of rounded to very

well rounded, medium‐ to coarse‐grained quartz grains with well‐
developed quartz overgrowths.

The rocks are not deformed or metamorphosed, and therefore lack

the recrystallisa on and penetra ve fabric that would be associated
with deforma on and metamorphism.

Fluivio‐deltaic Sandstone is fine‐ to medium‐grained and well‐ to very well‐sorted.

Mudstone is dark grey to black and rich in organic ma er.

The rocks are not deformed or metamorphosed, and therefore lack

the recrystallisa on and penetra ve fabric that would be associated
with deforma on and metamorphism.

For more informa on please refer to: L , A G, G , M R, D , T J H, K , R S, B , T P, K , T I,

D , M R L , KW. 2018. Interpreta ve Geological Studies Report for Singapore. Bri sh Geological Survey
Commissioned Report, CR/17/140. and G , M R, L , A G, D , T J H, B , T P, K , R S, K , T I,
D M R AND L , K W. 2018. Bedrock Stra graphy of Singapore. Bri sh Geological Survey Commissioned
Summary of Intrusive-rocks, their rela onships, ages and lithologies

Chronostra graphical divisions

Assigned name Typical Lithology
Period Epoch Upper Cretaceous Age
Cretaceous

Pulau Sekudu
Quartz‐monzonite, locally
Cenomanian Quartz‐monzonite
porphyri c
Pluton

Singapore
Probably no older than Upper Trias‐ Basal c‐rock and
Basalt–andesite
sic Epoch and no younger than andesi c‐rock, variably
Dyke‐swarm
Lower Cretaceous Epoch porphyri c
Un‐named dykes

Pulau Ubin Granite Monzogranite, grading to

Pluton porphyri c rhyolite
Upper Triassic

Carnian
Triassic

Simpang Granite
Syenogranite
Pluton
Bukit Timah Centre
Middle Triassic to
Upper Triassic

Porphyri c rhyolite,
Dairy Farm Quarry
Anisian to porphyri c micro
Granite–rhyolite
Carnian monzogranite and
Pluton
monzogranite
Permian to Triassic

Guadalupian to
Middle Triassic

Gabbroic rocks and rocks

Gombak
Capitanian formed by mingling and
Gabbro–granite Plu‐
to Anisian mixing of siliceous and
ton
basic magmas
Cisuralian
Permian

Choa Chu Kang Granodiorite and tonalite,

Ar nskian Granodiorite– typically showing some
tonalite Pluton degree of deforma on
For more informa on please refer to: L , A G, G , M R, D , T J H, K , R S, B , T P, K , T I, D , M R L , KW. 2018. Interpreta ve Geologi-
cal Studies Report for Singapore. Bri sh Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/17/140. and G , M R, L , A G, D , T J H, B , T P, K , R S,
K , T I, D M R AND L , K W. 2018. Bedrock Stra graphy of Singapore. Bri sh Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/18/001.

