Tropical Gold Geochemistry

10/20/2014
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Gold Exploration in Tropical Landscapes

Part 5: Dispersion of Gold in Deposits Exposed to Weathering
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Tropical Gold Geochemistry ... | Gold Fineness ... | Supergene Enrichment ... | Oxidized Ore ... |
Review #5 ...
Tropical Gold Geochemistry

Session Headings: Historical Research in Tropical Gold Geochemistry
You will cover the following points in Part 5: Dispersion of

Gold in Deposits Exposed to Weathering.
historical research in tropical gold
geochemistry
the Bre-X fraud
the future of tropical gold
geochemistry
gold dispersion factors
gold dissolution
gold ligands in the regolith
the amount of sulphides
present in the gold
mineralized system
water table fluctuation
chloride ion ligands in arid
regions
organic ligands in surface
soils
chelating agents in plant
roots
mechanical dispersion
gold fineness
gold grains in lateritized gold systems
gold grain morphology
secondary gold precipitation
the mushroom effect of gold in the
regolith profile
supergene gold enrichment in laterite
regolith
sigmoidal gold curve along the regolith
profile
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lateritized gossans
oxidized ore
oxidation of epithermal gold deposits
Historical Research in Tropical Gold Geochemistry

(See Summary for main points)
Considering that laterite regolith covers one third of the earth's land surface, there
is a limited amount of research published on gold dispersion in the regolith for
deeply weathered, primary gold deposits. The general lack of publicly available
data on tropical gold geochemistry concerning large, economic gold deposits is due
to exploration company confidentiality.
There are a several early key papers on gold dispersion, attempting to explain gold
concentration zones that occur within the laterite regolith of primary gold deposits
exposed to tropical climates (Penrose (1894); Emmons (1917)). Most of the studies
published on tropical gold geochemistry are from the 1960s to the mid-1990s,
reaching a height from 1990 to 1997, with projects, short courses and workshops
being held globally, including the following.
CRCLEME conference (1998): Regolith '98: New Approaches to an Old
Continent, Kalgoorlie, Australia, Eds. Britt and Bettenay, 75 pp.
MRDU Short Course #21 (1997): Exploration Geochemistry of Tropical
Environments, Vancouver, BC, Canada
17th International Geochemical Exploration Symposium (1995): Exploring
the Tropics, Eds. Kaylene and Camuti, Townsville, Australia, extended
abstracts, 379 pp.
PDAC Short Course (1994): Prospecting in Tropical and Arid Terrains, Ed.
Lynda Bloom, 468 pp.
Third International Symposium on the Geochemistry of the Earth Surface
and Mineral Formation (1993): Chemical Geology Special Issue. Vol. 107
CSIRO/AMIRA Regolith Geochemistry Projects (1987- 1993): Exploration
for concealed gold deposits, Yilgarn Block, Western Australia
Smith et al (1992): Laterite Geochemistry for Detecting Concealed
Mineral Deposits, Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia. Summary Report for
CSIRO-AMIRA Project P240 covering period 1987 to 1991. 170 pp.
EUROLAT (European Network on Tropical Laterites and Global
Environment) 1991: Supergene ore deposits and mineral formation. 5th
international meeting. Berlin, Germany; EUROLAT 1997: Weathering
Processes: Mineral deposits and soil formation in tropical environments.
9th international meeting. Strasbourg, Germany
Second International Symposium on the Geochemistry of the Earth
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Surface and Mineral Formation (1990): Chemical Geology Special Issue.

