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Palaeoclimatic interpretation of clay minerals in marine deposits: An

outlook from the continental origin

Article in Earth-Science Reviews · March 2000

DOI: 10.1016/S0012-8252(99)00054-9

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 Earth-Science Reviews 49 Ž2000. 201–221
www.elsevier.comrlocaterearscirev

Palaeoclimatic interpretation of clay minerals in marine deposits:

an outlook from the continental origin
a,b,)
´
Medard Thiry
a
´
Centre Informatique Geologique, ´ 77305 Fontainebleau Cedex, France
Ecole des Mines de Paris, 35 rue St. Honore,
b
`
CNRS-UMR 7619 Sisyphe ‘Structure et fonctionnement des systemes hydriques continentaux’, France
Received 22 April 1999; accepted 13 August 1999

Abstract

As distribution of clay minerals in modern oceans seems to be controlled by contemporary climates, marine clays in
ancient deposits have been widely used to reconstruct palaeoclimates. In this review, we examine this question mainly from
the continental origin of the clay minerals and show the difficulties of retrospective analysis of the influence of climate on
common marine deposits. We examine successively how soils develop and behave, are reworked and palaeoweatherings are
preserved, focusing the review on kaolinitic soils indicative of tropical wet climates. Several stages intervene between the
time of clay mineral development in soils and their final deposition in the basin: Ž1. The persistence over geological times of
huge amounts of kaolinitic palaeoweathering materials in the landscapes may seriously alter the palaeoclimatic signal of
kaolinite in the sedimentary record. Although the kaolinite deposited in recent sediments of the world oceans is consistent
with wet climatic zones, this is mainly because the major kaolinitic and bauxitic palaeosurfaces coincide with the tropical
areas where kaolinite is still developing at present. Ž2. Possible development of deep kaolinitic profiles at high latitudes and
cold conditions, under CO 2-enriched palaeoatmospheres, or even by unusual acidic weathering linked with dry climates is
misleading palaeoenvironments for palaeoclimatic reconstruction. Ž3. Erosion and transport processes always cloud the
signal to some extent, because frequently, erosion products from the bedrock and different soil horizons will be mixed and
major drainage systems may include soils of different climatic zones. Ž4. The arrival of the soil clay assemblages in the basin
inevitably lags against their formation on the continent and may occur several million years after formation of the soils on
the continent and climate may have considerably changed at that time. It is pointed out that sedimentologists and
palaeoclimatologists should consider the complexity of the relations between soil and sedimentary clay minerals. Soil
formation rates are slow and therefore the resolution of the palaeoclimatic record in marine clay may not be closer than 1 or
2 Ma. At present, the palaeoclimatic interpretations of marine clay assemblages are yielding, at best, nothing more than
rather broad palaeoclimatic information. This approach cannot achieve the same degree of resolution as other techniques
such as isotope or microfossil studies. Clay mineral assemblages may provide integrated records of overall climatic impacts,
whereas other techniques are more likely to reveal local or temporary climates. q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights
reserved.

Keywords: clay minerals; palaeoweathering; palaeoclimate; marine deposits; kaolinite; sedimentary cycle