Lithological Character

Typically of hornblende‐ and bio te‐bearing quartz‐monzonite, with abundant mafic enclaves. On Pulau Sekudu, the rock forms
rounded, metre‐scale outcrops and boulders formed of pink, coarse‐crystalline (medium), hornblende‐bio te grani c‐rock with
sca ered phenocrysts of alkali feldspar and abundant mafic enclaves. The rock around Pulau Ubin village (between Fo Shan Ting Da
Bo Gong temple and Sungei Pulau Ubin) has a different character, being grey, finer‐grained (coarse‐crystalline [fine] to medium‐
crystalline), and non‐porphyri c. Beside Chek Jawa je y (next to the contact with the Pulau Ubin pluton), the rock is mi‐
cromonzogranite (i.e. slightly finer‐grained and more siliceous than normal).
Most of the dykes assigned to this unit are probably less than 2 m thick, and in these intrusions the rock typically is dark olive green
and aphani c (i.e. individual crystals in the groundmass cannot be dis nguished by the unaided eye). The rock can be non‐
porphyri c, weakly porphyri c or strongly porphyri c. Where present, phenocrysts are small (<1 mm), sca ered, some mes glom‐
erocrys c (clusters of phenocrysts), and include dark and light crystals. Pyrite has replaced phenocrysts locally. Ovoid amygdales up
to several cen metres long are commonly present. The sheets have thin chilled margins, and remnants of a margin‐parallel flow
fabric are discernible locally.
Typically monzogranite, but textural variants (porphyri c micromonzogranite and rhyolite) also occur, and the composi on may
extend to granodiorite composi on locally. In hand samples, the rock typically is grey and can look equigranular or porphyri c; in
the la er case, rounded phenocrysts of quartz are set in a finer‐grained groundmass. Bio te and hornblende are usually both pre‐
sent, and either can be dominant locally.
The presence locally of a groundmass indicates that some parts of the magma chamber periodically were subjected to rapid crystal‐
lisa on. Sca ered, rounded, cm‐scale mafic enclaves, generally of microdiorite composi on, are present in many outcrops; some
are partly digested in the host grani c rock. Evidence for larger‐scale mingling, where patches up to metre‐scale of mafic (mainly
microdiori c) rock are enclosed in siliceous (grani c) rock, with sharp, irregular, apparently non‐chilled contacts, is observed rea‐
sonably commonly. Miaroli c cavi es are developed locally in the siliceous rocks. They are generally considered to form in magma
that is at a rela vely shallow level in the crust.
This intrusion consists typically of equigranular, coarse‐crystalline (medium) syenogranite and monzogranite. Viewed in thin sec‐
on, the rock displays a subtle magma c‐breccia texture. Bio te is always present and hornblende is usually present; where the
two occur together, there generally is more bio te than hornblende. In places, a porphyri c character is developed. A magma c
mineral linea on, defined mainly by aligned crystals of feldspar and ferromagnesian minerals, and occasionally by mafic enclaves, is
discernible occasionally. In most cases, the fabric dips gently to moderately (20–45°) towards the east. In places, there are substan‐
al sec ons in which the grani c rock is mingled and mixed with dark grey mafic (diori c to gabbroic) rock; this frequency suggests
that mingled and mixed rock is a widespread and characteris c feature of the Simpang pluton.
This unit has two dis nct textural variants: non‐porphyri c rock and porphyri c rock.
Non‐porphyri c monzogranite: typically light grey, homogeneous, coarse‐crystalline (medium to fine), essen ally equigranular, and
of monzogranite composi on. In thin sec on, the rock typically displays a subtle magma c‐breccia texture in which fragments of
variably broken and corroded plagioclase crystals are enclosed in later quartz and alkali feldspar. Both bio te and hornblende can
be present, though bio te is always dominant; these dark minerals give hand samples and core a speckled, ‘salt and pepper’ char‐
acter. Small (usually <10 cm), dark grey mafic enclaves of microdiorite composi on are reasonably common.
Porphyri c microgranite and porphyri c rhyolite : characterised by a markedly inequigranular, usually porphyri c, texture, though
the degree to which this character is developed varies considerably. In the best‐developed examples, coarse‐crystalline and medi‐
um‐crystalline phenocrysts of quartz, plagioclase, alkali feldspar and bio te, and fragments of plagioclase‐rich rock, are set in a
groundmass of very fine‐crystalline, equigranular crystals of quartz and feldspar.
The pluton consists mainly of basic (‘gabbroic’) igneous rocks, but is characterised by lithological variability on a range of scales.
Gabbroic‐rock: This is massive, equigranular rock consis ng almost en rely of greenish plagioclase and black to russet brown pyrox‐
ene, which together give the rock a mo led, dark greyish green character. The texture generally appears equigranular and hypidio‐
morphic (anhedral crystals in between tabular plagioclase crystals). The gabbroic‐rock has a range of grain‐sizes and sheets with
chilled margins sugges ng the pluton was assembled incrementally, by mul ple injec ons of magma.
The gabbroic‐rock also occurs as equigranular gabbroic‐rock and inequigranular (‘aplopegma c’) gabbroic‐rock in alterna ng, m‐
scale thick intervals and as mingled and mixed gabbroic‐, diori c‐ and grani c‐rock.
This intrusion consists typically of light grey to medium grey, coarse‐grained (usually coarse‐crystalline [medium] but locally coarse‐
crystalline [fine]) granodiorite and tonalite. Bio te is always present, but hornblende can be present and locally can be dominant.

The grani c rock locally is mingled and mixed with patches of dark grey mafic rock. The rock typically is deformed to some degree.
Reference Information
Classifica on and nomenclature
of fine-grained igneous rocks ac-
cording to their modal mineral
contents using QAPF diagram
(based on Streckeisen, 1978).

The corners of the triangle are Q = quartz,

A = alkali feldspar, P = plagioclase and F =
feldspathoid.