Vol. 84
As well, a number of excellent books were published at this same time on tropical
weathering, including the following.
Atlas of Micromorphology of Mineral Alteration and Weathering by J. E.
Delvigne (1998), Canadian Mineralogist Special Publication 3, 516 pp
Regolith, Soils and Landforms by Ollier and Pain (1997), John Wiley &
Sons, 316 pp
Developments in Earth Surface Processes 2 (1993) Weathering, Soils &
Paleosols, edited by I.P. Martini and W. Chesworthin particular, the
following three chapters:
Ch 15: Diversity and Terminology of Laterite Profiles by Y.
Tardy, p. 379401
Ch 16: Geochemistry and Evolution of Lateritic
Landscapes by Y. Tardy and C. Roquin, p. 407437
Ch 17: Metallogeny of Weathering, an Introduction by
D.B. Nahon, B. Boulang and F. Colin, p. 445467
Handbook of Exploration Geochemistry (1992), Volume 4: Regolith
Exploration Geochemistry in Tropical and Subtropical Terrains, by C.R.M.
Butt and H. Zeegers, Elsevier. 607 pp
Although valuable locally, conclusions from Western Australian research on gold
dispersion are drawn from studies on regolith environments that have undergone
a different climatic history than the rest of the tropical regions; making the
Australian case studies perhaps less comparable to laterized gold systems in
tropical rainforests, such as in the Guiana and Amazonia Shield in South America
and the Birimian Shield and Congo Craton of West and Central Africa.
Bre-X Fraud
In 1993, a mineral exploration company based in Calgary, called Bre-X, began
promoting their Busang gold project in Borneo, Indonesia. In July 1995 the
Northern Miner ran an article that Bre-X had proven reserves of 2.4 million ounces
(Moz) of gold in the ground at Busang. Shortly thereafter, a Kilborn engineering
report stated that Busang contained 70 Moz of gold. The vice president of
exploration for Bre-X, geologist John Felderhof, was heard boasting at PDAC in
1996 that they had the world's largest gold deposit with well over 100 Moz of gold
(Goold and Willis (1997)). By May 1996 the stock price for Bre-X had risen to an
incredible $285 (Canadian dollars). In February of 1997, Freeport-McMoRan, one
of the world's largest producers of copper and gold and holding company of the
giant Grasberg Cu-Au porphyry mine, also in Indonesia, outbid other suitors,
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including Placer Dome and Barrick, to do a deal with Bre-X to acquire Busang. Prior
to Freeport's due diligence evaluation of the Busang site, the chief geologist for
Bre-X, Michael de Guzman, fell from a helicopter. A body was recovered in the
jungle over time, but it was mostly eaten by wild pigs and not recognizable.
Freeport drilled twin holes and collected duplicate samples. Investigation of the
gold grains in the original samples showed large, rounded and abraded grains with
silver rims that were found only in the coarse reject samples assayed by Bre-X,
whereas the new drill core samples contained little gold and it was fine-grained.
Freeport knew they were looking at sample tampering leading to false assay
results at Busang.
Shortly thereafter, Strathcona Mineral Services presented an
independent report documenting the Busang fraud: the drill core
samples had been carefully and systematically salted with alluvial
gold grains to produce the amazing gold assay results that provided
the basis for the resource calculations. The Bre-X stock price fell
rapidly with this news. At its peak, Bre-X was worth six billion dollars.
By the end of March, 1997, in the stock market crash that followed
the news of the fraud, investors lost an astounding 3 billion dollars.
Following the Bre-X scandal of 1997, confidence in gold exploration at tropical
latitudes dropped around the globe; exploration funds dried up and research on
gold behaviour in tropically weathered gold deposits lost its glitter. It would take
close to a decade to bounce back again.
To protect the Canadian investor from future similar fraud, the Canadian Institute
of Mining (CIM) has created the National Instrument (NI) 43-101, which outlines
the standards required for disclosure (such as Company news releases and
announcements of resource calculations) of mineral projects. The instrument also
requires that a qualified person (QP) sign off on the information. The QP should be
a reputable professional geoscientist or engineer who has knowledge of the
mineral property concerned and who has a minimum of 5 years' experience in the
mineral commodity and is qualified to make the statements in the report.
With the resurgence in tropical gold exploration, driven by high gold price and a
multitude of recent primary gold discoveries in the tropics (as noted in Primary
Gold Discoveries in the Tropics: Table 1), the exploration geologist today is facing
a generational knowledge gap with regard to the tropical geochemistry of gold.
Most of what is in the literature today dates to at least twenty years ago and there
has been a lack of common terminology amongst these researchers. As well, a
number of unnecessary new terms and categories have been proposed.
Tropical Gold Geochemistry: Looking Ahead

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The revival of tropical gold geochemistry should start with common ground.
Figures of laterite regolith profiles used in gold dispersion
studies of lateritized primary gold deposits should include,
whenever possible, the entire regolith, from the weathering
front at depth to the surface soils, and contain the following.
clearly differentiate each of the individual regolith
horizons present, including the overlying A and B soil
horizons
position of water table (if possible, determine position during wet and dry
season)
position of weathering front (oxidation front) at depth
location of test samples (pore water, soil or regolith) plotted along the
regolith profile
pH conditions (if possible)
use scale bars to indicate thicknesses of zones
Sometimes the researcher has to be resourceful and creative to be able to sample
from as many of the regolith horizons as possible in one project area. This could be
achieved through pitting, sampling roadcuts, open pit bench exposures and mine
adits, and drill core to be able to thoroughly sample along a regolith that may
reach one hundred meters or more in thickness. Drill core data can be useful for
determining depth of oxidation (weathering front), but for the upper horizons, drill
core is often unreliable, as core loss is common in the clay rich horizons of the
laterite regolith.
Gold Dispersion Factors

