Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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Research paper

Sedimentology, geochemistry and reservoir potential of the organic-rich T

Qusaiba Shale, Tabuk Basin, NW Saudi Arabia
Mohamed Abouelresha,e,∗, Lamidi Babalolab, Abdaseed Bokharic, Mohammed Omerd,
Thomas Koithand, Daniel Boyded
a
Center for Environment & Water, RI, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Saudi Arabia
b
CIPR, CPG, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Saudi Arabia
c
Faculty of Petroleum Engineering, Peace University, Sudan
d
Weatherford, Dhahran Techno Valley, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Saudi Arabia
e
Faculty of Petroleum & Mining Engineering, Suez University, Egypt

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The Qusaiba Shale Formation of the Qalibah Group is the most prolific source rock for the Paleozoic petroleum
Sedimentology system in Saudi Arabia and is recently considered as a potential unconventional shale gas reservoir. Detailed
Organic rich shale sedimentological, petrographical, and geochemical analyses were undertaken on an ~31 m thick outcrop of this
Qusaiba organic-rich shale exposed in the northwest of Tayma City, NW of Saudi Arabia to provide a better under-
Unconventional resources
standing of the vertical and lateral lithofacies variations and the effects of such variations on reservoir prop-
Geochemistry
erties.
X-ray diffraction analysis reveals that clay minerals (average: 50%) and quartz (average: 28%) dominate the
bulk mineralogical composition while K-feldspar, plagioclase, and pyrite occur as common to minor components
in the analyzed samples. An integration of the sedimentological description, petrography and mineralogical
composition allows the subdivision of the investigated outcrop section into six lithofacies. These are: Laminated
organic-rich shale, Graptolitic concretion, Massive organic-rich shale, Organic-lean shale, Siltstone-shale interbedded,
and Cross-stratified siltstone/sandstone lithofacies. TOC content in the laminated and massive organic-rich shale
lithofacies ranges between 0.5 and 6.1 wt% (average 2.52 wt%) then it decreases upward (0.04–0.35 wt%,
average 0.18 wt%) in the overlying organic-lean shale and siltstone lithofacies. Trace elements (Cu, Mo, As, Ni,
Co, U and V) show positive excursions in the lowermost 20 m of the organic-rich, dark-grey shale interval and
display abrupt depletions at the contact with overlying organic-lean shale. The enrichment factors of these trace
elements are characterized by similar distribution patterns as their measured concentrations. Like the elements,
these factors also exhibit a significant depletion at the contact between the organic-rich shale and the overlying
organic-lean shale. Out of all the redox indices, V/(V + Cr), V/(V + Ni), Th/U and [Mo]s/TOC were found to
best distinguish between the organic-rich and the overlying organic-lean intervals.
The laminated organic-rich shale lithofacies indicate deposition of hemipelagic sediments by a relatively low
energy quiet anoxic bottom water, most likely in a sulfidic conditions that were associated with a strongly
restricted bottom water mass circulation at the time of its deposition. This restricted hydrographic condition was
likely enhanced in the study area due to the paleotopography that was created by the deglaciation of the Early
Silurian time. The TOC richness, common occurrence of pyrite and high enrichment of redox elements Mo, U and
V in the organic-rich shale intervals support the existence of anoxic bottom water at the time of deposition. The
abrupt decrease of the TOC and the redox sensitive elements and their associated indices from the underlying
organic-rich lithofacies to the overlying organic-lean shale lithofacies is likely due to a gradual increase in
oxygen level. This improved bottom water oxygenation condition might have led to a reduction in organic
productivity and limited organic matter preservation in the organic-lean shale lithofacies. The graptolitic con-
cretion lithofacies found in the sequence, refers to an in-situ, syngenetic to early diagenetic origin formed close
to the sediment-water layer when there was little or no deposition or at periods characterized by low sedi-
mentation rates. The siltstone - fine sandstone lithofacies in the topmost part of the studied section, is interpreted
to indicate the dominance of high energy and highly oxygenated shallow bottom water conditions during de-
position, probably in a middle to inner shelf depositional settings.

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: omaradh@yahoo.com (M. Abouelresh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2019.05.001
Received 30 November 2017; Received in revised form 14 February 2019; Accepted 2 May 2019
Available online 16 August 2019
0264-8172/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Abouelresh, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260

The kerogen in QS is a mixture of type III (gas prone) and type IV (inert kerogen), Tmax values with an average
of 430 °C, and VRo values (average 0.58) calculated from the Tmax, assigned the studied section as immature.
Qualitative evaluation of porosity allows the identification of three different types of porosity including in-
organic porosity, organic porosity and natural fracture porosity. Although the ductile clay minerals are the most
abundant minerals in the lower part of the studied QS (average 56%), the brittle minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, and
Pyrite) form an average of 42% and exhibit a uniform distribution of brittleness in the organic-rich interval.

1. Introduction
Tabuk Basin located in northwest Saudi Arabia, extends into Jordan
and Iraq to the north. The Precambrian rocks of the Arabian Shield from
the west and the south border Tabuk Basin while the northerly plunging
Ha'il-Rutbah Arch which marks the east side of the basin and separates
it from the Widyan Basin (Al-Laboun, 1986, 2009) (Fig. 1A–B). These
two basins (Tabuk and Widyan basins) are considered as parts of a
broad Gondwana stable Paleozoic shelf, which was covered by the
Tethys Sea transgression during the Early Silurian time (Fox and
Ahlbrandt, 2002).
The Qusaiba Shale Formation (QS) of the Qalibah Group (Fig. 1C) is
the most prolific source rock for the Paleozoic petroleum system in
Saudi Arabia (Abu-Ali et al., 1991, 1999; McGillivray and Husseini,
1992; Jones and Stump, 1999; Konert et al., 2001; and Arouri et al.,
2010). Additionally, QS is one of the widely distributed lower Silurian
source rocks in the Middle East. It is equivalent to the other formations
such as the Mudawwara in Jordan, Sahmah in Oman, Akkas in Iraq,
Dadas in southeast Turkey, Ghakum in Iran, Tanf in Syria, and Ta-
nezzuft in Libya (Konert et al., 2001; Lüning et al., 2005). The type and
maturity level of the organic content in the QS has been deeply in-
vestigated and evaluated (e.g., Mahmoud et al., 1992; and Cole et al.,
1994). The most recent studies showed a significant variation of ma-
turity from immature to over mature levels within the QS in the
northwestern region of Saudi Arabia (Inan et al., 2016; and
MorCheshire et al., 2017).
In 2008, Saudi Aramco initiated the exploration of unconventional
shale gas in the northwest area of Saudi Arabia by drilling the Shale-1
well to evaluate the reservoir quality of the Silurian shale (Alexeyenko
et al., 2012). This exploration activity addressed the occurrence of
economic reserves in QS at shallow depths. The same formation also
showed good evidence of gas reserves in the Empty Quarter (Rub’ Al-

Fig. 1. Geographic location of the studied section to SE of Tabuk City, NW Saudi Arabia. (B) Tectonic map shows the location of Tabuk Basin and its tectonic borders
(modified after Al-Laboun, 1986). (C) Lithostratigraphic classification of Qalibah Group in Saudi Arabia, the geologic time scale is from International stratigraphic
chart, 2004 (modified after Halawani et al., 2013). (D) Field photo of the studied section of Qusaiba Shale shows the organic richness in the basal unit. (E) Structure
map shows the Tayma Graben where the Qusaiba Shale escarpment represents its northeast side. Red circle is the location of the studied section (Structural map
modified after, Vaslet et al., 1994). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