Gillespie and Styles, 1999

BGS grain-size scheme

QAPF = 100

Classification of fault-rocks
cataclasite fault‐rock comprised of angular clasts and a
matrix of comminuted wallrock

protobreccia cataclasite with <10% matrix

protocataclasite cataclasite with 10‐50% matrix

mesocataclasite cataclasite with 50‐90% matrix

ultracataclasite cataclasite with >90% matrix

pseudotachylite cataclasite comprised of glass

fault‐gouge cataclasite with <30% visible clasts in a ma‐

trix of mainly authigenic clay

fault‐breccia cataclasite with >30% visible clasts in a ma‐

trix of mainly authigenic clay

mylonite fault‐rock characterised by a schistosity (or

folia on) resul ng from tectonic reduc on
of grain‐size; fine layering and an associated
mineral or stretching linea on are common‐
ly present
(based on Wentworth, 1922 and Hallsworth and Knox, 1999.
Chronostratigraphic nomenclature References:
Cohen, K.M., Harper, D.A.T., Gibbard, P.L. 2017. Interna‐
onal Commission on Stra graphy

Gillespie, M.R. and Styles, M.T. 1999. BGS Rock Classifica‐

on Scheme Volume 1 Classifica on of igneous rocks.
Bri sh Geological Survey Research Report, RR 99‐06.

Gillespie, M R, Leslie, A G, Dodd T J H, Bide, T P, Kendall, R

S, Kearsey T I, Dobbs, M R and Lee, K W. 2018. Bedrock
Stra graphy of Singapore. Bri sh Geological Survey Com‐
missioned Report, CR/18/001.

Goodenough, K.M., Leslie, A.G., Kearsey, T., Price, S.J.,

Woods, M.A., Gillespie, M.R., & Boon,D., 2014. An Over‐
view of the Geology of Singapore. Bri sh Geological Sur‐
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Hall, R. 2009. The Eurasian SE Asian margin as a modern

example of an accre onary orogen. 351‐372 in Earth Ac‐
cre onary Systems in Space and Time. Cawood, P.A. and
Kroner, A. (editors). Geological Society Special Publica on,
318 (London: Geological Society of London).

Hallsworth, C.R. and Knox, R.W. O’B. 1999. BGS Rock Clas‐
sifica on Scheme Volume 3 Classifica on of sediments
and sedimentary rocks. Bri sh Geological Survey Research
Report, RR 99‐03.

Leslie A G, Gillespie, M R, Dodd T J H, Kendall R S, Bide, T

P, Kearsey, T I, Dobbs, M R & Lee KW. 2018. Interpreta ve
Geological Studies Report for Singapore. Bri sh Geological
Survey Commissioned Report, CR/17/140.

Metcalfe, I. 2011. Palaeozoic‐Mesozoic history of SE Asia.

in The SE Asian Gateway: History and Tectonics of the
Australia‐Asia Collision. Hall, R., Co am, M. A. and Wilson,
M. E. J. (editors). Geological Society of London Special
Publica on, 355, 7‐35. (London: Geological Society of Lon‐
don).

Streckeisen, A. 1978. IUGS Subcommission on the System‐

a cs of Igneous Rocks. Classifica on and nomenclature of
volcanic rocks, lamprophyres, carbona tes and melili c
rocks. Recommenda ons and sugges ons. Neues Jahr‐
buch fűr Mineralogie, Vol. 134, 1‐14.

Wentworth, C.K. 1922. A scale of grade class for clas c

sediments. Journal of Geology. Vol. 30, 377‐392.

Extract from Interna onal Chronostra graphic Chart v2017/02

Cohen et al., 2017 ww.stra graphy.org

Notes:
This document is the published output of a study by the Bri sh Geological Survey (BGS) that contains a summary of the key findings
from the current BGS understanding of the geology of Singapore.

The informa on summarised in this document is sourced from two reports: Bedrock Stra graphy of Singapore (2018) , and Interpre ve
Geological Studies Report for Singapore, which were key deliverables of the commissioned project Consultancy Services for the Study of
Stra graphy and Structural Geology for Applica on to Geological Modelling (T‐570/2015). The project was undertaken by the Bri sh
Geological Survey (BGS) between April 2016 and June 2018, on behalf of the Building and Construc on Authority (BCA) in Singapore.

Reference:
Kendall, R.S., Leslie, A.G, Gillespie, M.R., Dodd, T.J.H., Kearsey, T.I., Bide, T.P., and Dobbs, M.R. 2018. A Summary of the Geology of Sin‐
gapore. Bri sh Geological Survey Commissioned Report, CR/18/076