)
Tel.: q33-1-64-69-49-58; fax: q33-1-64-69-47-13; e-mail: thiry@cig.ensmp.fr

0012-8252r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 1 2 - 8 2 5 2 Ž 9 9 . 0 0 0 5 4 - 9
202 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221
1. Introduction
Scientists have for a long time been trying to
interpret clay assemblages in marine series. Early
studies often considered inheritance from the conti-
nent as against authigenesis within the basin. Many
of them showed the predominance of inheritance in
the distribution of recent marine clay minerals
` and Visse, 1954; Weaver, 1958; Pinsak and
ŽRiviere
Murray, 1960., whereas, smectites were often re-
garded as symptomatic of marine environments in
ancient series ŽMillot, 1949; Lucas, 1962; Peterson,
1962.. Furthermore, differential settling of clay min-
erals during sedimentation processes were thought to
explain the gradual illite and smectite enrichment of
clay minerals away from the major river months
ŽWeaver, 1958; Whitehouse et al., 1960..
The debate has continued ever since. With the
development of the oceanographic programmes dur-
ing the sixties, it appeared that clay mineral occur-
rences in recent sediments of the world oceans show
a latitudinal distribution ŽHeezen et al., 1960; Bis-
caye, 1965; Griffin et al., 1968.. Therefore, marine
clay minerals have been interpreted as mainly inher-
ited from the soils. Nevertheless, in several places,
an increase of smectites appeared away from the
continents. That commonly was regarded as resulting
from differential settling of clay minerals: kaolinite
and illite settling near shore and smectites trans-
ported along advective marine currents ŽPierce and
Stanley, 1975; Gibbs, 1977; Johnson, 1979; Karlin,
1980; Robert, 1980; Chester, 1990..
In recent years, research into this question has
taken a step in a new direction. First, the variations
in the vertical clay mineral distribution in deep-sea
sediments have been interpreted in terms of changes
in the climatic conditions prevailing in the continen-
tal source areas ŽChamley, 1967, 1975; Singer, 1984..
Then, numerous studies took the inheritance relation-
ship between marine clay and soil clay as fully
demonstrated, even obvious, and used it to recon-
struct ancient climate and continental palaeoenviron-
ments ŽChamley, 1989; Robert and Kennett, 1992;
Gibson et al., 1993; Chamley, 1997.. Thus, it was
concluded that marine clays may reveal global cli-
matic changes.
In this review, we draw attention to the difficul-
ties of retrospective analysis of the influence of
climate on common marine deposits. This should
encourage sedimentologists to pay more attention to
soil science and palaeoweathering literature. The dif-
ficulties in linking palaeoclimates to marine clay
mineral assemblages have been examined by Singer
Ž1984. and Curtis Ž1990.. These authors dealt mostly
with intrabasinal processes bound to clay mineral
dispersal, size sorting, authigenesis and diagenesis,
etc. Difficulties of palaeoclimatic interpretation of
clay minerals in palaeoweathering profiles have al-
ready been emphasised by Singer Ž1980.. Here we
re-examine this question by drawing attention on soil
development, continental erosion, palaeoweathering
materials preservation, etc.
It is the purpose of this paper to outline the
difficulty in using clay minerals in marine deposits
to reconstruct palaeoclimates. We will first discuss
the general interpretation of clay mineral series in
modern oceans, then discuss the distribution and the
significance of clay mineral assemblages in tropical
soils, examine the intervening events between re-
working of soils and final deposition of the materials
in the basin, and finally illustrate by some case
studies the difficulty of interpreting clay mineral
series with regard to their palaeoclimatic signifi-
cance.
2. Clay mineral series in modern oceans
During the sixties, numerous studies were devoted
to clay minerals suites in recent sediments of the
world oceans. Global maps of mineral distribution
show that the basic zonation of clay minerals in the
oceans is controlled by contemporary climates on the
continents ŽBiscaye, 1965; Griffin et al., 1968; Ra-
teev et al., 1969; Windom, 1976; Gibbs, 1977..
Kaolinite is abundant between the tropics and chlo-
rite and illite prevail at high latitudes and are inter-
preted as resulting from glacial erosion ŽFig. 1.. It
has therefore been inferred that marine clay minerals
are in general directly inherited from the continents,
and particularly from their soils. Yet a number of
exceptions in the latitudinal zonation of clay miner-
als in the oceans were observed, suggesting that
climate is not the only factor responsible for the
distribution of terrigenous clay minerals. For exam-
ple, the clay mineral distribution in the Western
 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221
˚ peak areas. in
Fig. 1. Kaoliniterchlorite ration Ž3.58r3.53 A
recent deep sea clays in the Atlantic Ocean Žafter Biscaye, 1965..
The basic zonation of kaolinite between the tropics and chlorite in
the region where glacial erosion prevails leads to interpret marine
clays as mostly inherited from the continents.
Indian Ocean does not show any latitudinal distribu-
tion ŽKolla et al., 1976, 1981.. The suites are clearly
controlled by terrigenous inputs around the conti-
nents ŽAsia, India and Australia., but in the centre of
the ocean, there is an abundance of smectite which
must be the result of other processes: authigenesis
and differential settling along advective marine cur-
rents are the most commonly suggested.
Differential settling of kaolinite versus smectite
has often been called to mind to explain the abun-
dance of smectites in deep-sea deposits ŽChamley,
1975; Pierce and Stanley, 1975; Gibbs, 1977; Sudo
and Shimoda, 1978; Robert, 1980.. A classically
quoted example is the differential settling of clay
minerals in the Gulf of Guinea, offshore of the Niger
River mouth, with smectite increasing rapidly off-
shore and with depth ŽPorrenga, 1966, 1967. ŽFig.
2.. Nevertheless, there is also a distribution from
shore to offshore of authigenic ferruginous minerals
contained in small pellets: Chamosite near shore and
‘‘swelling’’ glauconite offshore ŽPorrenga, 1966..
This suggests that a 2r1 clay mineral forms rela-
tively easily and rapidly in the marine environment.
Similar examples have been described at numerous
sites around the oceans ŽGiresse, 1969; Borrhnold
203
and Giresse, 1985; Odin, 1988.. The question that
arises from the Gulf of Guinea example, as well as
from the other likely places, is: if Fe–smectite or
Fe–illite are neoformed in the marine environment,
why Al–Mg smectite, occurring in the deepest part
of the continental embankment, should not be neo-
formed as well? We may not directly answer this
question herein, but this discussion on clay mineral
authigenesis or transformation in marine environ-
ment is complementary to the debate on the contribu-
tion of soil clays to marine deposits and has to be
formulated.
Although the aim of this paper is not to discuss
diagenetic processes that may occur in marine basins,
it must be pointed out at this stage of the discussion
that abundance of smectite in deep-sea clays, espe-
cially iron-rich deposits of the central Pacific Ocean
and in some of the deepest areas in the Atlantic
Ocean, is generally thought to be due to authigenesis
within the basin, at the waterrsediment interface
during early diagenesis under very low sedimenta-
tion rates ŽHoffert, 1980; Kastner, 1981; Cole and
Shaw, 1983; Steinberg et al., 1987; Clauer et al.,
1990.. The development of authigenic smectite in
marine deposits may explain the often observed dis-
crepancy between clay mineral assemblages in conti-
nental and shelf basins and in correlative oceanic
deposits ŽThiry and Jacquin, 1993..
3. Soils of interest for palaeoclimatic reconstruc-
tions
It is commonly admitted that kaolinite, illite–mica
and chlorite are inherited, at least in the non-buried
andror modern marine deposits, especially from
glaciogenic clays. The debate on inheritance or au-
thigenesis of marine clays and their climatic signifi-
cance mostly concerns the origin of smectite and the
interpretation of the inherited kaolinite. According to
this, we will focus the present review on kaolinitic
and smectitic soils.
It should be stressed that only reworking of thick
soils will have a major input to the sedimentary
budget in the marine basins. Among these, only
mature and mineralogically differentiated soils Ži.e.,
soils containing one main clay mineral according to
204 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221

Fig. 2. Distribution of clay minerals in the Gulf of Guinea Žafter Porrenga, 1966.. Differential settling is thought to explain smectite
enrichment away from the major river mouths. Authigenic ferruginous minerals develop along the continental embankment, with formation
of ‘‘swelling’’ glauconite between 100 and 200 m depth. If ferruginous clay minerals develop in this situation, the question of the origin of
smectite in the deepest part of the embankment is open to discussion.

