Accepted Manuscript

Multidisciplinary petro-geo-thermochronological approach to ore deposit ex-

ploration

Matthias Bernet, Alejandro Piraquive, Cindy Urueña, Julián Andrés López-

Isaza, Mauricio A. Bermúdez, Carlos Zuluaga, Sergio Amaya, Nicolás
Villamizar

PII: S0169-1368(18)30616-4
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.103017
Article Number: 103017
Reference: OREGEO 103017

To appear in: Ore Geology Reviews

Received Date: 19 July 2018

Revised Date: 14 February 2019
Accepted Date: 12 July 2019

Please cite this article as: M. Bernet, A. Piraquive, C. Urueña, J. Andrés López-Isaza, M.A. Bermúdez, C. Zuluaga,
S. Amaya, N. Villamizar, Multidisciplinary petro-geo-thermochronological approach to ore deposit exploration,
Ore Geology Reviews (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.103017

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Multidisciplinary petro-geo-thermochronological approach to ore deposit exploration

Matthias Bernet*1, Alejandro Piraquive 1,2,3, Cindy Urueña2,5, Julián Andrés López-Isaza2,
Mauricio A. Bermúdez4 , Carlos Zuluaga3, Sergio Amaya2, , and Nicolás Villamizar2,3

1Institut
des Sciences de la Terre, CNRS, Université Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble Cedex 9, France
* Corresponding author, Email: matthias.bernet@univ-grenoble-alpes.fr
ORCID: 0000-0001-5046-7520

2ServicioGeológico Colombiano, Bogotá, Colombia

3Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Departamento de Geociencias, Bogotá, Colombia
4Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia, Departamento de la Ingeniera Geológica

Sogamoso, Colombia
5Lund University, Department of Geology, Lund, Sweden

Abstract

The continuous search for mineral resources such as gold, copper and base metals etc.

requires a refined understanding of the thermal evolution and exhumation history of potential

exploration targets, as only ore deposits can be exploited that have been exhumed to the surface

or near to the surface. In order to better understand the exhumation history of the ore deposits

a multidisciplinary approach using single grain geo- and thermochronology double/triple dating

in combination with other geochemical, fluid inclusion and petrological analyses, can

significantly support prospecting for such resources, particularly in frontier areas, where little

geological information exists. Geo-thermochronology provides information on the timing of

initial host rock crystallization, ore deposit formation and subsequent exhumation as the

thermal history can be modelled and exhumation rates can be determined. Here we present a

methodological outline on which single-grain double/triple-dating techniques can be used, what

sampling strategies may be applied, and how the data may be interpreted.

Keywords: low-temperature thermochronology, geochronology, ore deposits, exhumation,

prospecting, exploration

1
Introduction

The search for mineral resources such as gold, copper, or base metals etc. will be one of

the most challenging tasks of modern societies over the next 30-50 years, in order to maintain

sustainable economic growth. Many ore deposits are concentrated in areas of past or current

magmatic activity, in the form of epithermal, hydrothermal, intrusion related, orogenic or

porphyry deposits. For instance, , about three quarters of the world’s copper supply is obtained

from porphyry Cu deposits (Sillitoe, 2010) and basically all major known Cu deposits are

currently being exploited, which calls for more intensified search of new resources (Richards,

2016). New geochemical techniques, such as Sr/Y, Ti/Sr and V/Ni ratios have been proposed for

mapping out new potential resources (Williamson et al., 2016). Kesler and Wilkinson (2006)

argued that the distribution of ore deposits, which can be exploited at or near the surface, is

controlled by exhumation. Even so the authors used a definition of the term exhumation that is

not recommended, as they included burial which is not an exhumation process, and their overall

conclusions were criticized as overly simplistic by Groves and Goldfarb (2007), Kesler and

Wilkinson (2006) nonetheless drew attention to the fact that ore deposits need to be exhumed

in order to be accessible and of economic interest. So, independent of the ore deposit type a

good understanding of the thermal evolution and exhumation history of the area of interest is

needed, in order to successfully exploit potential targets. Fundamental questions include: What

was the timing and duration of porphyry or vein ore deposit formation during the magmatic or

post-magmatic phases of volcanic arcs over active subduction zones, and when and at which

rates were these ore deposits exhumed to or near to the surface to evaluate its preservation

potential? The combination of different geo- and thermochronological dating techniques of

bedrock and detrital minerals (apatites, zircons, monazite, titanite, xenotime, allanite, rutile,

cassiterite, magnetite, calcite, etc.) and mineral paragenesis directly associated with ore

deposits (pyrite, sphalerite, sericite, alunite etc.), can help to answer such questions and support

2
the prospecting for and exploration of mineral resources in mountain belts, associated

sedimentary basins, and cratonic areas (e.g. Davis et al., 1994; Rasbury and Cole, 2009; Kooijman

et al., 2010; Zi et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2018; Neymark et al., 2018).

The combination of different isotopic dating techniques is not a new approach for

studying ore deposits. For example, Lipman et al. (1976) published a study using K-Ar and fission-

track dating to examine the mid-Tertiary mineralization and alteration in the western San Juan

Mountains in Colorado. Similarly, Ashley and Silberman (1976) published a study on the

Goldfield mining district in Nevada, using K-Ar and apatite and zircon fission-track dating to

determine the thermal and exhumation history of the gold deposits there. Below we briefly

review the case of the Carlin-type gold deposit thermochronology in Nevada as an example.

Since the early studies of Lipman et al. (1976) and Ashley and Silberman (1976) our

understanding of the advantages and pitfalls of commonly used low-temperature

thermochronology techniques (e.g. Ar-Ar, fission-track and (U-Th)/He dating) has significantly

improved, and many new studies have been published using a combination of a variety of

different high and low-temperature dating techniques, as shown by the large number of

publications in recent years of studies from around the world (e.g. McInnes et al., 1999; Hickey

et al., 2014; Wolff et al., 2015; Correa et al., 2016; Babo et al., 2017; Ballouard, et al., 2017; Toro

et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2018).

Some of the commonly used dating techniques in ore deposit studies are Ar-Ar, K-Ar or Re-Os

dating on mineral phases directly related to ore formation. Such data provides precise dates on

the timing of ore formation, but not the post-ore formation thermal history and exhumation. In

contrast, apatite and zircon, which are common accessory minerals in many basement and

sedimentary host-rocks of ore deposits, can readily be dated with different techniques, even

combined on single grains. The rationale behind this is that double and triple-dating techniques

3
provide information on the timing of either instantaneous or protracted crystallization of

igneous rocks, metamorphism, volcanism, hydrothermal activity, as well as post-magmatic and

exhumational cooling (e.g. Poller et al., 2001; Rahl et al., 2003; McInnes et al., 2005; Reiners et

al., 2005; Bernet et al., 2006, 2016; Jourdan et al., 2013; Zhao et al., 2017). A multidisciplinary

approach is therefore required given that formation of ore deposits involves processes

operating at a lithospheric scale, which may be overlapped in space but separated in time by

extensive periods of intermittent magmatism (Tassara et al., 2017). Such complex thermal

histories are closely related to the factors that control metal transfer from deep crustal and

mantle sources to the upper crust (Mundl et al., 2015), and finally to the surface by exhumation

where metals can be mined.