As is the case in nature, each gold deposit displays a unique set of geochemical
characteristics, both at surface in the soil geochemistry, as well as laterally and
vertically through the regolith. The variety in parent rock material, gold
mineralization style, paleoclimatic history, and regolith landform regimes (residual,
erosional, depositional) of the gold deposit will all differ from project to project.
What is helpful for the gold exploration geologist is that with knowledge of a
certain set of gold dispersion factors for their gold project site, the chemical
processes responsible for gold dispersion can be identified and gold enrichment
and depletion zones within the regolith can often be predicted. This is critical in
geochemical sampling in field surveys (soil sampling, auger, pit and trench) to
know which regolith horizon to sample. Gold dispersion factors include:
gold dissolution,
gold ligands in the regolith,
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the amount of sulphides present in the gold mineralized system,

water table fluctuation,
chloride ion ligands in arid regions,
organic ligands in surface soils,
chelating agents in plant roots, and
mechanical dispersion.
Gold dissolution
Gold dissolves? Yes it can. Gold dissolves by forming complexes with certain
ligands that can temporarily bring a small part of the gold particle into solution,
before dropping the gold back into solid state. Gold-ligand complexes are weak at
first in the lower saprolite, then become increasingly stable higher up in the
saturated part of the regolith, in more oxidizing and acidic waters, and are able to
disperse the newly formed gold particles a little further away from the source.
Gold-ligand complexes are also active in the upper A and B soil horizons.
Gold ligands in the regolith
A number of gold complexes, or ligands, are proposed to explain gold dissolution
and mobility in the lateritic weathering crust of a gold mineralized system hosted
in the bedrock. The ligands most likely responsible for gold complexing are:
hydroxide (OH-),
thiosulphate (S2O22-),
cyanide (CN-),
chloride (Cl-), and
fulvic acid (an organic acid).
The presence, strength and actions of these ligands depend on the climatic zone of
the system, organic component, the Eh-pH conditions and water table position and
fluctuation within the regolith. Any given gold deposit exposed in tropical climatic
conditions will have several of these ligands at work at once, in different parts of
the regolith profile.
At the very base of the weathering front, where pH conditions are near neutral,
porosity is lowest and sulphides have not yet begun to oxidize, hydroxyl
complexes are the first to act on exposed gold grains (Bowell et al. (1993); Colin et
al. (1993); Porto and Hale (1995)), forming weak complexes with gold that are
unstable.
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In the lower saprolite (LSAP) horizon, oxidation of the pyrite, arsenopyrite, or

galena and sphalerite begins. The resulting chemical reactions release H+ ions and
sulphates, creating increasingly acidic conditions (lowering pH) and producing
thiosulfate ligands, which begin to bond with gold. At first, hydroxyl complexes
may help to strengthen the thiosulfate Au complex, but pH conditions at the base
of the oxidation front are not acidic enough to retain gold in solution and it is
quickly re-precipitated. At depth in the regolith, the re-precipitated, fine-grained
secondary gold occurs very near to and/or within the primary gold system.
Amount of sulphides in gold system
When exposed to the weathering process, a sulphidic ore body tends to develop a
zonal arrangement of different mineral associations which reflect various degrees
of oxidation (Sato (1960)). The presence of sulphides in the system correlates to an
increase in production of thiosulfate complexes, which in turn dissolve and
mobilize gold faster, dispersing gold further away from the primary source.
Therefore, increased sulphides equal higher gold mobility in the regolith.
Oxidation of sulphides, or ferrolysis, continues to create acidic reactions, which
helps to accelerate hydrolysis (breakdown of silicates into clays), while thiosulfate
ligands continue to reduce primary gold particles, moving the gold into solution,
and keeping it there a little longer so that groundwaters may disperse the gold
laterally a few centimetres before it re-precipitates.
In the upper saprolite (USAP) or pallid zone, still within the saturated zone and
directly below the water table, conditions are extremely acidic and oxygenated.
Here, hydrolysis has broken down the silicates into clays, porosity is highest,
ferrolysis is complete and most of the gold is now mobilized and in solution as
gold-thiosulfate complexes. The increase in natural acidity from the sulphides
being oxidized will also ultimately have an effect on the overall thickness of the
regolith forming over the gold deposit: proximal to the mineralized zone, there is
likely to be a thicker regolith developed than further away from the deposit.
Water table fluctuations
The mottled zone (MZ) is positioned above the water table, along with the laterite
and overlying upper soil horizons. The lower mottled zone is a zone of extreme
leaching. Here, acidic rainwater infiltrates the regolith and enters the groundwater
system. With daily and seasonal water table fluctuations, gold complexes in the
upper saprolite are leached, and fine secondary gold particles are dispersed. This
chemical dispersal will only go as far as these acidic conditions exist, which is in
and around the primary gold mineralized system.
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The oxidizing environment at the water table results in a process called