clay mineral maturity index of Peterson and Abbot,
1979. will leave their mark on sedimentary deposits
and thus be useful for palaeoclimatic interpretations
ŽFig. 3.. Soils formed under temperate climates are
generally shallow and do not contain well-differenti-
ated clay mineral assemblages, but mainly inherited
minerals and mixed layers. Therefore, their contribu-
tions to the clay mineral budget of the oceans are
only limited and they have no characteristic signa-
ture. In arid areas, both cold and warm, there are
generally no soils at all. The clay mineral supply
from such areas may only come from palaeosols or
from the bedrock and will be of no help for palaeo-
climatic reconstructions. Mediterranean and dry sub-
tropical soils show generally well mineralogically
differentiated soils, mainly formed of Al–Mg smec-
tite orrand palygorskite, but these soils are generally
shallow and calcareous and have only low clay
mineral content and thus have only limited contribu-
tion to the marine clay budget. Soils within the
tropics, mainly formed of kaolinite and smectite, are
of the most interest for palaeoclimatic reconstruc-
tions. Also these tropical soils are deep and con-
tribute significantly to the marine sedimentary bud-
get following landscape erosion. We will examine
development, occurrence, and distribution of tropical
kaolinitic and smectitic soils.
4. Persistence of kaolinitic palaeoweathering
products
When intense weathering acts on stable surfaces,
it marks the landscapes with distinct mineralogical
and geochemical imprints such as bauxites, laterites,
ferricretes, silcretes and calcretes. Such geochemi-
cally marked landscapes have developed several
times during the Earth’s history. Ancient and deep
 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221 205

Fig. 3. The deep and mineralogically well-differentiated soils within the tropics are of the greatest interest for palaeoclimatic reconstructions.
They contribute dominantly to the sedimentary budget and their clay mineral assemblages, consisting of kaolinite and smectite, may be
recognised in sedimentary series. Other soils are of lesser interest, their shallowness limits their contribution to the sedimentary budget and
their clay mineral assemblages often contain inherited minerals.

kaolinitic and bauxitic weathering profiles in particu-
lar have been identified over extensive palaeosur-
faces. The thickness of these profiles ranges from
several 10 to more than 100 m. For a long time, only
stratigraphic relations between the palaeosurfaces and
sedimentary deposits or lava flows allowed these
palaeosurfaces to be dated. The development of iso-
tope geochemistry brought new insights into the
study of palaeoweatherings, by dating specific sec-
ondary minerals Žalunite, cryptomelane, hollan-
dite, . . . . or by recording changes of the atmosphere,
either globally or in response to climatic variations.
4.1. Isotopic dating
The analysis of the oxygen-isotope composition
of various regolith profiles and kaolinitic sediments
across Australia has made it possible to distinguish
profiles formed in the Late Palaeozoic and Late
Mesozoic–Early Tertiary from those formed during
the Mid-Tertiary during the northward drift of the
continent ŽBird and Chivas, 1989, 1993.. All these
profiles are still cropping out and constitute a major
part of the Australian continental surface.
By means of laser microprobes, it is possible to
date secondary minerals and to capture the progres-
sion of an oxidation front during weathering. These
datings reveal the remarkably long period during
which episodic mineral precipitation occurred within
kaolinitic Žlateritic. weathering profiles ŽFig. 4..
Some weathering features Žmanganese oxide associ-
ated with deep kaolinitic weathering. from the
Brazilian, African and Australian regoliths continued
to form throughout the Tertiary ŽVasconcelos et al.,
1994a,b; Dammer, 1995; Ruffet et al., 1996.. Sul-
phate Žalunite–jarosite. of Mid- to Late Miocene
age, often developed at the base of lateritic profiles
ŽBird et al., 1990; Vasconcelos et al., 1994a,b;
Dammer, 1995.. Their preservation indicates that the
lateritization processes predate the Middle Miocene
and that subsequent weathering processes were not
as pervasive as the Pre-Miocene ones.
206 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221

Fig. 4. Ages obtained by dating of alunite, jarosite and manganese oxides from lateritic weathering profiles in South America, North
America, Africa and Australia. The data show that these kaolinitic profiles formed at least from Early Tertiary until Mid-Miocene.
Subsequently, the development of a major desiccation event led to the formation of the jarosite and alunite in the deepest parts of the
profiles. Data from Alpers and Brimhall Ž1988., Bird et al. Ž1990., Vasconcelos et al. Ž1994a; b., Dammer Ž1995. and Ruffet et al. Ž1996..

4.2. Distribution of bauxitic palaeosurfaces in the
present landscapes
Bauxite and thick kaolinitic profiles are especially
well developed on the Cretaceous–Early Tertiary
planation surfaces of the continents. These resulted
from the break-up of the Gondwana and still form
extensive portions of present-day landscapes ŽGran-
din and Thiry, 1983..
Large bauxite deposits of Late Mesozoic–Early
Tertiary age are known in western and Equatorial
Africa ŽGrandin, 1976; Michel, 1978; Boulange,
1984; Schwarz, 1997., in East Africa ŽBishop, 1966;
Mutakyahwa and Valeton, 1995. and South Africa
ŽHorn, 1983.. In India, the basalt plateaus of the
Deccan Peninsula and the Kathiarwar block are cov-
ered by bauxite and laterite locally overlain by Ter-
tiary sediments ŽBardossy and Aleva, 1990; Valeton
and Wilke, 1993.. Extensive surfaces covered by
laterite and bauxite of Late Cretaceous–Early Ter-
tiary age are also described around the Guyana shield
ŽAleva, 1979. and in Brazil, where laterite and baux-
ite cover about 65% of the surface; ancient bauxite
occurs especially in the eastern part of Central Brazil
and the Atlantic shield ŽMelfi et al., 1988; Boulangé
and Carvalho, 1989; Valeton et al., 1997.. In Aus-
tralia, there are also large areas of ancient bauxite
and related kaolinitic profiles ŽDaily et al., 1974;
Loughnan and Sadleir, 1984; Anand et al., 1991.. In
North America, the Appalachian Piedmont supports
several bauxite deposits ŽGordon et al., 1958; Lukas
et al., 1983. related to a deeply weathered palaeosur-
face that forms a large part of the present-day pied-
´ mont ŽSigleo and Reinhardt, 1988; Fastovsky et al.,
1989.. Such palaeosurfaces covered with deep
kaolinitic soils may form up to 20% of the land-
masses.
The persistence over geological times of huge
amounts of ancient kaolinitic weathering materials in
the landscapes may seriously alter the palaeoclimatic
signal of kaolinite in the sedimentary record. Al-
though the kaolinite deposited in recent sediments of
the world oceans is consistent with wet climatic
zones, this is mainly because the major kaolinitic and
 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221 207