Furthermore, the results of the dating techniques can be used in thermal history

modelling to test different exhumation scenarios. The objective of this contribution is to

promote the use of double and triple dating in ore deposit exploration studies as a) the

exhumation history of ore-bearing rocks can be reconstructed from the host-rock directly or for

sediment or sedimentary rocks derived from the host rocks, and b) the thermal history and

inversion of sedimentary basins that contain sediment-hosted ore deposits can be

reconstructed. Therefore, we present here the outline of a methodological approach on how

particularly bedrock and detrital apatite and zircon double and even triple dating of single grains

in combination with ore deposit paragenesis and other independent techniques, e.g. Al-

hornblende barometry, fluid inclusion analysis, geochemical analyses etc., can be used to study

the timing of ore deposits formation and the exhumation of these deposits towards the surface.

Dating of geological processes and events

A whole range of isotopic dating techniques exist to determine the timing of

magmatism, volcanism, hydrothermal activity, tectonic events, cooling and indirectly

4
exhumation of crustal rocks, as the various dating techniques are sensitive to different

temperature ranges, which can be combined with petrological analyses for the discrimination

of fertile and barren igneous rocks, and metallogenic events (Fig. 1). Here we will focus on U-Pb,

fission-track and (U-Th)/He dating of apatite and zircon grains, as these are common accessory

minerals in many igneous, metamorphic and clastic sedimentary rocks. Other U-Pb dating

techniques are briefly mentioned. In addition to the techniques discussed here, a whole range

of other dating techniques exist, such as Ar-Ar, K-Ar, Rb-Sr, Lu-Hf, Re-Os dating etc. of different

minerals. Particularly K-Ar and Ar-Ar dating have been widely applied as these techniques are

very powerful for dating K-bearing sheet silicates that may have formed during mineralization

events, predominantly alunite, biotite, sericite, illite etc. (Ashley and Silberman, 1976; Lippman

et al., 1976; Snee et al., 1988; Ford and Snee, 1996; Rodriquez-Madrid et al., 2017; Kavalieris et

al., 2018; Li et al., 2018; Rice et al., 2018), or Re-Os dating of sulphides associated with gold ore

deposits (e.g. Stein et al., 1997, 2000, 2001; Frei et al. 1998; Brenan et al., 2000; Selby et al.,

2007; Bierlein et al., 2009; Scherstén et al., 2012; André-Mayer et al., 2014; Le Mignot et al.,

2017; Toro et al., 2017) All these dating techniques can provide useful information on ore

deposit formation, and they are well known in the economic geology community. This is why

they are not explained here in detail, as it is beyond the scope of this manuscript to discuss all

these techniques.

U-Pb dating

The crystallization of an igneous rock is a geological process that can be dated with U-

Pb dating of zircon, because zircon closes to Pb loss at temperatures of around 900-700°C

(Cherniak and Watson, 2001; Harrison et al., 2007). This technique has been widely used to date

magmatic intrusive rocks as well as volcanic rocks around the world (e.g. Poller et al., 2001; Zhao

et al., 2017). Knowing the time of crystallization of an intrusive body is useful for understanding

5
the timing of continental growth, orogenesis, paleo-geographic reconstructions, and for

providing the framework for provenance studies using U-Pb dating of detrital zircons in

sedimentary basin studies (e.g. Gehrels et al., 1999; Goodge and Fanning, 1999). Dating volcanic

rock layers with the zircon U-Pb method can provide precise stratigraphic constraints, becoming

very powerful when combined with chrono – and biostratigraphy, which has proven very useful

in basin analysis. Furthermore, using SHRIMP, ion probe or Laser Ablation inductively coupled

plasma mass-spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analyses it is possible not only to date the core of zircon

crystals to obtain crystallization ages, but also metamorphic and/or volcanic overgrowth rims

(Fig. 2A; e.g. Vonlanthen et al., 2012; Bernet et al., 2016; Piraquive et al., 2018).

Other minerals associated with hydrothermal or stratiform ore deposits and/or

metamorphic rocks datable with the U-Pb method are for example rutile, allanite, xenotime,

monazite, cassiterite or garnet (Davis et al., 1994; Kooijman et al., 2010; Zack et al., 2011;

Bracciali et al., 2013; Zi et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2018; Gevedon et al., 2018; Neymark et al.,

2018). Dating of such minerals that formed during hydrothermal fluid flow and ore deposit

formation, the ore formation events can be dated directly, and can be put into direct relation to

regional tectonic, magmatic or metamorphic episodes in the study area.

In recent years, advances in LA-ICP-MS analysis have brought about U-Pb dating of

apatite (Chew and Donelick, 2012), not only for apatites from igneous rock, but also detrital

apatites (Mark et al., 2016), with an apatite U-Pb closure temperature given between 450°C and

550°C (e.g. Cherniak et al., 1991; Chamberlain and Bowring, 2000; Schoene and Bowring, 2007).

This method can be routinely applied with multi-collector ICP-MS-analysis (Thomson et al.

2012).

U-Pb dating of calcite from hydrothermal ore deposits, such as Mississippi Valley type

(MVT) ore deposits, have shown promising results in combination with oxygen isotope and fluid

inclusion analyses for characterizing hydrothermal fluid flow (Brannon et al., 1996a, 1996b;

6
Coveney et al., 2000; Williams-Jones et al., 2005; Rasbury and Cole, 2009). In recent years, this

type of analysis has been extended to U-Pb dating of calcite in fault zones (Roberts and Walker,

2016). In contrast to high temperature U-Pb dating of zircon, rutile or monazite, U-Pb dating of

calcite allows dating of multiple diagenetic and tectonic events (Hansman et al., 2018), also

related to the influence of meteoric and hydrothermal fluids. As this method is directly related

to episodic calcite crystallization under strongly variable conditions (Walter et al. 2018), which

are recognized in hydrothermal veins, this dating technique potentially covers a wide range of

temperatures (>300°C – surface temperature). As calcite is easily altered during diagenesis and

weathering, great care has to be taken during sampling and analytical procedures in order to

produce reliable U-Pb dates (Rasbury and Cole, 2009; Roberts et al., 2017). Nevertheless, calcite

U-Pb dating becomes an necessary tool to study the details of ore formation, fluid flow,

tectonism and magmatism, which often involve a complex interplay of structural, sedimentary,

magmatic, hydrothermal, and hydrological processes (Walter et al., 2018).