ferruginization, where aqueous iron changes into solid iron oxides and hydroxides
(hematite and goethite) in the upper mottled zone. These mottles harden
(indurated) into concretions of goethite and kaolinite. Gold co-precipitates in the
mottles with the ferruginization process. As the regolith profile lowers over time,
upper mottles become incorporated into the base of the laterite horizon.
Chloride ions as ligands
In arid areas, such as the Yilgarn Block in Western Australia, high concentrations of
chloride ion exist in saline groundwater due to low rainfall and strong evaporation.
Combined with low pH conditions near the top of the water table, chloride ions
form complexes with gold and silver. In arid conditions, the chloride ion is a very
likely candidate for a gold ligand (Mann (1984)).
Organic ligands in surface soils
Contrary to commonly held views, organic matter contents in tropical soils are not
very different from those in the temperate region. The main reason for this is the
absence of a direct relationship between a dark brown colour and organic carbon
content. Many red and yellow soils in the tropical rainforest climate, Af, and
tropical monsoon climate, Am, actually have higher organic carbon content than
black clay-rich soils found in the drier end of tropical forests; the savanna, Aw
(Nahon (1991)).
Tropical forests produce about five times as much biomass and soil organic matter
per year as comparable temperate forests (Nahon (1991)). But decomposition
rates in the tropical soils are much higher than for temperate regions, because
temperatures are so high in the tropics. Thus equilibrium exists between formation
of biomass and decomposition of organic matter that is similar to that found in
temperate forests. For tropical rainforest (Af) and monsoon climates (Am) with
thick vegetation, where decomposition is rapid and associated organic acid activity
is high, organic ligands dominate in the upper soil horizons.
In the upper soil horizons, fulvic acid (FA) is the dominant ligand. FA forms colloidal
particles that are highly mobile. Colloids have exceptionally high surface area,
which means a lot of binding sites for chemical reactions. FA colloids bind easily
with gold in acidic (pH=2 to 6) conditions (Bowell et al. (1993)). The binding
mechanism of the FA colloid involves an initial formation of a gold complex,
possibly another hydroxyl complex. This intermediate complex is then slowly
reduced by fulvic acid to a gold-fulvate colloid.
Humic acids are often not considered in the dissolution of gold because humic acid
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is only soluble in bases, while most tropical soils tend to be acidic.

Cyanide is another organic ligand associated with near-surface dispersion of gold
particles. Cyanide is a product of the breakdown of organisms, a process that
occurs in the decomposition phases that yield hydrogen cyanide at the base of the
O and in the A soil horizon (Bowell et al. (1993)). Gold is readily dissolved in the
presence of thiocyanate ion, especially in acid solutions. The bacteria Thiobacillus
ferroxidans obtains its energy by oxidation of thiocyanate to sulphate, carbonate
and ammonia. Many bacteria oxidize thiosulfate and are present in most surficial
environments. Gold thiosulfate is not appreciably absorbed by plants.
Chelating agents in plant roots
In the A soil horizon, some plant roots exude acids to lower soil pH. These acids act
as chelating agents
to dissolve metal ions into solution for their uptake as
nutrients for the plant, which takes place in the B horizon beneath it. Chelating
agents can be organic acids such as citric acid, or amino acids or hydroxamate
siderophores (produced by symbiotic micro-organisms). The chelating agent binds
strongly to a metal ion and the resulting chelate is drawn to the plant roots, where
the metal ions are absorbed from soil solution into the root surface, in some cases
aided by fungi living on the roots.
Chelating agents produced by plant roots are likely intended to target and release
a specific group of plant nutrient ions from the soil and transmit them in
complexed form to the root. In the case of essential nutrients, such as Zn and Fe, a
thin zone of depletion develops around the roots, which promotes dissolution and
diffusion of these ions towards the root. Some concentrations become
oversaturated and mineral precipitation can occur, such as calcite, hydrous oxides
of Fe and Mn, amorphous silica and gypsum.
Many non-nutrient elements including Au and Ag can also be complexed by the
same organic chelating agents, and are thus mobilized in the regolith by the same
process (Gilkes (1999)). Those ions (such as Al, As, Au and Ag) are dissolved by the
same chelating agents, yet excluded from plant uptake by ion selective root
membranes, which only accept those metals that are essential to plant nutrients.
Those metals that are transported but not accepted gather in an accumulation
zone around the rootlets in the B Horizon.
In the upper soil horizons, gold complexes are formed in the A soil horizon and
leached by percolating meteoric waters to accumulate in the lower B soil horizon.
The gold is released; either dissociated or desorbed from the organic complexes in
the reducing environments characteristic of the lower B soil horizon. This makes
the B soil horizon the ideal sampling medium in soil surveys.
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Figure 3, at right, shows gold