Fig. 5. Major kaolinitic and bauxitic palaeosurfaces are coinciding with tropical areas where kaolinite is still developing at present. Yet in
modern sediments, a large amount of the kaolinite deposited may have been inherited from palaeosols dating back to Cretaceous times.
Compiled from Windom Ž1976., Bardossy Ž1982., Pedro ´ Ž1984. and ISSS, Working Group RB Ž1998..

bauxitic palaeosurfaces coincide with the tropical
areas where kaolinite is still developing at present
ŽFig. 5..
5. Scarcity of smectitic soils
5.1. RelatiÕe importance of smectitic soils
The factors that strongly influence the formation
of smectites in soils include low-lying topography,
poor drainage, and base-rich parent material
ŽBorchardt, 1989..
Smectite is common in Mediterranean and tem-
perate soils where leaching is limited and is usually
accompanied by other clay minerals like illite, ver-
miculite and various interstratified minerals. From a
qualitative point of view, clay minerals inherited
from Mediterranean and temperate soils will not
show a very distinctive assemblage. From a quantita-
tive point of view, these soils are shallow and con-
tribute only small amounts of authigenic clays as
most of their clay fraction is inherited. Moreover,
during landscape erosion unweathered bedrock and
sediments are always reworked simultaneously.
Well-developed smectitic soils are mostly re-
stricted to subtropical climates with an annual pre-
cipitation of 500–800 mm and a well-marked dry
season, coming with weakly drained landscapes
ŽPaquet, 1970; Bocquier, 1972; Boulet, 1978; Boulet
et al., 1997; Dudal and Eswaran, 1988; Buhmann¨
and Schoeman, 1995.. They belong to the vertisol
order of soils and associations of vertisols and other
structured soils ŽISSS, Working Group RB, 1998..
Their profile thickness ranges between 0.5 and 4 m,
averaging 1.5 to 2 m. Only the reworking of smectite
from vertisol type soils may contribute significantly
to marine clay deposits and be helpful in palaeocli-
matic interpretations.
Moreover, it must be pointed out that vertisols do
not consist only of smectite. Many vertisols contain a
mixture of kaolinite and smectite, as well as inter-
208 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221

stratified illite–smectite and kaolinite–smectite
ŽBocquier, 1972; Boulet, 1978; Rodriguez-Hernan-
¨
dez et al., 1979; Yerima et al., 1985; Buhmann and
Schoeman, 1995..
Special mention has to be made of smectite devel-
oping in flood plain environments. These low-lying
and poorly drained environments are particularly
favourable for smectite development under a very
broad range of climatic conditions. Thus, such envi-
ronments are not helpful for palaeoclimatic interpre-
tation of clay mineral assemblages. Moreover, on
their way to the sedimentary basin, clastic materials
often transit through such environments which may
cloud the original climatic signal.
5.2. Spatial distribution of smectitic soils in present
landscapes
Both soil and climate maps provide information
on the distribution of smectitic soils in present-day
landscapes. From a climatic point of view, Pedro ´
Ž1968. showed that potentially smectite may form
across 39% of the landmasses, against 32% for
kaolinite andror bauxite. This area includes the very
dry and desertic zones Ž15%. where the development
of smectite is very weak. Finally, the tropical smec-
tite belt accounts for only about 15% of the land-
´
masses ŽPedro, 1984. ŽFig. 6.. Vertisols with marked
swelling dynamics Žmost of which are smectitic. are
reported covering 2.4% of the global land surface
ŽDudal and Eswaran, 1988.. Even in the tropical
smectitic belt, the extent of vertisols in the landscape
is limited, and vertisols account only for 3.2% of the
surface in northern South Africa ŽBuhmann ¨ and
Schoeman, 1995.. Moreover, vertisols are often re-
ported existing in catenas comprising kaolinitic soils
in the uplands and smectitic vertisols in low-lying
areas ŽBocquier, 1972; Kantor and Schwertmann,
1974; Boulet, 1978; Borchardt, 1989. ŽFig. 7..
Mafic igneous rocks constitute the commonest
parent material of vertisols. This is especially true on
the Indian Peninsula ŽBhattacharyya et al., 1993.,
in Mexico ŽGraham and Franco-Vizcaino, 1992.,
Uruguay ŽRossignol, 1983., East Africa ŽRuxton and
Berry, 1978; Muchena and Gachene, 1985. and South
¨
Africa ŽBuhmann and Schoeman, 1995..