241
M. Abouelresh, et al.
Khali Basin) in the southwest of Saudi Arabia (Stewart et al., 2016). To
date, production from these reserves has not started, likely due to the
lack of infrastructure and limited shale gas production experience.
The reservoir properties of the Lower Silurian QS which is con-
sidered as a potential unconventional shale gas reservoir, have not been
fully understood. Therefore, an outcrop study was undertaken to pro-
vide a better understanding of the vertical and lateral lithofacies var-
iations and the effects of such variations on reservoir properties of
potential oil and gas shale reservoirs. The main objective of an outcrop
study is usually to answer traditional geological questions regarding
lithofacies, depositional environments, stratigraphy, and mineralogy.
The depositional environments of QS in the subsurface of the
eastern area and outcrops at central regions of Saudi Arabia, respec-
tively, have been well documented in the literature (e.g., Mahmoud
et al., 1992; Aoudeh and Al-Hajri, 1995; and Jones and Stump, 1999).
However, prior to the present study, the QS in the northwest region
(Tabuk Basin) has not been thoroughly investigated in terms of de-
positional setting. The current work focuses on full sedimentological
and geochemical characterizations of a QS outcrop section in the Tabuk
Basin, northwestern of Saudi Arabia. Subsequent experimental analyses
provide information on depositional environments, rock mechanical
properties, organic richness, kerogen types, and reciprocal impacts in
order to evaluate the reservoir potential for shale gas.
2. Geologic setting
The Phanerozoic rocks of Saudi Arabia have been subjected to ex-
tensive stratigraphic studies to explore their hydrocarbon content,
ground water and mineral resources as well. (Powers et al., 1966;
Power, 1968; Simmons et al., 2007). Consequently, the classification,
definition and nomination of the lithostratigraphic units have varied
considerably over the past decades. Recently, Saudi stratigraphic
committee published a generalized column for the Paleozoic strati-
graphic rocks (Halawani et al., 2013) (Fig. 1).
During the Late Ordovician period, polar glaciers expanded across
Gondwana and covered most of Saudi Arabia (Melchin et al., 2013).
The geologic record shows glacial striations in present-day outcrops,
and glacially deposited formations (Vaslet et al., 1993). The advance
and retreat of the glaciers resulted in the deposition of the Sarah and
Zarqa formations (Cole et al., 1994). These two formations represent
glacial and periglacial sequences and consist of tillites and proglacia1
sands (Zarqa Formation) and finer sands in the Sarah Formation. By
Early Silurian time, the retreat and melting of the glaciers resulted in an
abrupt sea-level rise, which led to an important regional marine
transgression and consequently the deposition of the upward-coar-
sening sequence of the Qalibah Group in Saudi Arabia (Vaslet, 1987;
Husseini, 1991).
The type locality and type sections of QS are located in the Tabuk
Basin, northwestern part of Saudi Arabia (Vaslet et al., 1993; Janjou
et al., 1996a,b). At the type locality in the Qalibah area, the QS is ap-
proximately 290 m thick and it reaches up to 482 m in thickness at its
reference section located near Tabuk City “at the northwest of Saudi
Arabia”. Its outcrop near the old Qusaiba village in the Qasim region is
about 83 m thick.
Stratigraphically, the QS is subdivided into an upper and a lower
part. The lower part formed by regional marine transgression deposits
while the upper part comprises a coarsening upward prodeltaic shale
(Jones and Stump, 1999; Lüning et al., 2000). QS represents the delta-
toe clays which dominates the Silurian-Carboniferous depositional
setting of the Arabian Plate (Sharland et al., 2001).
The QS is mainly composed of light to dark grey shales (mudstone)
and thin beds of siltstone and sandstone within shales (Cole et al.,
1994). The overlying Sharawra Formation is mostly composed of mi-
caceous sandstone and subordinate siltstone and shale (Stump and Van
Der Eem, 1995). On a regional basis, the Qusaiba/Sharawra contact is
mostly conformable. However, in the Qasim area, QS is locally eroded
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260
by fluvial channels, which are filled with moderately to well-sorted
Sharawra sandstone. The Sharawra Fm. is unknown in the outcrop in
the Wajid Plateau, but it is present in sections drilled at sites in
southwestern Saudi Arabia, where Qusaiba/Sharawra contacts also
appear to be conformable. In the subsurface, the Qusaiba/Sharawra
contact is usually gradational over a vertical distance of between 20 and
61 m.
Megafaunas including graptolites, molluscs, brachiopods, trilobites
and euryptic fragments are diverse and abundant in the QS (Jones and
Stump, 1999). This faunal content is also present in the upper shale
unit, but with less abundance. Based on the recovery of macrofauna,
mainly graptolites, and the stratigraphic position of the Qusaiba and
Sharawra formations below the Devonian-age Tawil Formation, the
Qalibah Group is assigned Early Silurian age. The recovery of graptolite
fauna such as Glyptograptus, Lagrarograptus, Monograptus convolutes, and
Coronograptus gregarious zones in outcrops from the Tabuk Basin and
wells from the eastern Saudi Arabia (e.g., Rickards and Koren, 1974;
McClure, 1988) allows the assignment of the QS to the Convolutus zone
belonging to the Llandovery, Aeronian stage. Chitinozoans of the
Middle Aeronian stage were reported in a water well (NWA10) from
Qasim. Similar occurrences and high diversity of Llandovery chit-
inozoas have been found in cores and ditch cutting samples obtained
from wells that penetrated both the Qusaiba and Sharawra formations
in central Saudi Arabia (Paris et al., 1995).
The organic-rich shales at the base of the QS rarely exceed 50 m in
thickness and are usually about 9–31 m thick. Likewise, the richest
organic beds are composed of micro-laminated shale and occur im-
mediately above, and have sharp, well-defined contacts with the basal
sandstone of QS. In the most organic-rich shale beds, the terrigenous
sediment is restricted to beds lying immediately above and below the
shale. Sandstones interbeds are rare within the most organic-rich source
beds (Jones and Stump, 1999). The upper QS is mostly composed of
shale but thin interbeds of coarse siltstone and very fine-grained
sandstone are also present throughout the unit. The interbedding
sandstones are composed of 1.5–3 m thick beds, described as ripple
laminated, moderate to well sorted, fine to very fine-grained beds with
erosional bases and gradational tops (Janjou et al., 1996a,b).
Gamma-ray log response in the basal “hot shale” portion of the QS
of the Silurian-age Qalibah Group exceeds 150° API units (Abu-Ali
et al., 1991; Mahmoud et al., 1992; Cole et al., 1994). The thickness of
the “Qusaiba hot shale” varies from a few tens of meters (m) to 70 m
(Jones and Stump, 1999). The basal part of the QS “hot shale” having
up to 14 wt% of TOC, is the most effective hydrocarbon source-rock
facies for the Paleozoic reservoirs in Saudi Arabia (Mahmoud et al.,
1992; Cole et al., 1994; Bishop, 1995; Milner, 1998; Abu-Ali et al.,
1999; Jones and Stump, 1999; Konert et al., 2001). Based on regional
basin models, Qusaiba hot shale “QHS” cover a wide maturity range
(Inan et al., 2016). Across the eastern Arabian subcontinent, the QHS is
mostly thermally mature for gas generation; however, the QS is over
mature for gas generation in the deeper parts of some basins and mature
for oil generation along some basin margins (Fox and Ahlbrandt, 2002).
3. Methodology
3.1. Outcrop methodology
The 31 m thick studied outcrop exposure is located at the northwest
of Tayma City (27° 52\ 10\ N 38° 34\ 35\ E) (Fig. 1A) where it extends
laterally as a long ridge for ~3 km to form the NW side of Tayma
Graben (Fig. 1D and E). The outcrop was selected based on its acces-
sibility, thickness, and documented lithological variation. A detailed
field sedimentological description was conducted to document the
outcrop's lithological variation, beds thicknesses, textural attributes and
visible sedimentary structures. A total of 68 samples were collected at a
regular sampling interval of 0.5 m from the basal section up to the top
of the outcrop (Fig. 1D). The sample set includes 43 samples obtained
M. Abouelresh, et al.
from the basal 20.5 m thick organic-rich shale interval and 25 samples
from the overlying 10.5 m thick overlying organic-lean shale and silt-
stone-sandstone interval. In order to obtain fresh unweathered samples,
the sampling site surfaces were excavated for about 20–30 cm inward.
These field data were integrated with sample lithological description,
petrographic and bulk mineralogical data to construct the stratigraphic
column of the QS.
3.2. Laboratory investigations
The samples collected during the field investigation were sedi-
mentologically described using a stereoscopic microscope and sub-
sampled for different laboratory analyses. Using the standard thin
section preparation technique, twenty-two thin sections were prepared
Fig. 2. Lithofacies description along with the bulk mineralogy and total organic carbon of the studied Qusaiba Shale section, Tabuk Basin, NW Saudi Arabia.
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260
for petrographic analysis and examination of diagenetic features. The
thin sections were examined using a polarizing petrographic micro-
scope to identify their grain size, matrix, mineralogy and the dominant
petrofacies types. Scanning electron microscopic analysis was also
carried out using a JEOL JSM-6610LV to identify the matrix, miner-
alogy, grain to grain relationships and porosity. Energy Dispersive
Spectroscopy (EDS) was used to determine the elemental compositions
of the investigated samples.
All the studied samples were analyzed using X-ray diffraction fa-
cility at the Weatherford Research Center Laboratories to quantitatively
determine their bulk mineralogy. The X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spec-
trometry equipment at Weatherford Research Center Laboratories was
also used to determine the major elemental oxides and trace elemental
composition of all the 68 samples. Elemental concentrations of the
M. Abouelresh, et al.
investigated samples were normalized with Al concentration, because
this element is highly immobile and resistance to weathering and di-
agenetic processes (Brumsack, 1989). This helps to factor out biogenic
and authigenic minerals dilution. The normalized values were subse-
quently compared to their corresponding average shale values to de-
termine their enrichment factors (EF) using the following equation
(Wedepohl, 1971; Taylor and McLennan, 1985; McLennan, 2001;
Tribovillard et al., 2006).
EF = (Element/Al) sample/(Element/Al) Average Shale (1)
This ratio has been used in several studies (e.g. Arthur et al., 1990;
Calvert and Pedersen, 1993; Morford et al., 2001; Algeo and Maynard,
2004; Goldberg et al., 2007). In the present study, the enrichment factor
(EF) for each element is presented in Table 3.
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260
Redox proxies are those elements, which have different chemical
behavior in oxic and anoxic conditions according to the solubility of
their oxy anions (Morford et al., 2001), therefore, they may be in-
corporated with the organic matter or adhered to the sulfide minerals
(Lewan and Maynard, 1982; Morford and Emerson, 1999). The most
common trace elements that are used as redox proxies include V, Cr, Ni,
U, Mn, Fe, and Mo (Dean et al., 1997; Algeo and Maynard, 2004;
Tribovillard et al., 2012).
Sedimentary molybdenum [Mo]s to the total organic carbon cov-
ariation [Mo]s/TOC developed by Algeo and Lyons (2006) to in-
vestigate the variations of water mass restriction in anoxic silled marine
systems was additionally used to assess the hydrographic variations in
the water mass during the deposition of the investigated outcrop sec-
tion.
Fig. 3. Laminated organic-rich shale lithofacies
(A) Field photo shows the highly fissile and thinly
lamination style of the lithofacies (< 1 cm). (B) Thin
section photo (PPL) shows the lamination of silty-
size (bright) and clay-size shale (dark) (C) thin sec-
tion photo (CN) shows the disseminated organic
matter in the clay groundmass with few scattered
silty-size quartz grains. (D) SEM image of euhedral
pyrite crystals (white arrows) within clay flakes (red
arrows). Graptolitic concretion lithofacies (E)
Field photo shows the relatively hard denser lenti-
cular concretion, note the bending shaley laminae
below and above the concretion. (F) Photo shows
different fracture types inside the concretion. The
black color is due to the organic richness. (G) Photo
shows graptolites species preserved between the
bedding planes inside the concretion. Graptolite
branches (yellow arrows) (H) thin section photo
(PPL) shows the branched longitudinal calcareous
graptolite (white arrows) preserved in the organic-
rich clay ground mass (blue arrows). (For inter-
pretation of the references to color in this figure le-
gend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this
article.)
M. Abouelresh, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260