Modern Laser Ablation Split Stream (LASS) analyses allow for age dating and

geochemical analyses of for example Lu- Hf, Nd , Sr, Ti, U, Ca, Si, etc. in zircon and to some part

in apatite at the same time (Barfod et al., 2003; Foster and Vance, 2006; Chen and Simonetti,

2013; Kylander-Clark et al., 2013; Viete et al., 2015), which has already been applied to studying

ore deposits (e.g. Manor et al., 2017). This approach also allows for double dating (and

potentially triple dating) with U-Pb, fission-track and/or (U-Th)/He dating methods (Fig. 2B).

Fission-track and (U-Th)/He low-temperature thermochronology

Fission-track and (U-Th)/He dating of apatite and zircon crystals are well established

techniques for determining the timing of cooling below critical temperatures (closure

temperatures), or heating and cooling though certain temperatures ranges (partial annealing or

retention zones), depending on the thermochronological techniques used. Fission-track dating,

7
which was initially developed in the 1960s (see Fleischer et al., 1975), is based on the

spontaneous fission decay of 238U in the crystal structure of U-bearing minerals. The most

commonly used minerals for fission-track dating are apatite and zircon, and to a lesser extent

titanite. Spontaneous fission events are very rare in comparison to the regular α-decay of 238U,

235U, and 232Th isotopes, but also follow decay constants (Table 1). For fission-track dating only

the spontaneous fission of 238U is of importance, as the contribution from spontaneous fission

of 235U and 232Th is negligible in comparison to the number of tracks formed by fission of 238U.

During the spontaneous fission event, two charged particles travel over a certain distance (about

16.3 μm in apatite of average chemical composition and about 11.2 μm in radiation damaged

zircon) with high energy through the crystal structure, displacing electrons and atoms from the

surrounding atoms, and leaving a damage zone, which is called a latent track (Fig. 3A). Latent

tracks can be made visible, after polishing and exposing of an internal crystal surface, under an

optical microscope at about 1250x magnification, through chemical etching (with 5.5 molar

HNO3 for 20 seconds at 21°C for apatite, and a NaOH-KOH melt at 228°C for various hours for

zircon). Tracks are formed over time following the decay-constant for spontaneous fission of

238U given in Table 1. However, at elevated ambient temperatures, in general >120-130°C for

apatite and >240-300°C for zircon fission-tracks are rapidly fully annealed through solid-state

diffusion. Only when the minerals cool below a critical temperature, the so-called closure

temperature (Fig. 4; Dodson, 1973), are fission tracks retained and accumulate over time in the

crystals. Determination of track densities on an internal crystal surface and U concentration

allows calculating when the crystals have apparently cooled below the closure temperature. This

simplifying concept works relatively well for monotonic and relatively fast cooling at rates of 10-

100°C/Myr, and the actual closure temperature depends on the cooling rate, as well as on

chemical composition for apatites and the amount of accumulated radiation damage in zircon

(e.g. Brandon et al., 1998; Donelick et al., 2005; Reiners and Brandon, 2006; Bernet, 2009).

8
However, when cooling is slow (<2°C/Myr) and/or the crystals are reheated, they may stay or

re-enter into an elevated temperature range where fission-tracks may be partially annealed (Fig.

3A). This temperature range is known as the partial annealing zone, and will depend on holding

time and mineral chemistry (Fig. 4; Brandon et al., 1998; Donelick et al., 2005; Reiners and

Brandon, 2006). Measurement of horizontally confined track lengths is a standard tool,

particularly in apatite fission-track analysis to determine the degree of partial annealing, which

is an important parameter for time-temperature history modelling. For more detailed

information on fission-track dating see Fleischer et al. (1975), Wagner and van den Haute (1992),

Gallagher et al. (1998), Donelick et al., (2005), and Tagami and O’Sullivan (2005).

(U-Th)/He dating was rediscovered in the 1980-1990s by Zeitler et al. (1987) and Wolf

et al. (1997), and has since developed into a standard thermochronological methods that

complements fission-track thermochronology, with a temperature sensitivity somewhat lower

than the fission-track methods (Fig. 4 and 5). The (U-Th)/He dating technique is based on the

accumulation of He isotopes in apatite and zircon crystals primarily. The He is derived from each

step of α-decay along the 238U-206Pb, 235U-207Pb and 232Th-208Pb decay chains. Because He can

diffuse out to the crystals at elevated temperatures and is only fully retained at lower

temperatures (Fig. 1, 3B and 5), the closure temperature and partial retention zone (equivalent

to the partial annealing zone of fission-tracks) concepts can equally be applied to (U-Th)/He

dating (e.g. Farley et al. 1996; Reiners and Farley, 2001; Ehlers and Farley, 2003; Reiners, 2005).

A possible complication can be either abnormal He retention in crystal defects (e.g. Gautheron

et al., 2009), or in apatite the implementation of He from zircon or other U-rich inclusions within

the apatite crystals, or from surrounding U-rich minerals in the host rock (Fig. 3B; Ehlers and

Farley, 2003). Therefore, only inclusion free crystals should be selected for (U-Th)/He analyses.

The combination of the different dating techniques and the fact that for the same sample zircon

fission-track ages should be older than zircon (U-Th)/He ages, which should be older than apatite

9
fission-track ages, which should be older than apatite (U-Th)/He ages in the absence of

extremely fast cooling (e.g. volcanic eruptions), the thermal history of an ore deposit or mineral

district can be elucidated, and data outliers can be easily identified.

In addition to the more widely applied (U-Th)/He dating of apatite and zircon, this

technique can also be applied to dating Fe and Mn-oxides (magnetite, hematite, rutile) and base

metal vein mineralization (Lippolt and Weigel, 1988; Wernicke and Lippolt, 1992, 1994a and b,

1997; Lippolt and Wernicke, 1997). Closure temperatures for Fe-Mn 0xides are in the range of

180–250°C for large (5 mm) specularite grains, and >90–160 °C for botryoidal hematite (>10 µm

diameter), as suggested by Bähr et al. (1994). Nonetheless the effect of grain size and

compositional variations on He diffusion have not yet been fully investigated.