Fig. 6. Well-developed smectitic soils are restricted to relative dry tropical climates. The tropical smectitic soil belt is equal to about 15% of
the landmasses, whereas the kaolinitic tropical soils cover about 30% of the landmasses Žafter Pedro, ´ 1984 and ISSS, Working Group RB,
1998.. Moreover, in the kaolinitic belt, soils are deep and cover the whole landscapes, while smectitic soils are shallow and discontinuous in
dry tropical landscapes.
 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221
Fig. 7. Smectite-rich vertic soils are often part of catenas compris-
ing kaolinitic soils in the uplands and smectitic soils in low-lying
areas. Here in eastern Chad, kaolinitic soils occur around the
´ Range and smectite in the low-lying areas.
inselbergs of the Guera
After Bocquier Ž1972..
5.3. Smectitic palaeosols in the geological record
Most of the smectitic palaeosols described in the
literature consist of calcareous soils, containing lami-
nar and nodular calcretes, with a low clay mineral
content. Their potential contribution to the terrige-
nous budget of the marine deposits is therefore weak.
True vertic palaeosols are rarely reported: a few
occurrences are described in flood plain deposits,
among them Devonian vertic soils in the central
Appalachians ŽMora and Driese, 1999., Lower Trias-
sic palaeosols in Germany ŽMartins and Pfefferkorn,
1988., Jurassic palaeosols on basalt in Northern Is-
rael ŽWieder et al., 1989. and PalaeocenerEocene
vertic soils in the Paris Basin ŽThiry, 1981..
6. Misleading palaeoenvironments
6.1. CO2 composition of the palaeoatmosphere
Unusually deep and leached profiles are often
preserved in the geological record, even at extra
tropical palaeolatitudes ŽBird et al., 1989.. This is
particularly true for the Cretaceous Period, for which
deep kaolinitic or bauxitic profiles are now at up to
358–458 of palaeolatitudes both south and north
ŽMohan et al., 1981; Sapojnikov, 1981; Cravero and
Dominguez, 1992; Dupuis, 1992; Bardossy, 1994
among others.. This expansion of intensive kaolinitic
weathering at extratropical latitudes has been inter-
preted as the result of a green-house warming in-
duced by a high atmospheric CO 2 level ŽBarron et
al., 1993..
209
Schmitt Ž1999. gives a striking example by mod-
elling profiles formed respectively in a present-day
environment and in a CO 2-rich atmosphere. He shows
that the kaolinite assemblage in the weathering pro-
files is reached about three times faster Ži.e., with
three times less rainwater. when CO 2 abundance is
increased 10 times Žas predicted for the Mid-Creta-
ceous by the model of Berner, 1994.. It means that
with similar rainfall rates, profiles would deepen
three times faster than in present atmospheric condi-
tions. CO 2 abundance highly accelerates the forma-
tion of deep kaolinitic profiles, without the need for
weathering duration as long, nor climate as hot and
humid, as thought previously. It also explains why
deep kaolinitic profiles have been so widespread
during Cretaceous times, even out of the tropical
latitudes, under more temperate and less humid cli-
mates as in the present world. Under such CO 2-rich
atmosphere, the formation of smectite would be
greatly reduced, but the increased pCO 2 has no
direct effect on the appearance of gibbsite.
On the other hand, the d18 O composition of
kaolinites of the Australian regolith reveals that some
formed during the Early or Mid-Mesozoic under
comparatively cold conditions, suggesting that, con-
trary to traditional interpretations, lateritization and
deep weathering phenomena are not solely the result
of weathering in tropical or sub-tropical climates
ŽBird and Chivas, 1988, 1993.. Deep kaolinitic pro-
files eventually formed in cold climates may have
important implications for palaeoclimatic reconstruc-
tions.
6.2. Unusual kaolinitic profiles
Kaolinitic palaeoprofiles may have not all formed
in tropical climates, but same may even not have
formed under wet conditions. Tertiary palaeoprofiles
of the Australian regolith show a very thick bleached
horizon Ž30–70 m. made of quartz, kaolinite, opal,
gypsum and alunite wKAl 3 ŽSO4 . 2 ŽOH. 6 x ŽThiry et
al., 1995. ŽFig. 8.. This unusual mineral assemblage
has previously been ascribed to an early kaoliniza-
tion episode Žlinked to a wet climatic phase. fol-
lowed by an arid phase Žduring which opal, gypsum
and alunite would have formed. ŽWopfner, 1974.,
although the reality of such contrasting climatic
phases has not been substantiated by other field data.
Geochemical modelling ŽFig. 8. has shown alterna-
210 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221

Fig. 8. Lithology and mineralogy of a typical bleached profile of inland Australia. The simulation of the flushing of the Cretaceous shale by
a sulphate-rich brine shows a mineralogical assemblage similar to that of the bleached profile. Opal does not form in the simulation due to
problems related to the introduction of amorphous silica solubility andror precipitation kinetics into the model. The quartz increase seen
during the simulation has consequently to be regarded as opal. After Thiry et al. Ž1995..

tively that this uncommon mineral assemblage can
be formed in a single stage during the weathering of
Cretaceous shale by sulphate-rich acidic brines. These
brines are thought to have formed under a hot and
dry climate as inferred from isotopic data on alunite
ŽBird et al., 1990.. The acidic character of the weath-
ering solution probably resulted from the oxidation
of sulphides or ferrous iron species present at the
base of the profiles. This type of weathering, un-
known from present-day environments, could be
connected with the alunite and jarosite-bearing
Miocene profiles found in West Africa, Brazil and
Chile Žsee above.. Kaolinite reworking from such
profiles will also lead to misleading palaeoclimatic
interpretation.
to equilibrium with their contemporaneous environ-
ment. Moreover, only in landscapes of relatively low
relief, where erosion is moderate, is the eroded mate-
rial derived predominantly from such soils. Low
erosion rates permit soils to mature and to avoid the
removal of clay minerals belonging to the substratum
that are irrelevant to their soil environment. If clay
mineral distributions in marinerdeep-sea sediments
are to be interpreted in terms of changes in the clay
mineralogy of the soils, the rate of soil formation
must agree with that of the mineralogical changes
recorded in the marine deposits. The knowledge of
weathering rates is therefore of prime importance.
7.1. Weathering rates