Total Organic Carbon (TOC) contents of the samples were measured
with the LECO carbon analyzer equipped with a HF-100 Induction
Furnace on carbonate-free shale. Standard Rock-Eval (kerogen pyr-
olysis) analysis was performed according to the method of Espitalie
et al. (1977) using a Delsi Rock-Eval OSA on a 100 mg aliquot. The
Rock-Eval Pyrolysis analysis provided the main organic geochemical
parameters (S1, S2, S3, Tmax) that are used to interpret the hydrocarbon
potential of the QS (Table 5). Other geochemical parameters were
calculated, plotted and interpreted using the following formulae; [(S2/
TOC)*100] for hydrogen index (HI), [(S3/TOC)*100] for oxygen index
(OI), [S1/(S1+S2)] for production index (PI) and [(0.0180 x Tmax -
7.16) (Jarvie et al., 2001)] for the percentage of vitrinite reflectance
index (VRo) (Table 4).
4. Results
4.1. Lithostratigraphy
Thirty-one m-thick sequence described at the outcrop is subdivided
into two broad units based on the color and sand content (Fig. 1.E). The
basal 20 m thick unit of the outcrop consists of a dark grey to black,
hard, fissile and thinly laminated shale. This lower unit is subdivided
into two units separated by a graptolite-bearing concretion interval.
The overlying top 10–12 m thick unit of the studied outcrop is com-
posed of laminated, organic-lean, variegated shale intercalated with
siltstone to fine-grained sandstone beds (Fig. 2). The integration of
petrographic analysis and field description allowed the subdivision of
the two broad units of QS into six different lithofacies types, which are
briefly characterized as follows:
few samples. Micro fractures are very common in this interval. XRD and
SEM analyses indicate that this facies is dominated by clay minerals
(range: 39–71%; average: 56%), the facies is also characterized by a
considerable content of quartz (23% average) and pyrite (7% average)
(Table 1; Fig. 3D). Feldspars and carbonate minerals (calcite and do-
lomite), respectively, occur as minor and trace components within this
facies.
4.1.2. Graptolitic concretion lithofacies (10.5–11.5 m)
This 1-m thick interval consists of graptolite-bearing concretions,
which occur as discontinuous lenses within silty, clayey organic-rich
shale beds (Fig. 3E). It represents a good marker between the basal
laminated organic-rich shale interval and the overlying massive shale
lithofacies unit of QS in the outcrop. The concretions are mainly com-
posed of calcite (68%) with minor amounts (< 10%) of quartz, clay
minerals and pyrite (Table 1). Graptolites are abundant and well pre-
served in the cores of the concretions. They are mainly monograptids,
with minor occurrences of diplograptids (Fig. 3G). The shale beds above
and below the concretion interval exhibit soft sediment deformation
structures such as micro-fold and budge-out structures (Fig. 3E). The
concretion interval displays multiple fracture sets ranging between
bedding-parallel, vertical and inclined fractures (Fig. 3F–H) which are
filled mainly by calcite and pyrite. The concretions are likely of sep-
tarian concretion type (Boles et al., 1985; Hudson et al., 2001). Thin
section petrography of the concretions shows clay matrix with dis-
seminated silt-size quartz grains. Branched calcareous graptolitic net-
works, which cut-across the samples, are occasionally filled with or-
ganic matter (Fig. 3H).

4.1.1. Laminated organic-rich shale lithofacies (0–10.5 m)

The lowermost 10.5 m thick of the investigated outcrop consists of
green, dark grey, black, laminated, organic-rich, silty and clayey shale
(Fig. 3A). The shale, which is generally fissile at the base, becomes
highly indurated towards the top of this lithofacies. Thickness of the
laminae exhibits an upward thinning trend without evidence of bio-
turbation. This part of the outcrop is intensively fractured with gypsum
filling mineralization. The occurrence of gypsum decreases toward the
top of this interval.
Petrographic examination of representative samples from this li-
thofacies indicates that it is composed of organic-rich silty claystone to
siltstone (Fig. 3B). The organic rich sediments are characterized by
alternation between dark organic rich and light silt-rich laminae
(Fig. 3B). Silt-size quartz grains are sparsely disseminated within the
organic rich matrix in some of the samples (Fig. 3C). Graptolite net-
works and organic matter debris (palyno-macerals) are common in a
4.1.3. Massive organic-rich shale lithofacies (11.5–20.5 m)
This massive lithofacies, overlies the graptolitic concretion interval
and it consists of massive to moderately lithified, dark grey to black
shale with some nodular intraformational mud clasts. This interval is
highly dissected by natural fracture network mainly filled with gypsum
(Fig. 4A). Cross lamination and soft sediment deformation of laminae
are observed immediately above the concretion-bearing interval. Micro-
cross lamination is visible in some samples (Fig. 4B). In thin sections,
fine silt size quartz particles are disseminated in the organic matrix
where traces of graptolites are also observed (Fig. 4C). Clay content
(29–71% range and average of 56%) is highly enriched in this litho-
facies. In contrast, the quartz content is low in the facies (17–40% range
with average of 26%). Pyrite content (5% average) is less than in the
basal interval. Both dolomite and siderite occur as minor components
within this interval while calcite is only present in one sample (Fig. 4D).

Table 1
XRD Bulk mineralogy of the identified lithofacies in Qusaiba Shale and their equivalent brittlenes. N: number of samples in lithofacies; Car. Carbonate minerals; Cla.
Clay minerals.