dispersion of weathered primary
gold system in the laterite
regolith of Af climate. Meteoric
waters infiltrate and percolate
the upper soil horizons of the
laterite regolith, to recharge the
groundwater table with oxygen-rich and slightly acidic
waters. Gold distribution in the regolith is the result of
ligands, chelating agents and physical spreading and
settling of gold particles. This effect of gold dispersion
becomes more pronounced in mineralized systems that
are rich in sulphides, as oxidation of sulphides aids the
release of thiosulfate complexes. Gold systems with low
sulphide content will have a less pronounced dispersal of
gold within the regolith.
Mechanical dispersion
Wide dispersion halos of gold at surface are first and foremost the result of the
deep, chemical, lateritic weathering processes that take place in the saprolite,
mottled zone, laterite, and soils.
Exposure of lateritized gold deposits to nature's elements of wind, water and
gravity results in the further lateral and vertical dispersion of gold particles at the
Earth's surface. For example, with the heavy rains characteristic of tropical
latitudes, gold grains may be dispersed across the surface by sheet wash, collecting
in pockets and potentially forming placer deposits. Resistant gold in quartz vein
fragments settle through the upper soil horizons below into the laterite and enter
the stone line.
An example of the mechanical dispersion of gold is the

Posse deposit in Central Brazil (Porto and Hale (1995)).
The climate is tropical savanna Aw, of the cerrado type,
with annual precipitation of 1,800 mm, concentrated in
the months of October to April. The laterite regolith is
about 40 m thick, containing a mottled zone and an iron
crust at the top (as is expected in Aw). The stone line is
found high up in the laterite profile and contains residual
gold-in-quartz vein fragments.
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Continue with Gold Fineness
Tropical Gold Geochemistry ... | Gold Fineness ... | Supergene Enrichment ... | Oxidized Ore ... |
Review #5 ...
Gold Exploration in Tropical Landscapes - January 24, 2014
Tropical Gold Geochemistry - Figure 1
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Figure 1: The story of Bre-X should never be forgotten as its effects are still felt today. Investors remain
wary of gold projects in Indonesia and elsewhere in tropical jungles. Young geologists entering the field
today are not familiar with tropical gold geochemistry due to a lack of research funding following this
deceit (Bre-X book: Goold and Willis (1997)).
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Figure 2: Idealized regolith profile indicating (hypothetical) location of samples collected; note the
difference in regolith thickness over the quartzite and the shale and that the weathering front has a
different contact depending on rock type: straight over quartzite and wavy over the shale (source: D.
Voormeij)
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Figure 3: Gold dispersion of weathered primary gold system in the laterite regolith of Af climate
(source: D. Voormeij)
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Figure 4: In this cross section of the Posse gold deposit in the tropical savanna "cerrado" of Brazil, the
regolith profile on the right shows the stone line is a semicontinuous horizon 0.5 to 1 m thick, above the
ferruginous zone. It is comprised of ferruginized quartz fragments, scattered pisoliths and rare iron
crust fragments, all set in a goethitic-kaolinitic clay matrix (Porto and Hale (1995)).
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Figure 5: Schematic representation of lateritic lowering over time, resulting in a regolith profile that
contains lateritized quartz vein fragments, gold particles, pisoliths, and duricrust fragments (Porto and
Hale (1995))
Note: large tables may be truncated by this print process, if this happens then use your browser Print
Preview and Shrink-to-Fit to print these tables individually from the table window
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Table 1: Nutrient and non-nutrient metals for plants

Biologically essential for plants
Non-essential for plants
Si, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn
Al, As, Ag, Au, Pb, U, Sb
Table 1: Nutrient and non-nutrient metals for plants (Gilkes (1999))
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Online Course - registered as "santjitr@gmail.com" for certification

Gold Exploration in Tropical Landscapes