Detrital geo-thermochronology in ore deposit exploration

The objective of analyzing modern river sediments, particularly placer deposits, is for

prospecting for potential ore deposits, fertility of prospective targets with respect to the heavy

mineral spectrum present, and characterizing the long-term exhumation history of the host rock

in a given drainage basin. In addition, this technique is very useful for studying the thermal

history and, if applicable, the basin inversion history of sediment-hosted ore deposits. For this

reason detrital geo-thermochronology is widely used in basin analysis, also in combination with

diagenetic, fluid inclusion and vitrinite reflectance analyses, as it is routinely done for the

reconstruction of the thermal evolution of hydrocarbon and/or coal bearing sedimentary basins

(e.g. Briggs et al., 1981; Hamilton et al., 1989; O’Sullivan, 1999; Cederbom et al., 2004; Green et

al., 2004; Armstrong, 2005). Therefore, detrital geo-thermochronology is a particularly effective

tool in frontier areas, where little or no detailed geological information are available.

10
 When the objective is to work with zircon and apatite geo-thermochronology, sampling

of sediment should be focused on the medium to coarse grained sand fraction of river sand or

gravel bars, particularly placer deposits, as the ore minerals (native metals, Cu-bearing sulphides

etc.) and zircons and apatites are concentrated in the heavy mineral fraction. The concentration

of such minerals in river sediments will primarily depend of mineral fertility of the source rocks.

Secondly during transport from the sources to sinks some minerals endure more mechanical

abrasion than others. This is reflected in the zircon-tourmaline-rutile (ZTR) index, as such stable

heavy minerals will be enriched relative to metastable (apatite, garnet, epidote, magnetite,

ilmenite etc.) accessory minerals. Furthermore, because of the hydraulic grain size equivalence,

fine grained heavy minerals are deposited together with medium grained quartz grains (Fig. 6).

The sampling strategy is to sample first large scale drainage basins to obtain a regional image of

exhumation rates and the occurrence of ore deposit minerals (Fig. 7A). In a second phase, sub-

drainage basins should be sampled in target areas to narrow down potential exploration cites.

For quantitative heavy mineral analysis bulk sediment samples should be taken in the field.

Furthermore, source rock lithology in the pebble fraction of the river sediments should be

recorded as they provide a quick overview of the bedrock lithologies, particularly of crystalline

and volcanic rocks. For geo- and thermochronological analyses, particularly zircon U-Pb and

fission-track single grain double dating (Fig. 2B) and apatite fission-track and (U-Th)/He analysis,

the heavy mineral concentration of river sediment samples can be enriched by sieving and

panning in the field. The objective here is to obtain sufficient sample material (thousands of

apatite and zircon grains) to allow dating of 100 or more grains per sample (e.g.; Vermeesch,

2004; Bernet and Garver, 2005).

Heavy mineral analysis, e.g. ribbon counting, point counting or geochemical and image

analysis methods (e.g. Mange and Maurer, 1992; Morton and Hallsworth, 1994; Layton-

Matthews et al., 2014), allow for a quick evaluation of the occurrence of gold, Cu-bearing

11
minerals or base metals etc. Even the abundance of ore deposit index-minerals in the river

sediment heavy mineral fraction can be quantified.

Determination of zircon U-Pb ages (in core-to-rim profiles) will provide information on

the plutonic and volcanic (e.g. Bernet et al., 2016), as well as the metamorphic history of the

source rocks (e.g. Piraquive et al., 2018), and help to pin-down sediment provenance from target

areas when compared to data obtained during bedrock analysis.

Fission-track and (U-Th)/He analyses of detrital apatite and zircon provide information

on the source area cooling history (e.g. Garver et al., 1999; Bernet et al., 2006), and can be

interpreted in terms of drainage basin peak and average exhumation rates, by determining the

central age as a proxy for the mean age (Galbraith and Laslett, 1993) and decomposing the

observed grain age-distribution into major grain age components or age peaks (Fig. 8; Brandon

and Vance, 1992; Brandon, 1996;), for samples where a) at least more than 50 grains were dated,

b) the samples fail the χ2-test, and c) the single grain age dispersion of the sample is >20% but

not just related to one or two outliers. A thorough inspection of the single grain age data is highly

recommended and this can be quickly done by plotting the data in a radial plot using a program

such as RadialPlotter of Vermeesch (2009, 2012). As previous studies have shown, detrital grain

age distributions faithfully represent the bedrock thermochronology of the drainage basin (e.g.

Bernet et al., 2004; Bermúdez et al., 2017). The fission-track central age provides a first-order

estimate on the drainage basin average exhumation rate, whereas the youngest age peak or the

minimum age (Galbraith and Laslett, 1993), indicate the fastest exhumation rates in the source

area, as cooling ages can be used for estimating exhumation rates (Table 2; e.g. Reiners and

Brandon, 2006; Willett and Brandon, 2013; Braun et al., 2017; Schildgen et al., 2018). Here

attention should be payed to the size of grain fraction belonging to each peak and the size of

the drainage basin. Furthermore, as different source rock lithologies may have different zircon

and apatite concentrations, a lithological bias may be introduced (Malusà et al., 2013, 2016;

12
Braun et al., 2017). This is in general more of concern for regional than for local studies, as

smaller drainage basin tend to show less lithological variability.

For obtaining estimates on long-term erosion rates of the source areas we can convert

the individual ages into single-grain exhumation rates (𝜀𝑗) for each detrital sample, using the

1-D steady state thermal model developed by Brandon et al. (1998; see also Ehlers, 2005;

Reiners and Brandon, 2006; Willett and Brandon, 2013). Examples of these applications are

shown in Bermúdez et al. (2013). But additionally, we can estimate for each individual grain an

estimate of the temperature gradient which was reached by the rock containing it. This way,

two mathematical expression let us to calculate the weighted long-term catchment-averaged

exhumation rate (𝜀𝑇)𝑤 as:

𝑁
(𝜀𝑇)𝑤 = 𝑁
1
∑𝜀 𝑗
𝑗=1

Many hydrothermal ore deposits have formed during orogenesis and their genesis is directly

related to episodes of deformation that preceded, accompanied or followed regional

metamorphism. Having an idea of the average thermal gradient in a basin can give an idea of

the temperature reached individually for each grain. This average thermal gradient can also be

obtained from the 1-D steady state thermal model mentioned previously as:

𝑁
1
𝐺𝑤 = (𝑇𝑐 ‒ 𝑇0) ∑𝜏 𝜀 𝑗 𝑗
𝑗=1

Where Tc is the closure temperature, T0 is the mean sea-level temperature, 𝜏𝑗, 𝜀𝑗 are the

individual thermochronological age and exhumation rate for the grain j.