Lithofacies (n) Total Calcite Dolomite Quartz K-spar Plag. Pyrite Gypsum Q+F Car. Others Cla. Brittleness
Clays
Cross-stratified siltstone/sandstone lithofacies Maxi. 53.00 1.00 14.00 56.00 11.00 10.00 2.00 17.00 77.00 14.00 18.00 53.00 86.68
(n = 4) Min. 8.00 0.00 1.00 18.00 5.00 3.00 1.00 0.00 26.00 1.00 1.00 8.00 24.07
Aver. 35.33 0.33 6.67 35.00 8.33 6.50 1.33 6.33 49.83 6.83 7.50 35.33 49.77
Siltstone-shale Interbedded lithofacies (n = 3) Maxi. 52.00 0.00 2.00 52.00 19.00 10.00 3.00 0.00 81.00 2.00 3.00 52.00 75.00
Min. 16.00 0.00 1.00 28.00 11.00 5.00 1.00 0.00 44.00 1.00 0.00 16.00 33.37
Aver. 31.80 0.00 1.60 42.20 15.20 7.60 2.00 0.00 65.00 1.60 1.40 31.80 56.72
Organic-lean shale lithofacies (n = 18) Maxi. 79.00 1.00 49.00 59.00 23.00 13.00 4.00 6.00 85.00 49.00 8.00 79.00 79.37
Min. 13.00 0.00 0.00 13.00 5.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 19.00 0.00 1.00 13.00 13.16
Aver. 45.00 0.25 6.05 32.50 9.95 6.70 2.15 0.60 48.65 6.25 2.65 45.00 42.69
Massive organic-rich shale lithofacies Maxi. 71.00 1.00 3.00 40.00 16.00 9.00 12.00 3.00 65.00 3.00 12.00 71.00 57.33
(n = 19) Min. 29.00 0.00 0.00 17.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 22.00 0.00 1.00 29.00 16.05
Aver. 56.00 0.14 1.38 25.71 7.52 4.19 4.81 0.29 37.43 1.48 4.95 56.00 29.25
Graptolitic concretion facies (n = 1) 9.00 68.00 2.00 9.00 2.00 2.00 8.00 0.00 13.00 70.00 8.00 9.00 79.32
Laminated organic-rich shale lithofacies Maxi. 71.00 3.00 3.00 32.00 11.00 8.00 15.00 0.00 49.00 5.00 15.00 71.00 40.82
(n = 23) Min. 39.00 0.00 0.00 17.00 4.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 25.00 0.00 0.00 39.00 18.41
Aver. 56.08 1.04 1.04 23.48 7.12 3.92 7.28 0.00 34.52 2.04 7.28 56.08 27.21

245
M. Abouelresh, et al.
4.1.4. Organic-lean shale lithofacies (20.5–28 m)
This lithofacies is very distinctive by its colorful olive green, purple,
brownish shale laminae that are intercalated with thin siltstone to very
fine sandstone beds (Fig. 4E). The shale laminae are generally fissile but
occasionally become highly indurated at some intervals. The silt-size
quartz grains content of the samples within this facies, are sub-angular
to angular, and well sorted (Fig. 4F). Bands of clay-dominated and silt-
dominated layers are also present (Fig. 4G). Mica grains are aligned
along their long axes (Fig. 4G). Clay minerals (average 45%) and quartz
(average 33%) are the dominant minerals while K-feldspars and pla-
gioclase (< 10%) occur in minor amounts (Fig. 4H and Table 1).
4.1.5. Siltstone-shale interbedded lithofacies (28–29.05 m)
The sequence changes to laminated grey siltstone/sandstone and
shale intercalation. The siltstone/sandstone beds are thicker and occur
246
Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260
Fig. 4. Massive organic-rich lithofacies (A) Field
photo shows dark grey to black shale with nodular
structures (red arrow), gypsum-filled natural fracture
network (white arrows). (B) Thin section photo (PPL)
shows traces of longitudinal graptolites in clay
groundmass and the lamination pattern between
clay-dominated and silt dominated with high occur-
rence of organic traces in the clay dominated la-
minae. (C) Thin section photo (CN) shows a bran-
ched longitudinal graptolite (white arrows)
preserved in the clay (Cl). (D) SEM image in grap-
tolite-bearing thin section shows the calcite crystal
[C] filling the graptolite branches. Organic-lean
shale lithofacies (E) Field photo shows the colorful
purple and brownish shale with low-angle natural
fractures filled with gypsum (blue arrows). Note the
sharp boundary with the overlying silt dominated
lithofacies (dotted black line). (F) Thin section photo
(CN) shows the angular to sub-angular, well sorted
silt-size quartz grains. (G) Thin section photo-
micrograph (PPL) shows the clay-rich (dark brown)
and silt-rich (light yellow) lamination structure. Note
the horizontally aligned mica flakes (white arrows).
(H) SEM image showing calcite (c), dolomite (d),
quartz (q) and muscovite (m) as the main mineral
constituents of this lithofacies. (For interpretation of
the references to color in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
more frequently than in the underlying lithofacies. This ~1 m thick
interval shows three fining upward cycles (Fig. 5A). The siltstone beds
occur at the base of each of the cycles and grade into greyish shale beds
at the top (Fig. 5B).
The sediments are composed of angular to sub-angular, well sorted
silt to fine sand size quartz grains with substantial amounts of musco-
vite grains that are dominantly aligned along the long axes of the mi-
neral grains (Fig. 5C–D). Interparticle porosity accounts for an average
of 6% while about 2% fracture porosity also exists. XRD analyses show
almost equal proportion of quartz (38% average) and clay minerals
(34% average). The feldspar content in the facies also accounts for an
average 19% of the bulk mineralogical composition in this lithofacies.
4.1.6. Cross-stratified siltstone/sandstone lithofacies (29.05–31 m)
The topmost part of the studied section mainly consists of
M. Abouelresh, et al.
intercalation of siltstone and sandstone beds (Fig. 5E). The facies
characterized by thick sigmoidal to trough-cross stratification, fining
upwards sediments at the base and hangs to hummocky-cross stratifi-
cation at the top (Fig. 5F–G). Additionally, a very thin gypsum layer
occurs in the facies (Fig. 5G).
Petrographic analysis indicates that the detrital grains in this li-
thofacies are predominantly sub-angular to angular, well-sorted, silt
and very fine sands (Fig. 5H). Hydrocarbons occur as infilling in the
interparticle pore spaces and as patches on grain surfaces. Interparticle
porosity is the dominant porosity type in the facies and it ranges from
~6% in the siltstone sample to 10% in the fine sandstone sample. By
average, quartz and total clay equally exist in this lithofacies (35% for
each) while dolomite, k-feldspar and plagioclase are less dominant
(~ < 8%) (Table 1).
247
Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260
Fig. 5. Silt shale interbedded lithofacies (A) Field
photo shows the hard resistant silt to fine-grain
sandstone layer and the soft eroded shale layers in
between (blue arrows). (B) Thin section photo (PPL)
shows the boundary between clay-rich (red arrows)
and silt-rich laminae (blue arrows). (C) Thin section
photo (CN) shows the silt to fine sand fraction of this
lithofacies. Note mica flakes characterized by high
interference color (red arrows). (D) Thin section
photo (CN) shows the silt fraction of this lithofacieas.
Cross-stratified siltstone/sandstone lithofacies
(E) Field photo shows the whole unit, note the up-
ward thickening of sandstone layers. (F) Field photo
shows the sigmoidal S and hummocky H cross stra-
tification in this unit. (G) Field photo shows trough
cross stratification (white arrows). Scale is the pen in
the middle of the photo above thin diagenetic
gypsum layer (Red arrows). (H) Thin section photo
(CN) shows the sub-angular to angular well sorted
quartz grains. Note the porosity with light blue color.
(For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web ver-
sion of this article.)
4.2. Geochemistry
4.2.1. Inorganic geochemistry
4.2.1.1. Major elements and oxides. The major element oxides in the QS
show uniform distribution in the lower 25 m of the outcrop (Table 2).
Some of the elements (Si, Al, Ti, Na and P) exhibit peak excursions
towards the top of the organic-lean shale through the cross-bedded
siltstone-sandstone lithofacies. XRF analysis reflects the dominance of
SiO2 (average: 43%), which is consistent with the abundant quartz
content identified by the XRD and SEM–EDX analyses (Fig. 3D). Al2O3
(average 20.86%) is the second most abundant major element oxide in
the studied section. The Fe2O3 concentrations vary from 2.6 to 12.2%
(average: 8.43%) and those of K2O range from 1.13 to 3.44% (average:
2.56%). The potassium enrichment likely corresponds to the
occurrences of K-feldspar, clay mineral and mica. Sulfur is highly
M. Abouelresh, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260

concentrated in the lower organic-rich shale interval, likely due to the

S (%)

3.63
0.06
1.50
0.31
0.07
0.19
3.95
0.24
1.24
4.02
1.31
2.58
1.36
5.51
abundance of pyrite. Other major elements (Mg, Na, Ti, Ca, and Mn)
exist in low concentrations close to or below 1.0% (Table 2).
Ti (%)

0.92
0.39
0.73
0.97
0.60
0.78
0.98
0.43
0.78
0.82
0.64
0.75
0.35
0.83
4.2.1.2. Trace elements. The distribution patterns of Cu, Mo, As, Ni, Co,
U and V are similar to that of the TOC, particularly, in the organic-rich
K (%)

2.81
2.07
2.38
3.26
2.64
2.99
3.34
1.64
2.59
2.86
1.97
2.22
0.94
2.33
intervals of the investigated outcrop section. Similar to TOC, the trace
Maximum, Minimum and average values of the major element oxides of the identified lithofacies in Qusaiba Shale and their equivalent brittlenes. N is the number of samples in each lithofacies.

element distribution patterns exhibit positive excursions in the

Ca (%)

10.42

23.45
lowermost 20 m thick of organic-rich, dark-grey shale interval and
4.43
0.34
2.42
0.25
0.10
0.19

0.06
1.45
1.77
0.22
0.51

0.51
display abrupt decrease at the contact with overlying organic-lean shale
Mg (%)