7. Weathering rates, reworking and sedimentary
cycles
In order to be representative of climatic condi-
tions, clay minerals must have reached a state close
Hydrochemical studies use the chemistry and vol-
ume of water leaving a drainage basin to quantify
rates of chemical weathering or denudation in the
catchment area. Where catchment geology and min-
eralogy are relatively simple, rates of specific weath-
 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221
ering reactions can be inferred. Thermodynamic
models may also help to calculate the rates. Esti-
mates of the rate of progression of the weathering
front vary, according to the parameters used in the
calculations; nevertheless, they give a good estimate
of the magnitude of the phenomena.
The bauxitization rate has been estimated by sev-
eral authors. Fritz and Tardy Ž1973. used a thermo-
dynamic model to obtain a rate of about 3 mmr1000
years. Isovolume calculations by Boulange´ Ž1984.
gave a rate of about 14 mmr1000 years. In the latter
case, the formation of a 15-m thick bauxite profile
would require 3–5 Ma. Similar values have been
´
obtained for kaolinization. Pedro Ž1964. obtained a
rate of 1 mmr1000 years by experimental methods,
and Fritz and Tardy Ž1973. used the same thermody-
namic model as for bauxitization calculations to
obtain a rate of 3.5 mmr1000 years. Geochemical
mass balance calculations on a weathering profile in
French Guiana made Freyssinet and Farah Ž1997.
propose a weathering rate of about 7 mmr1000
years, meaning that at least 3 Ma would be needed to
build up the 25-m deep profiles in this region in a
present-day rain forest environment. Palaeomag-
´
netism applied to similar profiles by Theveniaut and
Freysinnet Ž1999. gave a saprolitization rate of about
11 mmr1000 years. Calculations of the saprolite
formation rate on granitic rocks of the Appalachian
Piedmont ŽUSA., based on flow discharge and total
dissolved solids by Pavich Ž1986., led to a value of
about 3 mmr1000 years implying that the average
thickness of 12 m of saprolite on the Piedmont could
be reached in about 3 Ma. Similar calculations made
by Dethier Ž1986. on several catchments in the Pa-
cific Northwest region of the USA, suggest that
saprolite is presently forming at about 30 mmr1000
years. These higher values may be due to the fact
that the saprolites taken into account for the calcula-
tion are less mature than in the other cases. A
calculation of geochemical export via dissolved
stream loads led Gac Ž1980. to estimate that the
average rate of rock weathering in tropical climates
is about 13 mmr1000 years in the Chari basin in
Tchad. There are no similar rate calculations for
development of smectitic profiles. Vertisols develop
in more or less confined environments and do not
result from a simple leaching process. Thus, simple
mass balance calculations cannot be applied to them.
211
7.2. Time resolution of the sedimentary record
Reworking of soils will be sensitive in sedimen-
tary deposits and indicative of climatic conditions
only if the main part of the terrigenous input is
directly inherited from mature soils. This can only
occur if the landscape is covered with a substantial
blanket of mature soils at equilibrium with the envi-
ronment. Geochemical calculations, as well as geo-
logical and geomorphological occurrences of soils
and palaeosols, show that soil formation requires
long-lasting landscape stability. A time span of at
least 1 Ma seems to be necessary to form a land-
scape blanketed with thick kaolinitic soils, even un-
der a relative high atmospheric CO 2 level. Smectitic
soils may develop with a little higher rate, but will
also require a long time to become deep and mature.
Therefore, sequential changes in the sedimentary
clay mineral assemblages with periods of less than 1
Ma cannot be caused by climatic changes acting on
soil mineralogy ŽFig. 9.. Records of short-term
changes in palaeoclimates appear unrealistic; it is
probable that only longer sequences are able to
reflect palaeoclimatic changes.
7.3. Sediment dispersal
Even if soil profiles are mature and at equilibrium
with the prevailing climate, characteristic clay min-
Fig. 9. Sketch illustrating the relationships between climatic
changes, the development of mature and characteristic soils and
mineralogy of the deposits in the sedimentary basins. The climatic
signal is marked in the soils with a delay due to the relatively
slow rate of soil formation. The record of this climatic change in
the sediments is dependent on soil erosion which may occur long
after soil formation.
212 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221
eral assemblages must be eroded, transported and
deposited for the climatic signal to be preserved in
clastic sediments. Erosion and transport processes
obviously cloud the signal to some extent, because
horizons of different degrees of maturity and differ-
ent soil types along regional catenas will be mixed,
and frequently, the bedrock will be eroded as well. A
Fig. 10. Like the Nile River, major drainage systems flow through
various climatic zones with contrasted soil landscapes. Along its
4000 km course, the Nile River flows through kaolinitic and
bauxitic soils in the South, then wide regions with smectitic
vertisols, and farther north dry regions with calcareous soils
containing smectite and palygorskite. Clays settling finally in the
Mediterranean Sea will not carry a clear climatic message.
further complication may arise from the differential
settling of clay minerals and the alteration of clay
mineral assemblages in the course of successive
depositions and reworkings in flood plains, as dis-
cussed in some detail by Singer Ž1984..
Another point to consider is the degree to which
major drainage systems sample soils in ways repre-
sentative of climatic zones, as discussed by Curtis
Ž1990.. The Niger River flows through very dry as
well as through wet tropical regions; nevertheless, its
sediment discharge is obviously kaolinite-rich
ŽMartin and Meybeck, 1979.. On the other hand, the
Amazon River, which flows mostly through rain
forest areas, has more siliceous sediments, which
would suggest a less intensive weathering of the
catchment. The Nile River, which is the main ter-
rigenous supply to the Mediterranean Sea, flows
through wet subtropical, desert and the Mediter-
ranean climatic zones ŽFig. 10.. What will be its
climatic message? In many areas, the bulk of de-
posited sediment may not reflect climate in a
straightforward way.
8. Discussion around some case studies
8.1. The ‘‘Siderolithic’’ kaolinitic discharge
The Late Cretaceous–Early Tertiary kaolinitic
event is also well identified in the sedimentary record,
especially in western Europe ŽFig. 11.. Bauxite de-
veloped on the carbonate platforms of the Alpine
belt during most of the Cretaceous period and lasted
until the Early Tertiary ŽGuendon et al., 1983; Bar-
dossy and Dercourt, 1990; Combes and Bardossy,
1994.. The Hercynian basement was also coated with
thick kaolinitic palaeosols formed throughout the
Cretaceous ŽMilon, 1930; Simon-Coinçon, 1989;
Lindmar-Bergstrom ¨ et al., 1997; Molina-Ballestreros
et al., 1997.. Even the wide peneplains consisting of
sand, clay, limestone and chalk left behind by the
major Late Cretaceous regression, were covered by a
thick kaolinite blanket as early as the end of the
Cretaceous–Palaeocene ŽFleury, 1909; Isaac, 1983;
¨
Korber and Zech, 1984; Borger, 1992; Dupuis, 1992;
Blanc-Valleron and Thiry, 1997; Simon-Coinçon et
al., 1997..
 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221 213

Fig. 11. Bauxitic and kaolinitic palaeoweathering profiles of the middlerupper Cretaceous and the early Tertiary Žgenerally called
Siderolithic facies. are known over wide areas in Europe. These profiles fed extensive detrital discharges in marine and continental basins
during the Lower Tertiary and gave rise to large economic kaolinite deposits in Germany and France.