Bedrock geo-thermochronology in ore deposit exploration

13
 Once a potential exploration site has been identified, it is key to collect samples for

analyzing the host rock thermal history A) along elevation profiles, and B) in the presence of

evidence of past hydrothermal fluid flow, such as quartz veins, with samples collected at

increasing distance from the veins (Fig. 9). Sampling of elevation profiles is a straightforward

approach for studying the exhumation history of crystalline rocks with low-temperature

thermochronology (e.g. Fitzgerald et al., 1993, 1995; Braun, 2002; Valla et al., 2010; van der

Beek et al., 2010). The number of samples needed for an elevation profile will depend on the

relief (total elevation difference) that can be sampled. In many locations accessibility in the field

and outcropping lithologies will provide additional constraints. Given the resolution of the

fission-track and (U-Th)/He methods, in most cases it is sufficient to collect samples at every

300-500 m of elevation (e.g. Restrepo-Moreno et al., 2009; Bermudez et al., 2011); see Table 3

as a rough guideline. However, sampling density may need to be adjusted depending on local

field conditions. Equivalent to the elevation profiles, samples can also be taken from drill cores

or obtained from different subsurface depth of mines. At any rate, putting the apparent cooling

ages from the different low-temperature thermochronometers in relation to elevation or depth,

will provide the basis of modelling the time-temperature history of the exhumed host rock (Fig.

9a).

The horizontal sampling with increasing distance to veins that contain the ore

mineralization of interest will depend on vein thickness and spacing. For veins on cm-scale

thickness, sampling over a range of 50-100 cm may be sufficient for studying the thermal impact

of hot fluid circulation on the host rock, whereas thicker veins may require sampling over several

meters of distance. At any rate the, first sample should be taken at the direct contact of the host

rock with the vein (e.g Urueña et al. ,2013; Janots et al., 2019), as depending on the ambient

host rock temperature at the time of hydrothermal activity, the thermal overprint may be of

variable importance. The cooler the host rock was when hydrothermal fluid started circulating

14
the more significant the thermal overprint may be on the host rock. In this case the idea is to

identify if heating was sufficient to re-enter into the partial annealing or retention zones (or

even full track annealing or complete He-loss) of the different thermochronometers (Fig. 5). In

the case of full annealing or He loss the subsequent cooling will provide apparent cooling ages

constraining the timing of the end of hydrothermal fluid flow. Partial annealing/resetting will be

reflected in mixed/complex single age distribution signals. If the thermal overprint of the host

rock from heating by hydrothermal fluid flow along fractures and veins was negligible, then the

apparent cooling ages of the host rock at increasing distance from the veins will by similar to the

cooling ages derived from the age-elevation profiles at the corresponding elevation. Fluid

inclusion analysis of vein quartz, carbonates and halite for example will help to obtain

independent information on the temperature of the fluid during the phase of hydrothermal fluid

flow (e.g. Janots et al., 2012). This information is of importance to model the thermal overprint

on the country rock during precipitation of the ore deposits in veins.

As zircons and apatites usually do not form in hydrothermal veins, the focus is here on

sampling and analyzing the crystalline host rock. Nonetheless, it is worthwhile searching for

monazite and xenotime within ore-bearing veins to determine by U-Pb dating the timing of vein

formation (Janots et al., 2012, 2019; Zi et al., 2015; Grand’homme et al., 2016). In addition,

different vein generations need to be mapped out and the predominant structural orientations

needs to be determined if at all possible, in order to relate vein formation also to regional

tectonics. As mentioned above, an emerging technique is calcite U-Pb dating of multiple

generations of structures (veins, fractures, clefts, faults etc.), as recently shown by Hansman et

al. (2018), as well for relevant events on a regional scale (Parrish et al. 2018). Although these

advances are quite recent, it is feasible that calcite U-Pb dating may rapidly develop into a major

application to ore deposit exploration as many deposits are hosted in calcite-bearing rocks.

Additionally, in case different generations of veins can be identified, monazite and xenotime U-

15
Pb dating may be performed on all vein generations. Host rock low-temperature

thermochronology should however be focused on the latest or the most prominent set of veins,

as subsequent hydrothermal events may erase the thermal imprint of previous events, but that

will depend on the importance of each vein set (vein thickness, attitude, and density of the vein

pattern).

In general, for vein–hosted or any other types of ore deposits it is highly recommended

that the paragenetic relationships between accessory minerals and specific ore deposits are

taken into consideration (Cook et al., 2017), as other accessory minerals directly associated with

the ore deposits may be datable, such as for example Re-Os dating of sulphides and molybdenite

(e.g. Arne et al., 2001; Babo et al., 2017; Le Mignot et al., 2017; Toro et al., 2017), Rb-Sr dating

of sphalerite in Zn-Pb deposits (e.g. Ostendorf et al., 2017), Pb-Pb dating of galena (e.g. Bielicki

and Tischendorf, 1991), or Ar-Ar dating of illite and sericite (e.g. Wilson and Kyser, 1988; Hofstra

et al., 1999). Such additional information is easily integrated in the time-temperature history

models based on the results obtained from the host-rock apatite and zircon double/triple dating.

Time-temperature history modelling

Combining the results from the different dating techniques mentioned above on the

same sample is useful in determining the time-temperature path of plutonic host rock formation

and subsequent cooling, where zircon U-Pb dating (core-to-rim profiles) will pin-down the timing

of crystallization, apatite (monazite, xenotime, allanite, rutile, etc.). U-Pb dating may indicate

the timing of hydrothermal mineralizations, and the apatite and zircon fission track and (U-

Th)/He low-temperature thermochronometers provide the timing of cooling through the upper

crust (Fig. 10A). This scenario is valid for the simple case of monotonic cooling and the time-

temperature trajectory provided by the different dating techniques (Fig. 10B) will depend on the

original crustal depth of the intrusion and the rate of cooling during exhumation to the surface.

16
 In addition, in order to define changes in the thermal history, complementary

thermometric tools, such as microthermometry analysis of fluid inclusions, may provide useful

constraints. Fluid inclusion analysis provide essential information about the chemical

composition and temperature of mineralized fluids that passed through the rock. Such

information will help to constrain what part of the hydrothermal flow system has been exhumed

and eroded.

At any rate, one challenging aspect of time-temperature history modelling is to

determine how much of the cooling was caused by post-magmatic thermal relaxation and how

much was caused by exhumation cooling. The intrusion depth may be determined quantitatively

through Al in hornblende barometry in granitic rocks and other amphibole barometers (e.g.

Hammarstrom and Zen, 1986; Moazzen and Droop, 2005), thermobarometry of contact

metamorphic rocks in the thermal aureole (e.g., Treloar, 1981), or alternatively in a qualitative

way by microstructure and meso-structure observations in the intrusion and the country rock.