(Fig. 6A). Other elements including the lithogenic related Ba, Rb, Th,
2.56
1.82
2.14
1.17
0.89
1.05
5.71
0.75
1.73
2.02
0.75
1.16
0.81
2.12
Ga, Nb, and Y are characterized by more or less uniform distribution
patterns in the organic-rich shale interval, and exhibit an upward
Fe (%)

6.60 increasing trend at the contact with the overlying organic-lean shale
7.07
2.69
5.46
4.18
2.94
3.66
8.40
2.68
5.52
8.54
3.46
6.51
4.24

facies (Table 3). Except for occasional peak excursions, Sr, Zr and Pb are
uniformly distributed throughout the outcrop section.
Al (%)

12.63

10.08
13.45
12.37
12.94
16.94

11.68
12.14

10.99

11.74
6.01

5.94

9.49

4.55

The enrichment factor (EF) values for V, Cu, As, Mo, Ni, and U are
characterized by similar distribution patterns as their measured con-
Si (%)

24.94
16.47
20.70
28.11
22.62
25.18
29.49
12.04
21.40
22.64
15.54
19.20

23.81

centrations by exhibiting significant depletion at the contact between

8.70

the organic-rich shale and the overlying organic-lean shale (Fig. 6B). In
SO3 (%)

the basal 20.5 m of the outcrop, represented by the organic-rich lami-

10.04

13.77
3.40
9.06
0.16
3.75
0.77
0.17
0.46
9.86
0.61
3.09

3.28
6.45

nated and massive shale lithofacies, the average values are in the excess
of 1 suggesting that they are enriched above their average shale values
K2O (%)

(Table 4). MoEF and UEF in particular, are in the excess of 3 in most of
3.38
2.50
2.87
3.93
3.18
3.60
4.03
1.97
3.11
3.44
2.37
2.67
1.13
2.80

the samples within this basal section and MoEF is occasionally in excess
of 10 at few intervals (Fig. 6B). Except for AsEF and MoEF which are
Na2O (%)

consistently above 1 throughout the outcrop section, the EF's values for
most of the aforementioned elements are highly depleted in the over-
1.25
0.36
0.70
1.47
0.64
0.99
1.88
0.37
0.76
0.68
0.29
0.40
0.06
0.53

lying organic-lean shale through the siltstone/sandstone lithofacies.

Only As, Zn, and Mo are characterized by average values that are higher
CaO (%)

14.58

32.80

than their shale values in these lithofacies. The lithogenic related ele-
6.20
0.47
3.38
0.35
0.13
0.26

0.09
2.03
2.48
0.31
0.71

0.72

ments Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, and Nb are poorly enriched in the outcrop section.
Except for the associated subtle excursions at the concretion interval
MgO (%)

and in the uppermost siltstone-sandstone lithofacies, their EF's are

4.25
3.02
3.54
1.94
1.48
1.74
9.47
1.25
2.87
3.34
1.24
1.92
1.34
3.51

generally, uniformly distributed in the outcrop section (Table 4). GaEF is

enriched with values higher than 1 in almost all the lithofacies (except
Fe2O3 (%)

in the concretion facies). ThEF characterized by low enrichment in the

10.11

12.01

12.21
3.85
7.81
5.97
4.20
5.23

3.83
7.90

4.95
9.31
6.06
9.43

lower 20.5 m of the outcrop, exhibits increased enrichment trend at the

contact between the organic-rich massive shale and the organic-lean
Al2O3 (%)

shale and continues through the upper section of the outcrop (Table 4).
23.86
11.35
19.04
25.42
23.38
24.46
32.01
11.23
22.06
22.94
17.94
20.77

22.18
8.59

4.2.1.3. Redox indices. In addition to the use of the redox-sensitive

elements, redox indices such as [Mo]s/TOC, Ni/Co, Th/U, V/Cr, V/Mo,
TiO2 (%)

V/(V + Cr) and V/(V + Ni) were also determined and used in this
1.53
0.65
1.22
1.62
1.00
1.30
1.64
0.72
1.30
1.36
1.07
1.25
0.58
1.39

study. Out of all the indices, V/(V + Cr), V/(V + Ni), Th/U and [Mo]s/
TOC were found to best distinguish between the organic-rich and the
SiO2 (%)

overlying organic-lean intervals (Table 4, Fig. 6B). The values of the V/

53.36
35.23
44.28
60.13
48.38
53.87
63.09
25.75
45.77
48.43
33.25
41.08
18.61
50.94

(V + Ni) ratio range from 0.54 to 0.79 (average: 0.69) in the organic-
rich shale lithofacies, 0.49–0.81 (average: 0.70) in the organic-lean
Maxi.
Maxi.

Maxi.

Maxi.

Maxi.
Aver.

Aver.

Aver.

Aver.
Min.

Min.

Min.

Min.

shale lithofacies and 0.65–0.82 (mean 0.72) in siltstone-shale and

siltstone-sandstone lithofacies. V/(V + Cr) ranges from 0.6 to 0.7
Cross-stratified Siltstone/Sandstone lithofacies (n = 4)

(averages 0.6) in the organic-rich shale interval while its values are
Laminated organic-rich shale lithofacies (n = 23)

between 0.3 and 0.6 (average 0.5) in the overlying organic-lean shale,
Massive organic-rich shale lithofacies (n = 19)
Siltstone-Shale Interbedded lithofacies (n = 3)

siltstone-shale and siltstone-sandstone lithofacies. Th/U values range

from 0.38 to 1.6 (average 0.97) in the laminated interval and from 1.21
Graptolitic concretion lithofacies (n = 1)
Organic-lean shale lithofacies (n = 18)

to 2.23 (average: 1.57) in the massive organic-rich shale lithofacies.

The only Th/U values above 2 recorded in the massive organic-rich
shale lithofacies were in the topmost samples which are likely a
transition from the organic-rich shale to the organic-lean shale
intervals. Additionally, Th/U values in the organic-lean shale (range:
1.77–13, average: 4.06) and the siltstone/sandstone lithofacies (range:
2.21–16, average: 6.14) are characterized by higher values than the
Lithofacies (n)

organic-rich shale facies.

The basal organic-rich shale section of the outcrop is characterized
Table 2

by low and uniformly distributed [Mo]s/TOC values (Table 4). With the
exception of the samples near the contact between the organic-rich and

248
M. Abouelresh, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260

Fig. 6. A) The stratigraphic distribution of the Al-normalized trace elements correlated with the TOC. B) The stratigraphic distribution of the enrichment factor EFs
values of trace elements and redox indices ratios.

organic-lean shales, the values of this ratio range between 3.5 and 9.54
in the organic-rich shale interval. However, it has an average of 17.4 in
the organic-lean shale and 25.5 in the shale/siltstone and siltstone/
sandstone facies, respectively. The stratigraphic plot of the [Mo]s/TOC
ratio shows uniform distribution pattern from the base down to 19.5 m.
This trend was punctuated by minor excursions at 19.5–21 m and
22.5–23.5 m. An upward increase characterized the distribution of this
ratio from 23.5 through the top of the outcrop section (Fig. 6B).
(Table 4). The basal laminated organic-rich shale and massive organic-
rich shale lithofacies are characterized by Hydrogen Index (HI) in the
ranging between 4 and 219 mg HC/g TOC with an average of 70 mg
HC/g TOC. The calculated VRo values for the investigated samples
range from 2.77 to 0.28 (average 0.58) (Table 4).
5. Discussion

QS shows significant vertical variability in texture, composition,

4.2.2. Organic geochemistry
primary sedimentary structure and organic content due to the interplay
The stratigraphic distribution trend of the TOC is characterized by a
effects of sedimentation processes (e.g., supply, transport, and deposi-
sharp up-section decrease from the basal black to dark grey laminated
tion), water chemistry (e.g., oxic, anoxic, and euxinic), water energy
organic-rich shale to the topmost cross-stratified siltstone-sandstone
(e.g., high, or low) in a wide range of depositional environments (Lazar
lithofacies (Fig. 2). Generally, TOC in the dark-grey laminated and
et al., 2015). In order to develop an appropriate depositional model, the
massive organic-rich shale lithofacies ranges between 0.5 and 6.1 wt%
field observations, lithofacies, petrographic, bulk mineralogical and
(average 2.52 wt%) then it decreases (range: 0.04–0.35 wt%, average:
geochemical data were integrated (Fig. 6). Geochemical data is of cri-
0.18 wt%) in the overlying organic-lean shale and siltstone interval
tical importance in understanding the key factors of organic richness
(Table 5). Among the identified lithofacies, the lower three lithofacies
and mineralogical heterogeneity (Tribovillard et al., 2001, 2006; 2008,
only provide reliable Rock-Eval Pyrolysis results. The values of the re-
2012; Wignall and Newton, 2001; Piper and Perkins, 2004; Rimmer,
maining hydrocarbon potential (S1) vary between 0.00 and 0.91 mg
2004; Meyers et al., 2006; Algeo and Tribovillard, 2009; Scott and
HC/g rock (average: 0.11 mg HC/g rock). Similarly, the values of S2
Lyons, 2012).
range from 0.06 to 9.78 mg HC/g rock (average of 2.13 mg HC/g rock)

249
 Table 3
Trace Elements concentrations (ppm) and their enrichment values in the identified lithofacies of Qusaiba Shale and redox ratios used for paleooceanography interpretation. N: number of samples in each lithofacies.