During Early Tertiary, the first Alpine tectonic
movements together with drying of the climate
brought about rhexistasy ŽErhart, 1956.: the kaolinitic
paleosols were eroded, causing the onset of the most
important detrital discharge of the whole Tertiary in
western Europe. This ‘‘Siderolithic’’ discharge was
not synchronous everywhere, but lasted at least from
the Palaeocene to the Middle Eocene, and led to
large kaolinitic deposits in Germany and France ŽFig.
11.. Kaolinite is also a major component of the
Lower Tertiary marine deposits in the North Sea
ŽBjorkum et al., 1990; Pearson, 1990.. This major
kaolinite input to sedimentary basins occurred sev-
eral million years after its formation on the conti-
nent. At the time of its reworking, the climate was
no longer warm and wet, but had well-marked dry
seasons and the palaeosols in the sedimentary de-
posits show mature calcrete, typical of a Mediter-
ranean climate ŽThiry, 1981; Simon-Coinçon et al.,
1997; Colson et al., 1998.. Moreover, kaolinite from
this Cretaceous ‘‘stock’’ fed sedimentation locally
all through the Tertiary, which is clearly visible in
the terrigenous inputs in the Paris and Aquitaine
Basins until the Upper Eocene and Oligocene ŽTrauth,
1977; Simon-Coinçon, 1989..
8.2. The Argiles Plastiques deposits in the Paris
basin
On the southern edge of the Paris Basin, the
Argiles Plastiques Formation dated from ‘‘Sparna-
214 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221

Fig. 12. Palaeogeography of the Paris Basin during the PalaeocenerEocene interval. The continental deposits of the Argiles Plastiques show
very different clay mineral assemblages which are unrelated to the climate at time of deposition, but inherited from the palaeoweathering
related to late Cretaceous palaeoclimates. After Thiry Ž1981..

cian’’ ŽEarly Eocene., overlies the Cretaceous Chalk
and forms distinct deposits: in the West there are
mottled clays with nodular carbonates, in the East
there are kaolinitic clays and sands ŽThiry, 1981..
The two deposits have recently been precisely dated
by means of d13 C chemostratigraphy: the upper part
of the mottled clay correlates with the kaolinitic clay
ŽThiry et al., 1998..
The mottled clays contain pedogenic nodular cal-
crete horizons and are mainly composed of smectite
Žmontmorillonite–beidellite. with traces of interstrat-
ified kaolinitersmectite. They relate to a flood plain
environment and the calcretes and vertisol type fea-
tures allow to add that palaeoclimate during deposi-
tion was probably subtropical, with about an 800-mm
rainfall during 5 to 6 months of the year. The
kaolinitic clays were deposited in lacustrine environ-
ments. Kaolinite forms the main part of the deposit;
small amounts of smectite are restricted to the base
of the series.
The distribution of smectite and kaolinite in the
basin relates to erosion of palaeosols developed un-
der the warm climate of the end of the Cretaceous,
on various parent rocks around the basin ŽFig. 12.. In
the western area, the hinterland corresponds to flint-
bearing chalk on which smectitic weathering profiles
prevailed; in the eastern part of the basin, argilla-
ceous and sandy sediments were extensively exposed
on which kaolinitic profiles developed.
These stratigraphically strictly equivalent forma-
tions show completely opposite clay mineral assem-
blages which have no palaeoclimatic significance.
8.3. Kaolinite in modern marine deposits around
Australia
Areas of kaolinite-rich sediments extend broadly
on the western and eastern border of Australia.
Kaolinite is mainly wind-supplied and associated
with quartz ŽWindom, 1976; Kolla and Biscaye,
 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221 215

1977., blown offshore from the arid areas ŽFig. 13..
This kaolinite occurrence in modern marine deposits
has to be checked against kaolinite distribution and
origin on the continent.
Australia has had a long and complex history of
intense surficial weathering which led to an exten-
sive development of laterites and bauxites. Lateritic-
like soils and palaeosols extend from the south-west-
ern part of Western Australia, across the northern
and central regions, to the eastern and south-eastern
coastal and sub-coastal areas, with extensions and
outliers in the South ŽFig. 13.. Lateritic remnants
cover about half of the continent. Discussion on the
age of these weathering features has gone on for
long. With development of isotopic techniques, the
ages have been bracketed in mainly five ages: Per-
mian, pre-Late Mesozoic, pre-Mid-Tertiary, post-
Mid-Tertiary and Late Tertiary ŽBird and Chivas,
1988, 1989; Bird et al., 1990.. In several cases, field
relationships as well as new dating techniques point
to repeated weathering over long periods, at least
from Late Cretaceous to Late Tertiary ŽMilnes et al.,
1985; Dammer, 1995.. Moreover, inland Australia is
characterised by widespread development of thick,
bleached profiles, with quartz–kaolinite–gypsum–
alunite assemblage, developed on Cretaceous sedi-
mentary rocks as well as on basement. These
kaolinitic profiles are thought to have developed
under a hot and dry climate Žsee above..
Under these conditions, the kaolinite occurring in
modern sediments around Australia has no climatic
significance. It results from the reworking of profiles
formed over 200 Ma and under very different cli-
mates: cold for the oldest ones, tropical humid for
others, and even arid for the bleached profiles dis-
playing alunite.
8.4. Short-termr high-resolution changes in Quater-
nary deposits
Several recent studies show changes in the clay
mineral series associated with Milankovitch fre-
quency bands ŽBout-Roumazeilles et al., 1997; Fagel
and Hillaire-Marcel, 1997; Colin et al., 1998.. Such
changes may be very helpful for stratigraphic pur-
poses, especially for consolidating correlations
among sections. Their palaeoclimatic significance is
debatable. The changes recorded in these Holocene
marine deposits mainly affect the proportion inher-
ited clay minerals, and are probably not related to
variations in the intensity and the nature of chemical
weathering, but rather related to changes in erosion
and the supply of detrital material. Actually, glacia-
tion played a major role during the Quaternary Pe-