In the case of deep and mid-crustal level intrusions, the component of post-magmatic thermal

relaxation may not even be recorded by the fission-track and (U-Th)/He thermochronometers

discussed here, as ambient temperatures are still above their closure temperature, but possibly

by other, higher temperature thermochronometers (Fig. 1). For shallow crustal level intrusions

(<5-10 km crustal depth), the portion of post-magmatic cooling may be of importance in

comparison exhumational cooling. Nonetheless, if crystalline rocks are exposed at the surface

today that must have been exhumed and at least the apatite fission-track and (U-Th)/He dating

techniques will provide information on exhumational cooling.

Different numerical codes (software and routines) exist for modelling time-temperature

histories from thermochronological data. Programs such as HeFTy (Fig. 11; Ketcham, 2005;

Ketcham et al., 2018), and QTQt (Gallagher, 2012) are commonly used for modelling the thermal

history of single rock samples or of sample set collected along vertical profiles or from drill holes.

17
Other, more sophisticated programs such as Pecube (Braun, 2003; Braun et al., 2012) or Fetkin

(Almendral et al., 2015), allow solving the heat transport equation in three or two dimensions

respectively, for constraining different thermal history, exhumation, tectonic configuration and

relief development scenarios (e.g. Braun, 2003; Braun et al., 2012).

Using the model for porphyry copper formation of Richards (2016), at upper crustal

depth of only 3-4 km below volcanoes in subduction zones (Fig. 12A), post-magmatic

exhumation should not exceed more than 3 km to expose the ore body at the surface (Fig. 12B).

Depending on the rate of exhumation determined from low-temperature thermochronology,

typically in the range of 0.1 to 1 km/Myr in many mountain belts of moderate tectonic activity

(Montgomery and Brandon, 2002) the ore body may be exposed for few to tens of millions of

years before it has been fully eroded, and the underlying former magma chamber is exposed at

the surface (Fig. 12C).

Petrological analysis

Many of the principal ore deposits of copper, molybdenum, gold, zinc, lead, PGE’s, nickel,

colombite-tantalite, REE, tin and tungsten (among others), are associated with igneous rocks in

diverse tectonic settings, whether they host the mineralization or provide the mineralizing fluids

(Müller and Groves, 1993; Sillitoe and Thompson, 1998; Goldfarb et al., 2001; Kerrich et al.,

2005; Richards, 2005; 2009; 2011; 2014; Hart, 2005; Robb, 2005; Richards and Kerrich, 2007;

Tosdal et al., 2009; Groves et al., 2010; Wilkinson, 2013; Goldfarb and Groves, 2015; Deb and

Sarkar, 2017). On the other hand, the relationship between ore deposits and magmatic systems

is relevant for the mineral resources assessments and the definition of the mineral potential

(e.g. Cox and Singer, 1992; Müller and Groves, 1993; Sillitoe, 1996; Stoeser and Heran, 2000;

Mitra and Bidyananda, 2003; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003; Richards and Kerrich, 2007;

Cunningham et al., 2008; Tosdal et al., 2009; Chelle-Michou et al., 2017).

18
 The petrological analysis of intrusive igneous rocks applied to exploration implies the

understanding of magma petrogenesis, and magma sources, the classification and

discrimination of the tectonic settings, the determination of the compositional evolution,

fractionation and the oxidation state (Thiéblemont et al., 1997; Blevin, 2004; Hart, 2005;

Richards and Kerrich, 2007; Richards, 2011; Sun et al., 2015). A first approximation done in ore

deposits and host rocks is the chemical alteration discrimination in function of the concentration

of the major elements and some trace elements (Wilt, 1995; Davies and Whitehead, 2006;

2010). The differentiation of “fertile” (mineralized or productive) intrusions and their

associations of “barren” (Stringham, 1960), is possible through the use elemental ratios of whole

rock (e.g. FeO/Fe2O3, K/Rb, Sr/Y), isotopes (e.g. Ce4/Ce3, S, ??18O) and minerals (e.g. zircon,

titanite, micas, scheelite, Fe-Ti oxides and sulphides), related to the oxygen fugacity (Müller and

Groves, 1993; Mitra and Bidyananda, 2003; Blevin, 2004; Nadoll et al., 2014; Knipping et al.,

2015; Sun et al., 2015; Makvandi et al., 2016; Duran et al., 2017; Kontak et al., 2017; Spry et al.,

2017; Wilkinson et al., 2017; Ward et al., 2018).

On a regional scale, the discrimination of igneous rocks in magnetite-series and ilmenite-

series provides an approximation for the mineral potential assessment (Ishihara, 1977; 2004;

Takahashi et al., 1980; Kumar, 2010), differentiating oxidized-type and reduced-type provinces

(Wilt, 1995; Takagi and Tsukimura, 1997). In addition, the analysis and interpretation of the fluid

inclusions provide information about the oxidation state, composition, pH, salinity,

temperature, fluid evolution, sources, and related processes as mixing, fluid boiling and

separation of immiscible phases for diverse ore deposits (Heinrich et al., 1999; Rowins, 2000;

Frezzotti et al., 2012; Bodnar et al., 2014), and favors the differentiation of productive mineral

events from poor mineral events.

Example: The Carlin-type gold deposits in Nevada

19
The Carlin-type gold deposits in NE and central Nevada (Fig. 13), are economically one of the

most prominent disseminated gold deposits. The ore is mainly hosted in Silurian and Devonian

carbonate rocks of the Roberts Mountains and Popovich formations, Jurassic intrusive rocks

such as the Goldstrike stock or Little Boulder stock and Eocene porphyritic dikes (Ressel et al.

2000; Chakurian et al., 2003; Ressel and Henry, 2006; Hickey et al., 2014). Submicron-sized gold

inclusions in hydrothermal pyrite and quartz are the most common type of gold deposits in these

rocks. These deposits were most likely formed over a time span of 104 to 105 years by

hydrothermal fluid flow in connection with Eocene porphyritic dikes and sills, related to an

intrusion at depth (Ressel et al., 2000; Chakurian et al., 2003; Hickey et al., 2014). Also observed

in the area are mid-Miocene rhyolite lavas (Ressel et al., 2000; Ressel and Henry, 2006).