Lithofacies (n) Total V ppm VEF Crppm CrEF Coppm CoEF Nippm NiEF Cuppm CuEF Znppm ZnEF Asppm
Clays (%)
M. Abouelresh, et al.

Cross-stratified Maxi. 53.00 163.40 0.95 110.20 0.91 24.00 0.91 69.30 0.83 32.80 0.53 265.70 2.02 7.10
siltstone/ Min. 8.00 18.10 0.21 34.10 0.75 9.60 0.75 9.60 0.21 6.70 0.22 25.60 0.40 0.60
sandstone Aver. 35.33 110.58 0.67 81.95 0.82 17.78 0.82 47.00 0.57 22.13 0.40 159.82 1.30 4.37
lithofacies
(n = 4)
Siltstone-shale Maxi. 52.00 152.70 0.78 117.50 0.96 25.50 0.96 36.50 0.39 28.30 0.42 73.60 0.56 6.50
Interbedded Min. 16.00 49.00 0.26 55.60 0.47 13.60 0.47 24.80 0.25 13.50 0.20 49.80 0.36 2.70
lithofacies Aver. 31.80 99.04 0.51 85.18 0.75 20.60 0.75 31.20 0.32 20.54 0.31 63.72 0.47 4.36
(n = 3)
Organic-lean shale Maxi. 79.00 169.60 0.90 133.40 0.96 24.70 1.59 72.60 0.91 46.80 0.75 274.50 4.32 8.40
lithofacies Min. 13.00 23.10 0.14 37.40 0.32 7.80 0.22 23.80 0.26 15.10 0.20 67.00 0.37 1.70
(n = 18) Aver. 45.00 118.51 0.69 96.35 0.79 16.10 0.70 49.07 0.56 31.69 0.54 126.68 1.21 5.53
Massive organic- Maxi. 71.00 191.40 1.15 102.50 0.93 31.70 1.27 120.30 1.35 108.50 1.87 166.80 1.63 31.50
rich shale Min. 29.00 120.40 0.68 81.60 0.76 11.50 0.50 43.30 0.47 24.40 0.40 82.90 0.72 4.60
lithofacies Aver. 56.00 168.39 1.06 95.06 0.86 19.00 0.79 75.79 0.89 82.26 1.51 117.68 1.00 22.37
(n = 19)
Graptolitic 9.00 70.50 1.06 23.30 0.51 1.50 0.15 20.50 0.59 20.50 0.89 28.20 0.58 9.60
concretion
facies (n = 1)
Laminated Maxi. 71.00 213.60 1.40 108.40 0.92 47.60 2.14 123.30 2.08 180.60 3.43 206.00 2.36 36.40
organic-rich Min. 39.00 143.90 0.93 62.80 0.70 17.20 0.70 53.60 0.63 57.10 0.98 77.00 0.65 11.60
shale Aver. 56.17 171.07 1.10 88.41 0.81 26.05 1.17 79.70 1.01 92.90 1.79 133.44 1.20 22.10
lithofacies
(n = 23)

250
Lithofacies (n) AsEF Brppm BrEF Rbppm RbEF Srppm SrEF Yppm YEF Zrppm ZrEF Nbppm NbEF Moppm MoEF

Cross-stratified 3.02 0.30 0.09 158.30 0.80 157.20 0.66 43.10 1.39 170.80 1.58 16.70 0.75 3.90 2.22
siltstone/ 0.83 0.10 0.02 57.90 0.61 90.80 0.21 24.40 0.46 111.20 0.57 9.10 0.54 1.95 1.73
sandstone 2.21 0.22 0.05 116.95 0.72 123.37 0.41 33.28 0.82 142.92 0.93 13.27 0.65 2.98 1.99
lithofacies
(n = 4)
Siltstone-shale 2.59 0.70 0.12 150.10 0.71 128.10 0.29 31.40 0.54 183.10 0.82 21.50 0.79 3.10 1.71
Interbedded 1.24 0.25 0.04 111.20 0.54 108.20 0.24 26.50 0.43 143.00 0.59 14.60 0.55 2.20 1.12
lithofacies 1.92 0.43 0.07 130.78 0.63 119.10 0.27 29.32 0.49 167.00 0.72 17.46 0.66 2.72 1.45
(n = 3)
Organic-lean shale 2.71 3.80 0.68 154.40 0.94 217.10 0.54 75.50 2.01 227.10 1.10 23.70 0.92 6.10 6.56
lithofacies 1.06 0.05 0.01 87.70 0.52 65.50 0.16 22.90 0.29 70.20 0.42 7.80 0.54 0.70 0.38
(n = 18) 2.20 0.72 0.13 133.05 0.74 108.57 0.29 38.18 0.79 135.01 0.66 15.29 0.66 3.05 2.11
Massive organic- 2.83 1.60 0.33 160.20 1.07 150.60 0.41 41.00 0.79 1056.00 5.04 20.30 0.83 21.20 15.27
rich shale 2.10 0.30 0.05 126.90 0.72 63.70 0.17 27.40 0.54 88.30 0.44 0.00 0.00 7.00 0.15
lithofacies 2.56 0.67 0.13 140.36 0.81 84.67 0.22 32.22 0.63 192.26 0.76 11.65 0.53 11.70 7.18
(n = 19)
Graptolitic 1.45 0.30 0.15 47.20 0.66 408.10 2.66 33.40 1.59 96.30 1.18 7.00 0.76 10.40 15.64
concretion
facies (n = 1)
Laminated 2.75 3.30 0.70 139.00 0.84 109.40 0.29 58.10 1.54 150.00 0.82 21.60 1.02 31.80 22.31
organic-rich 2.27 0.30 0.06 93.40 0.60 64.30 0.18 25.00 0.49 92.60 0.44 11.60 0.52 6.50 2.97
shale 2.50 1.10 0.24 124.67 0.74 78.27 0.22 35.95 0.75 114.54 0.60 14.17 0.66 16.28 10.56
lithofacies
(n = 23)
Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260

(continued on next page)

 M. Abouelresh, et al.

Table 3 (continued)

Lithofacies (n) Bappm BaEF Hfppm HFEF Pbppm PbEF Thppm ThEF Uppm UEF Th/U Mo/U MoEf/UEF [Mo]s/ V/ (U+V)/
TOC (V + Ni) (U + V-
+ Mo)

Cross-stratified 606.20 1.38 4.60 1.16 22.30 0.85 13.60 0.90 4.10 0.98 16.00 0.83 1.92 44.02 0.73 0.98
siltstone/ 384.90 0.48 1.90 0.70 10.80 0.59 3.20 0.39 0.20 0.10 3.24 4.07 9.39 14.68 0.65 0.90
sandstone 504.42 0.81 3.10 0.92 17.23 0.74 10.02 0.70 2.43 0.62 7.97 0.78 1.80 30.09 0.69 0.95
lithofacies
(n = 4)
Siltstone-shale 1054.00 1.10 7.60 1.95 24.80 0.82 14.00 0.77 4.40 0.97 3.18 0.57 1.32 18.34 0.82 0.99
Interbedded 540.70 0.55 4.40 1.04 18.30 0.62 6.40 0.36 2.90 0.66 2.21 1.03 2.39 14.71 0.66 0.95
lithofacies 820.22 0.86 5.78 1.43 21.26 0.72 10.24 0.58 3.60 0.81 2.77 0.50 1.15 16.43 0.74 0.97
(n = 3)
Organic-lean shale 1138.00 1.35 10.90 2.78 32.60 1.27 16.20 0.95 6.40 1.73 13.00 14.25 32.88 32.62 0.81 1.00
lithofacies 333.60 0.41 1.00 0.28 8.70 0.47 3.90 0.25 0.40 0.20 1.77 0.17 0.38 3.45 0.49 0.88
(n = 18) 604.63 0.73 3.63 0.97 20.79 0.82 11.46 0.72 3.81 0.96 4.06 1.81 4.17 17.38 0.70 0.97
Massive organic- 680.70 0.77 8.10 2.30 39.40 1.84 14.30 0.98 11.20 2.85 2.23 3.79 8.74 16.56 0.74 1.00
rich shale 327.80 0.40 1.00 0.28 18.30 0.67 9.10 0.56 4.50 1.10 1.21 0.02 0.05 3.88 0.61 0.88

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lithofacies 422.48 0.52 4.37 1.25 23.61 0.94 11.49 0.77 7.75 2.09 1.54 1.51 3.48 7.45 0.69 0.94
(n = 19)
Graptolitic 315.60 0.95 1.00 0.70 7.40 0.72 4.20 0.68 0.20 0.13 21.00 52.00 120.00 9.54 0.77 0.87
concretion
facies (n = 1)
Laminated 826.10 1.05 7.90 2.37 21.70 0.98 12.60 0.99 33.20 9.45 1.58 2.72 6.28 9.47 0.79 0.97
organic-rich 345.50 0.41 1.00 0.27 12.80 0.55 9.80 0.72 7.40 1.87 0.38 0.47 1.09 3.49 0.54 0.88
shale 412.09 0.53 4.99 1.47 19.14 0.80 11.38 0.80 13.41 3.90 0.97 1.28 2.95 5.35 0.68 0.92
lithofacies
(n = 23)
Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260
M. Abouelresh, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260

Table 4
Maximum, Minimum and average values of the TOC and Rock Eval Pyrolysis results of the organic-rich lithofacies in Qusaiba Shale; S1: amount of free hydrocarbons
in sample (mg/g), S2 = amount of hydrocarbons generated through thermal cracking (mg/g), S3: amount of CO2 (mg of CO2/g of rock), Tmax: the temperature of
maximum pyrolytic degradation of kerogen., HI: calculated hydrogen index, OI: calculated oxygen index, PI: the production index.