Fig. 13. Kaolinite distribution in surface sediments of East and West Australia and distribution of the two major types of kaolinitic
weathering profiles on the continent. Kaolinitic weathering profiles formed since late Palaeozoic under various palaeoclimatic conditions, in
this way the kaolinite in marine deposits has no climatic significance. After Windom Ž1976. and Pye Ž1987..
216 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221
riod, by protecting areas from erosion by an ice
cover during glacial stages, changing the ocean cur-
rents, a.s.o. Thus, changes in the Holocene clay
mineral series may be only indirectly linked to
short-term palaeoclimatic changes, recording rather
surficial geodynamic processes than weathering con-
ditions.
9. Conclusion
Clay minerals in sediments can be useful indica-
tors of palaeoclimatic conditions, particularly when
the sedimentary basins are small andror are them-
selves marked by continental episodes. Larger sedi-
mentary basins, and particularly marine basins, on
the other hand, receive their detrital load from vast
source areas, where a wide variety of environmental
conditions are represented. The longer the reworking
distance, the more complicated are the dispersal
processes and the less clear the palaeoclimatic mes-
sage of the deposited clay mineral assemblages.
Looking from the continents, the following interven-
ing factors should be given careful consideration:
Ž1. The preservation of palaeoweathering profiles
over long geological times and wide areas, especially
the kaolinitic and bauxitic ones, may alter the
palaeoclimatic signal in the sedimentary record.
Ž2. From a quantitative point of view, only deep
weathering profiles developed under tropical climate
conditions significantly contribute to marine clays.
Shallow soils, such as those in temperate and
Mediterranean climates contribute little to inherited
marine clays. Consequently, detrital kaolinite and
smectite are virtually the only clay minerals able to
carry a climatic signal in marine sediments.
Ž3. The relative stability of kaolinite versus smec-
tite has to be taken into account. Once formed,
kaolinite remains stable for a long time. It only alters
into gibbsite or boehmite if morphoclimatic condi-
tions are favourable. If the climate turns drier, kaoli-
nite remains stable in the landscape. On the contrary,
smectite becomes unstable when the climate be-
comes more humid which explains why smectite
palaeoprofiles are seldom described. This relative
stability of kaolinite versus smectite may introduce a
major bias in the palaeoclimatic signal of inherited
clay minerals in marine sediments.
Ž4. Soil formation rates are relatively slow. It may
take one to several million years to build up a
landscape with deep mature profiles. Terrigenous
materials are indicative of climatic conditions only if
they are inherited from landscapes covered with such
mature profiles. Under these conditions, only long-
term changes in the clay mineral assemblages of the
sedimentary deposits may possibly relate to palaeo-
climatic changes. Record of short-term palaeocli-
matic changes in the sedimentary deposits appears
unrealistic. Resolution of the palaeoclimatic record
in marine clay may not be closer than 1 or 2 Ma.
Ž5. For the climatic signal to be meaningful in
clastic sediments, characteristic soil clay mineral as-
semblages must be eroded and transported. Erosion
and transport processes will obviously cloud the
signal. Special attention has to be paid to clay min-
eral transformations that may occur during succes-
sive deposition and reworking on the continent be-
fore the final transport to marine basins. Transit
through flood plains, where hydromorphic soils gen-
erally prevail, may for instance, seriously distort the
original soil signal.
Ž6. In every case, the arrival of the soil clay
assemblages in the basin inevitably occurs much
later than their formation on the continent. In most
cases, it is a climatic change that leads to erosion
reactivation and reworking of the soils and thus
introduces a discrepancy between the soil and sedi-
ment signals.
A clay particle has a long way to go from soil to
marine sediment and sedimentologists and palaeocli-
matologists should pay more attention to the difficul-
ties of retrospective analysis of the relation between
soil and sedimentary clay minerals. As sedimentary
deposits result first from land erosion and basin
subsidence, which means from geodynamics, changes
in the clay mineral assemblages often relate to
palaeogeographic changes, leading to successive or
alternate detrital supplying areas. We fully agree
with previous discussions on the effect of the differ-
ent sedimentary processes ŽSinger, 1984. and soil
forming and reworking processes ŽCurtis, 1990..
Some of the limitations can be overcome by a more
critical evaluation of the data. Above all, the palaeo-
geographic scale of the approach should be widened
to include not only marine basins, but also studies of
palaeosols interbedded in correlative deposits and in
 M. Thiry r Earth-Science ReÕiews 49 (2000) 201–221
the continental deposits themselves. At present, the
palaeoclimatic interpretations of marine clay assem-
blages yield, at best, nothing more than rather broad
palaeoclimatic information. They can by no means
achieve the same degree of resolution as other tech-
niques such as isotope or microfossil studies. Clay
mineral assemblages may provide integrated records
of overall climatic impacts, whereas other techniques
are more likely to reveal local or temporary climates.
Acknowledgements
The author thanks two anonymous reviewers for
critical comments and thoughtful reviews, which im-
proved and strengthened the manuscript. Discussions
´
with Regime Simon-Coinçon and Jean-Michel
Schmitt in the lab in Fontainebleau helped in emer-
gence and maturation of numerous ideas developed
in this review.
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´
Dr. Medard Thiry is a senior researcher
at the Ecole des Mines de Paris and in
charge of the X-Ray diffraction labora-
tory. He studied geology at the Univer-
site´ Louis Pasteur in Strasbourg and re-
ceived his doctorate in 1973 after hav-
ing submitted his thesis on clay minerals
in the Paris Basin and submitted his
second thesis Ž doct. es Sciences . in 1981
on paleoweathering features in the
Lower Eocene continental deposits in
Paris Basin. Dr. Thiry has conducted
research on continental deposits for more than 25 years and
recently has been involved in environmental rehabilitation studies.
His publications include a range of topics on clay mineral genesis
and their paleoenvironmental interpretation, paleoweathering and
paleosurfaces, genesis and significance of supergene silicifica-
tions, geochemistry of supergen ore deposits, chemostratigraphy,
focusing mainly on Triassic and Tertiary deposits in France,
Germany, Morocco, Mexico and Australia. Dr. Thiry was the
Chairman of the Groupe Francais des Argiles, leader of a CNRS
´ ´
Program on ‘‘Paleoalterations Superficielles et Profondes’’, co-
leader of the IGCP project 317 ‘‘Paleoweathering Records and
Paleosurfaces’’ and has organised several international field trips
and meetings of the Societe ´ ´ Geologique
´ de France. He is the
author or co-author of about 80 scientific publications, mostly
published on peer-reviewed international journals.