The gold bearing rocks and mineralizations in this area have been studied at least since

the 1970s using single or combined dating techniques, mainly biotite and sericite K-Ar and Ar-

Ar dating, and apatite fission-track and (U-Th)/He dating (e.g. Ashley and Silberman, 1976;

Arehart et al., 1993; Hofstra et al., 1999; Ressel et al., 2000; Chakurian et al., 2003; Ressel and

Henry, 2006; Hickey et al., 2014). The first biotite K-Ar and titanite fission-track dating concerned

quartz monzonite and provided preliminary cooling dates of about 170 Ma (Edwards and

Mclaughlin, 1972; Ashley, 1973), to which Ashley and Silberman (1976) added somewhat

younger white mica and biotite K-Ar dates of 147 Ma and 156 Ma respectively. On the basis of

K-Ar dating of hypogene alunite and sericite from hydrothermally altered rocks, and host rock

apatite fission-track data, Ashley and Silberman (1976) proposed an Early Miocene (21-20 Ma)

mineralization age for the Carlin-type gold deposits in Nevada. A Jurassic intrusion date of the

Goldstrike stock at ~158 Ma was later confirmed by biotite and hornblende Ar-Ar dating of

Arehart et al. (1993). However, on the basis of K-Ar and Ar-Ar dates of around 117 Ma of fined

grained sericite from altered host rocks, these authors concluded that the Carlin-type gold

mineralization occurred during the Early Cretaceous. Even though Arehart et al. (1993) also

20
provided a range of Eocene (~39 Ma) biotite Ar-Ar dates and Eocene apatite and zircon fission-

track dates from porphyritic dikes and sills, these rocks were regarded as being unrelated to the

Carlin-type gold mineralization. That in fact hydrothermal fluid flow related to the Eocene (~39

Ma) porphyritic dikes and sills was responsible for the formation of the Carlin-type gold deposits

was established a few years later, at least since the work of Hofstra et al. (1999) and Ressel et

al. (2000). Subsequent studies by Chakurian et al., (2003) and Hickey et al., 2014), with more

focus on apatite fission-track and (U-Th)/He dating confirmed the Eocene age of the gold

deposits, but furthermore provided time-temperature history models that underline the

complexity of the thermal history of an area like the Nevada gold mining district, which has seen

several phases of magmatic and hydrothermal activity: andesite dikes at ~324 Ma, diorite

intrusions at ~158 Ma (Goldstrike stock), granite intrusion at ~108 Ma (Richmond Mountain

stock), porphyritic dikes at ~39 Ma, and rhyolite lavas at ~15 Ma (Hofstra et al., 1999; Ressel et

al., 2000). All of these “thermal events” affected the country rock to a different degree and it is

obvious that the correct interpretation of geo- and thermochronological data can be challenging

in such settings, particularly when data sets are limited and/or restricted to one or wto

thermcohronmeters. Furthermore, the problem of partial resetting of low-temperature

thermochronometers by subsequent thermal events can cause complications. To overcome

such difficulties a well-developed sampling strategy combined with the appropriate selection of

multiple isotopic dating techniques and petrological/geochemical analyses of host rock and ore

deposit parageneses, are recommended. Only then a solid understanding of the formation,

thermal evolution, and exhumation history of ore deposits can be obtained.

Conclusions

A multidisciplinary approach, combining geo-thermochronology with other geochemical, fluid

inclusion and petrological analyses can help to gain more comprehensive information on ore

21
deposit formation and for the successful exploration for new ore deposit sites. A detailed

sampling plan helps prospecting on regional and local scales using detrital and bedrock geo-

thermochronology, which combined with time-temperature history modelling provides

information on the timing of host rock crystallization, ore deposit formation, and subsequent

erosional exhumation, as well as exhumation rates and preservation potential. These valuable

information are needed for better characterizing the evolution of ore deposit systems and for

more precise estimation of exploration potential.

Acknowledgements

M. Bernet acknowledges the support of the CNRS for a one year leave to Colombia during which

this manuscript was written. We acknowledge the thoughtful and constructive review by an

anonymous reviewer and appreciated the helpful comments of the associate editor.

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Figure captions

Fig. 1 Overview of temperature sensitivity ranges of a selection of different geo- and

thermochronological dating techniques. See references in the text for information on some of

these techniques.

Fig. 2 A) Schematic LA-ICP-MS U-Pb dating approach with core to rim profiles in order to detect

initial crystallization, metamorphic and/or volcanic overprint ages. B) LA-ICP-MS fission-track

dating, with ablation in the same area where fission-tracks were counted. C) Double-dating

approach by combining U-Pb profiles and fission-track dating on the same grains. Potentially LA-

ICP-MS He dating may become available in the near future. Even if the example is given here for

zircons, the same approach can technically be used for apatites.

Fig. 3 A) Formation of latent fission tracks by spontaneous fission of 238U in the crystal structure

of U bearing minerals such as apatite or zircon. Progressive track annealing at elevated

temperatures because of solid state diffusion of displaced atoms and electrons. B) He formation

by α-decay along the 238U, 235U and 232Th decay chains, here schematically shown only for 238U

 206Pb. He isotopes may be lost from the crystal at elevated temperatures because of noble

gas diffusion following Fick’s first diffusion law. He implementation in apatite from U-rich

mineral inclusions or surrounding minerals in the host rock.

Fig. 4 Closure temperature in relation to cooling rate. Effective closure temperature using the

method of Dodson (1973). The curves were determined for apatite of average chemical

composition and radiation damages zircons, using the Closure program of M. Brandon (see

Ehlers et al., 2005). Model parameters: (U-Th)/He apatite (Farley, et al., 1996), Radius (microns):

38
85.0, Frequency factor (cm2/s): 50.0 Beta (s-1): 3.81E+07, Activation Energy (kcal/mol): 32.9;

Fission track Durango apatite (Laslett et al., 1987) Beta (s-1): 9.83E+11, Activation Energy

(kcal/mol): 44.6; (U-Th)/He zircon (Reiners et al., 2002) Radius (microns): 60.0 Frequency factor

(cm2/s): 15.7, Beta (s-1): 2.40E+07, Activation Energy (kcal/mol): 44.0; fission track radiation-

damaged zircon (Zaun and Wagner, 1985; Tagami et al., 1996), Beta (s-1): 1.00E+08, Activation

Energy (kcal/mol): 49.8.

Fig. 5 Temperature ranges of apatite and zircon fission-track and (U-Th)/He partial annealing

and retention zones. The zircon He retention zone is shown for zircons that have not

accumulated significant amounts of radiation damage. In the table are shown the upper and

lower temperature limits given for a 10 Myr holding time, using the “loss-and-production”

model of the Closure program of M. Brandon (see Ehlers et al., 2005). As an example is

schematically shown the change of apparent apatite fission-track cooling ages within the apatite

fission-track partial annealing zone.

Fig. 6 Hydraulic grain size equivalence of heavy mineral grain sizes with respect to quartz grain

size, using the equation of Tourtelot (1968).