Eleva. (m) Sample no. Lithofacies (n) TOC S1 S2 S3 Tmax HI OI Calc. %VRo PI

11.5–20.5 m 19 Maxi. 3.09 0.18 2.85 3.22 552 104 274 2.77 0.09
Min. 1.14 0.00 0.06 1.66 420 4 84 0.40 0.00
Aver. 1.87 0.02 0.87 2.60 434 44 146 0.73 0.01
10.5–11.5 m 1 Graptolitic concretion facies 1.09 0.07 2.39 0.88 428 219 81 0.54 0.03
0–10.5 m 23 Maxi. 6.10 0.91 9.78 4.48 430 171 150 0.73 0.09
Min. 1.77 0.00 0.36 1.79 414 18 57 0.28 0.00
Aver. 3.17 0.15 2.87 2.83 422 80 95 0.44 0.04

5.1. Paleoenvironmental marine conditions
The distribution patterns of the redox sensitive elements (e.g. Mo, U,
V, Cu, As, and Ni) distinctively differentiate the organic-rich dark grey
shale lithofacies in the lower part of the studied QS outcrop section
from the overlying organic-lean shale, siltstone and sandstone litho-
facies in the upper part (Fig. 6A). Similar to the stratigraphic dis-
tribution of TOC, the redox sensitive elements exhibit a dramatic de-
pletion at the contact between the organic-rich and the organic-lean
shales (Fig. 6B).
In the organic-rich shale lithofacies, the enrichment factors (EFs) of
V, CU, Mo, Ni, As and U, are above 1 (Table 4 and Fig. 6B), suggesting
that they are more enriched than in an average shale (Tribovillard
et al., 2006). Their co-enrichments in this part of the studied outcrop
section indicate that these sediments were deposited under anoxic to
euxinic environment. Except for Mo and As, the EFs of these elements
are depleted in the organic-lean shale and in the siltstone-shale and
siltstone-sandstone facies indicating better oxygenated bottom water.
Because of their high affinity for euxinic redox conditions, concurrent
enrichment of U, V and Mo as is the case in the organic-rich facies of the
QS outcrop, is often used to infer euxinic conditions in water column or
at the sediment-water interface (e.g., Algeo and Maynard, 2004;
Tribovillard et al., 2004, 2006).
In addition to using elemental concentrations, their enrichment
factors and TOC to evaluate the QS redox conditions, some of the
commonly used redox ratios and indices [e.g. V/Cr, Ni/Co, Th/U, V/
(V + Ni) and (U + V)/(U + V + Mo)] were also utilized in this study.
The V/(V + Ni), V/Cr and Ni/Co ratios did not provide any strong
evidence to differentiate the two major units, the organic-rich and or-
ganic-lean shales from each other. However, the values and cross-plots
of Mo versus (U + V)/(U + V + Mo) and Th/U versus V/(V + Ni)
differentiated the organic-rich from the overlying organic-lean litho-
facies (Fig. 7A and B). The organic-rich facies are characterized by
lower (U + V)/(U + V + Mo) ratios (0.87–0.97) and higher Mo
(5–23.1 ppm) concentrations than the overlying organic-lean shale and
the siltstone-sandstone facies indicating anoxic-euxinic conditions
(Table 4). The high (U + V)/U + V + Mo) ratios (0.93–1) and less Mo
(0.7–~6 ppm) concentrations in the organic-lean and siltstone-sand-
stone facies show that U and V were enriched in the sediments in-
dependent of Mo and likely an indication of oxic to suboxic conditions
(Pi et al., 2013).
The ratio of V/(V + Cr) in most of the samples within the organic-
rich facies exceed the 0.6 threshold that is associated with strong re-
ducing conditions (Pi et al., 2013). The average value of 0.5 in both the
organic-lean shale, siltstone-shale and siltstone-sandstone facies suggest
less reducing conditions at the time of their deposition.
The Th/U ratio developed by Adams and Weaver (1958), to examine
redox conditions, clearly shows a transition from a more intense re-
ducing condition in the lower part of the studied outcrop section (or-
ganic-rich lithofacies) to an improved and better oxygenated bottom
water condition in the upper part (organic-lean shale and overlying
siltstone and sandstone intervals). The values of this ratio are rarely
above 2 in the lower part (0.97 for the laminated and 1.57 for massive
organic-rich shale lithofacies, respectively). In particular, Th/U vs V/
(V + Ni) best discriminates these two major shales at Th/U cutoff value
2 (Fig. 7 B). These average values indicate deposition in a low oxygen
environment, likely in anoxic conditions (Wignall and Twitchett, 1996;
Eltom et al., 2016; Baioumy and Lehmann, 2017). The values are much
higher in the overlying organic-lean shale (average: 4.06) and in the
siltstone-shale and siltstone/sandstone lithofacies (6.14), indicating
that the bottom water conditions changed from anoxic to oxic through
time.
The relationships between TOC and metal/Al ratios and EFs of the
redox elements were examined to identify the redox conditions during
the deposition of the QS (Fig. 7C–F). Their cross-plots reveal that there
is no covariance between TOC and the redox sensitive elements Mo, Cu,
U and V in the organic-lean facies but weak to moderate covariance in
the underlying intervals of the organic-rich lithofacies (Fig. 7C–F).
According to Tribovillard et al. (2006) and Algeo and Maynard (2004),
TOC values less than 2 in association with non-covariance of the redox
elements indicate oxic-dysoxic conditions while TOC values ranging
from 2 to 7 wt% with moderate to strong covariance with U, and V and
moderate EFs values are an indication for anoxic conditions. Euxinic
conditions are normally indicated by TOC values above 7 wt%, and
high EFs for U, V and Mo exhibiting non-covariance with the TOC
(Tribovillard et al., 2006; Algeo and Maynard, 2004). The value of these
elements’ EFs and TOC in the organic-rich shale samples plot within the
bottom water with low oxygen (euxinic) region while those of the
overlying organic-lean shale and siltstone/sandstone facies plot in fairly
oxic region (Fig. 7C–F).
Anoxic basins with weak water mass restriction, are characterized
by high [Mo]s/TOC ratios whereas highly stratified anoxic silled basins
with strong water mass restriction and limited deep-water upwelling,
are typified by low [Mo]s/TOC ratios (e.g., Algeo and Lyons, 2006;
Algeo et al., 2007; Algeo and Rowe, 2012). In the lower portion of the
QS outcrop, the [Mo]s/TOC recorded an average of 5.3 in the organic-
rich laminated shale and 7.5 in the massive organic-rich shale litho-
facies (Table 5). These low ratios in the lithofacies suggest that they
were deposited under anoxic conditions, associated with strongly re-
stricted bottom water mass circulation. This restricted hydrographic
condition may have been enhanced in the study area, particularly, on
paleotopography which was created due to the deglaciation of the Early
Silurian time (Sharland et al., 2001; Hayton et al., 2017).
Similar to the QS, the average [Mo]s/TOC value of 2 observed in the
organic and pyrite-rich Barnette Shale in the US was attributed to
strong water mass restriction (Loucks and Ruppel, 2007; Rowe et al.,
2008). As in the Tabuk Basin, the Fort Worth Basin which was thought
to have been isolated from the Rhei and Panthalassic Ocean during the
late Mississippian hindered an effective water mass circulation
(Gambacorta et al., 2016). Higher values of [Mo]s/TOC in the upper
10 m of the outcrop compared to its basal section with an average of
17.4 in the organic-lean shale and 25.5 in the siltstone-shale through
siltstone-sandstone facies indicate that the water mass became less re-
stricted and showed improved deep-water renewal.