Fig. 7A) Schematic regional sampling approach of modern river drainages for detrital geo-

thermochronology and heavy mineral as in order to obtain an overview of exploration potential

and exhumation rates. B) Sampling of sub-basins upstream of confluences with the trunk stream

to narrow down potential exploration targets.

39
Fig. 8) Example of a modern river zircon fission-track grain-age distribution A) in a radial plot

with central age and best-fit peak ages of different grain age components, and B) in a kernel

density plot (using Radialplotter v. 9.1 of P. Vermeesch, 2009). Data from Bernet et al. (2004)

Fig. 9 A) Schematic illustration of vertical age-elevation profile sampling approach to determine

the host rock exhumation history. The common age-elevation relationship is that rocks collected

at higher elevations will have older cooling age than rocks collected at lower elevations of the

same profile, in the absence of post-cooling relief change (see Braun, 2002). B) Schematic

illustration of the horizontal distance profile sampling approach to determine the timing of

hydrothermal activity and thermal impact on the host rock. The strike and dip of the vein has to

be taken into account to calculate the real distance to the vein. Samples collected at the direct

contact to the vein may indicate the timing of post-hydrothermal fluid flow cooling.

Fig. 10 Schematic illustration of the apatite and zircon double/triple dating approach to

determine timing of crystallization, ore deposit formation and exhumational cooling history in

the simple case of monotonic cooling for different scenarios depending on initial intrusion

depth. The commonly in ore deposit studies used white-mica 40Ar/39Ar dating thermal sensitivity

range is also shown, as it is compatible with the apatite and zircon dating techniques. .

Fig. 11 Examples of a time-temperature history model using the HeFTy software of Ketcham

(2005) to determine the cooling history of Late Cretaceous crystalline rocks exposed today at

the surface at 1900 m elevation in the Central Cordillera of Colombia. Data are from Bernet et

al. (2018). The shown track lengths are c-axis projected track lengths (Ketcham et al., 2009).

40
Fig. 12 A) Simplified model of Richards (2016) for porphyry copper ore body formation beneath

a volcanic structure. Cu and metal rich fluid from the magma chamber cause precipitation of Cu-

bearing sulphide minerals in the upper crust above the magma chamber. B) Post-magmatic

erosion of the volcanic edifice and exhumation of the ore body from 3-4 km depth to the surface

or million to tens of millions of years, depending on erosion rate. C) Complete removal of the

porphyry copper ore body by continued exhumation and exposure of the former magma

chamber at the surface.

Fig. 13 Schematic overview map of the distribution of Carlin-type gold deposits in Nevada. Map

modified from Arehart et al. (1993) and Chakurian et al. (2003).

Table 1 Uranium and thorium decay constants and isotopic abundances

Table 2 Exhumation rates determined from low-temperature thermochronology data

Table 3. Suggestions of vertical age-elevation profile sampling density depending on relief

Bernet et al. data tables

Table 1 Uranium and thorium relative isotopic abundances and half-lives

Relative abundance Total half-life Spontaneous fission Spontaneous fission
(compared to 238U) (years) half-life (years) decay constant
232Th 4 1.4 x 1010 1.0 x 1021
234U 5.44 x 10 -5 2.46 x 10 5 1.5 x 1016
235U 7.25 x 10 -3 7.04 x 10 8 1.0 x 1019
238U 1 4.47 x 10 9 8.2 x 1015 8.51±0.18 ×10−17 yr−1
Note: Table modified from Wagner and Van den Haute (1992)

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Table 2 Exhumation rates determined from low-temperature thermochronology data
Exhumation AFT ZFT
rate (km/Myr) AHe (Ma) (Ma) ZHe (Ma) (Ma)
0.001 779.64 2485 4145.5 5832.8
0.005 244.07 569.76 916.5 1256.55
0.01 141.64 300.91 477.44 647.83
0.05 37.35 67.22 103.73 137.66
0.1 20.39 34.74 53.07 69.84
0.2 10.82 17.61 26.66 34.83
0.3 7.33 11.65 17.57 22.86
0.4 5.49 8.6 12.93 16.79
0.5 4.35 6.74 10.12 13.12
0.6 3.57 5.49 8.23 10.66
0.7 3 4.59 6.88 8.9
0.8 2.57 3.91 5.86 7.58
0.9 2.24 3.39 5.07 6.56
1 1.97 2.97 4.44 5.74
1.1 1.74 2.63 3.93 5.08
1 1.97 2.97 4.44 5.74
1.1 1.74 2.63 3.93 5.08
1.2 1.56 2.34 3.51 4.53
1.3 1.4 2.11 3.15 4.06
1.4 1.27 1.9 2.84 3.67
1.5 1.16 1.73 2.58 3.33
1.6 1.06 1.58 2.36 3.04
1.7 0.97 1.45 2.16 2.78
1.8 0.89 1.33 1.99 2.56
1.9 0.83 1.23 1.83 2.36
2 0.77 1.14 1.7 2.18
2.25 0.64 0.95 1.41 1.82
2.5 0.55 0.8 1.2 1.54
2.75 0.47 0.69 1.02 1.31
3 0.41 0.6 0.89 1.14
3.5 0.32 0.46 0.68 0.87
4 0.25 0.36 0.54 0.69
5 0.17 0.25 0.36 0.46
6 0.12 0.18 0.26 0.33
7 0.09 0.13 0.2 0.25
8 0.07 0.1 0.15 0.19
9 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.16
10 0.05 0.07 0.1 0.13
15 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.06
Note: The exhumation-age relationships were calculated with the
Age2edot program of M. Brandon (see Ehlers et al., 2005), with the
following identical thermal parameters for all thermochronometers:
Layer depth to constant temperature (km): 30; thermal diffusivity
(km2/Myr.): 30; internal heat production (°C/Myr): 8; Surface
temperature (°C): 10; temperature at base of layer (C): 790; Surface
thermal gradient (°C/km): 30; heat production (microwatts m-3):
.5830608; thermal conductivity (watts/(m-K)): 2.186478; surface heat
flux (milliwatt m-2): 65.59435

42
43
Table 3. Suggestions of vertical age-elevation profile sampling density depending on
relief
Relief Number of samples
Up to 500 m Collection of at least 3 samples, one at the base and the
top, and one in the middle
500-1000 m Collection of up to 4 samples
1000-1500 Collection of 4-6 samples
m
1500-2000 Collection of 6-8 samples
m
2000-3000 Collection of 8-10 samples
m

44
Highlights
 Multi-disciplinary approach to ore deposit exploration
 Combination of isotopic dating techniques with petrological and geochemical analyses
 Modelling of ore deposit formation and exhumation to or near to the surface

45