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Fig. 7. A) Bivariate plot between Mo and (U + V)/(U + V + Mo) ratio shows the separation between organic-rich and organic-lean samples, the same is also shown
in Figure (B) using Th/U to V/(V + Ni) ratios. (C) Bivariate plot shows the difference between organic-rich and organic-lean samples using V normalized to Al and
VEF. (D) Bivariate plot shows the distinguish between organic-rich from organic-lean samples using Cu normalized to Al and CuEF. (E) Bivariate plot shows the
difference between organic-rich and organic-lean samples using Mo normalized to Al and MoEF. (F) Bivariate plot shows the difference between organic-rich and
organic-lean samples using U normalized to Al and UEF. (G) Plot of Al2O3 vs TiO2 to show the provenance rock type of QS (modified after Schieber, 1992). (H) Plot
of SiO2 vs K2O/Na2O (after Roser and Korsch, 1986) show that QS was deposited entirely in passive continental margin setting.

253
M. Abouelresh, et al.
5.2. Depositional model
The QS is mainly composed of siliciclastic sediments with traces of
carbonates. As indicated by the bivariate relationship between the
detrital influx indicators, Ti/Al and Th/Al, the sediments were sourced
from the proximal granitic to basaltic rocks in the Precambrian Arabian
shield (Schieber, 1992; Riquier et al., 2006) (Fig. 7 G). The bivariate
plot of SiO2 vs K2O/Na2O (quartz and k-feldspar to plagioclase ratio
relationship) (Fig. 7 H) suggests that the shale sediments were de-
posited on a passive continental margin setting (Roser and Korsch,
1986).
The lower laminated organic-rich shale lithofacies characterized by
well-preserved laminations, fine-grain size, high clay content, and ab-
sence of bioturbation. These evidence indicate a deposition in relatively
low energy, quiet water by settling down from hemipelagic sediments
(Loucks and Ruppel, 2007; Abouelresh and Slatt, 2011, 2012). How-
ever, the terrestrial inputs into this lithofacies are predominantly sub-
angular, sub-rounded silt-size quartz grains (Mulder and Alexander,
2001; Liang et al., 2012). This lithofacies contains the highest average
of pyrite (Table 1) in association with relatively high MoEF (10 com-
pared to the standard value for shale) indicating that the bottom-water
conditions were most likely sulfidic (Tribovillard et al., 2004, 2006).
Although concretions are very common in organic-rich shale as an
early diagenetic feature, they have not been discussed before in the QS,
particularly in Tabuk Basin. In the study area, the graptolitic concre-
tions occur as discontinuous lenses of calcareous concretions exhibiting
a similar appearance throughout the entire outcrop (Fig. 1D). The soft
sediment deformation structures in the shale laminae above and below
the concretion lenses, internal fracturing and the preserved graptolite
traces in the cores of these concretions support an in-situ, syngenetic to
early diagenetic origin formed close to the sediment-water interface
during times of no or low sedimentation rates (Raiswell, 1988). The
observed soft sediment deformation of the laminae in the immediate
vicinity of the concretions might have resulted from the differences in
the bulk density in the concretions’ calcite composition, and the organic
matter and silica richness of the surrounding shale laminae. The oc-
currence of graptolites as nuclei in these concretions indicates that the
Fig. 8. Sketch diagram (not to scale) shows the suggested depositional model for the Qusaiba Shale in Tabuk Basin. The model shows the upward shallowing in water
depth creates vertical facies change.
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260
sediments were deposited in a deep, confined to semi-confined, low
energy environment (Cole, 1994).
The deposition of the organic-rich laminated shale lithofacies in-
filled the accommodation space, which was created by the underlying
basin floor relief (Sharland et al., 2001; Hayton et al., 2017) (Fig. 8).
Accordingly, the water depth gradually decreased as indicated by the
retraction of organic content coupled with the dilution effect of the
increased sediment influx. The water energy slightly increased to the
turbidity current level and this associated with some changes in the
chemical conditions at sediment-water interface as evidenced by the
existence of free calcium cations enough to form the underlying car-
bonate concretions (Aplin and Macquaker, 2011).
The changes that accompanied the gradual decrease of the TOC and
pyrite in the massive organic-rich shale lithofacies may suggest a de-
position in the lower shoreface to inner shelf and close to the turbidity
current zone as inferred from the existence of the intraformational mud
clasts. This lithofacies can be related to the less-organic rich shale
samples described by Jones and Stump (1999) from the central and
eastern subsurface of Saudi Arabia.
The sharp decrease of the TOC from the underlying massive organic-
rich lithofacies to the overlying organic-lean shale lithofacies (Fig. 2)
was likely due to improved bottom water oxygenation. The depletion of
redox elements and indices in this interval likely limited the preserva-
tion of organic matter in the upper part which include organic-lean
shale and silty/sand stone lithofacies. Additionally, the increase of silt
and sand in these lithofacies might have also contributed to the re-
duction of preserving the organic matter particles.
Planar, trough and hummocky-cross stratifications are present in
the siltstone-fine sandstone lithofacies in the topmost part of the studied
section. These cross stratifications are interpreted to indicate the
dominance of high energy shallow water and highly oxygenated bottom
water conditions during deposition, probably in a middle to inner shelf
depositional settings (Fig. 8). The occurrences of trough and hummocky
cross stratification in the facies also indicate the existence of a very
dynamic water setting during the deposition. The abundance of mi-
caceous minerals and low TOC content (< 0.5 wt%) in the facies sug-
gests deposition close to the provenance areas.
M. Abouelresh, et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260

5.3. Reservoir potential
The hydrocarbons generated in source rocks are not completely
expelled and migrated into the associated conventional reservoirs, a
proportion of 20–40% of the hydrocarbon generated, remains in the
source rocks, probably adsorbed on pore walls or on kerogen particles
(McKenzie et al., 1988). The retained hydrocarbons in these source
rocks accumulate to form potential unconventional resources that could
only be produced by the application of appropriate technologies (e.g.
horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracture). The QS act as the main
source rock for the gas condensate produced from the Permo-Carboni-
ferous Unayzah Sandstone and the overlying Permo-Triassic Khuff
carbonate reservoirs in Saudi Arabia (Pollastro et al., 2002.), therefore,
it has the potentials to act as an unconventional reservoir. Subse-
quently, the QS outcrop section under investigation was suggested as an
analogue for its subsurface equivalent.

Fig. 9. Rock-Eval pyrolysis data from Qusaiba Shale (n = 68): (a) Total Organic Carbon TOC (wt%) vs Residual hydrocarbon potential S2 (mgHC/g rock). (B) Plot of
oxygen index OI (mg CO2/g TOC) vs Hydrogen index HI (mg HC/g TOC) to confirm the Type III and IV for the kerogen content of QS. (C) Plot of Maturity (based on
Tmax oC) vs Hydrogen index HI (mg HC/g TOC) shows that the studied samples mainly immature with few samples in mature window.

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In the geologic contexts, the unconventional reservoir quality refers
to a combination of properties that provide high storage capacity and
good production potential (Gamero-Diaz et al., 2013). Bed thicknesses,
porosity, brittleness, kerogen type and amount, as well as its thermal
maturity are the most important properties in the characterization of
shale gas reservoirs (Curtis, 2002; Engelder et al., 2009; Hammes et al.,
2011; Slatt, 2011).
The TOC content in the basal laminated shale (10.5 m thick) ranges
between 1.77 wt% and 6.1 wt%, with an average of 3.23 wt% while it
ranges between 0.5 wt% to 3.09 wt% with an average of 1.8 wt% in the
overlain massive shale (9 m thick). Therefore, the lower part of the
studied QS section has the highest source rock potential and conse-
quently it matches with the regionally distributed “Qusaiba Hot Shale”
in the central and eastern Saudi Arabia (Jones and Stump, 1999). The
vertical distribution of TOC data shows an upward decreasing trend,
which is consistent with the coarsening-upward sedimentation cycle
suggested for the QS in the study area (Pollastro et al., 2002). The low
values of TOC in certain intervals of the massive organic-rich shale li-
thofacies suggests that the bottom waters were exposed to periodic
oxygenation during deposition. On the other hand, oxygenated bottom
water might be the reason for the extremely low TOC values in the
organic-lean, siltstone-shale and siltstone-sandstone intervals. High in-
flux of clastic detritus might have also negative influence on the organic
content in these lithofacies (Sageman et al., 2003; Bohacs et al., 2005).
The higher surface areas in clay-rich sediments facilitates organic
matter adsorption hence, they are naturally more enriched in organic
matter than in corresponding coarser grained, silty or sandy sediments
(Yu et al., 2009; Barber et al., 2017). Consequently, the study results
indicate that the depositional settings, sediment influx and vertical li-
thological variation of the QS in Tabuk Basin as well as the paleo-to-
pography, control the vertical distribution of the organic content.
The bivariate plot of TOC versus S2 shows that the kerogen in the
studied QS is a mixture of type III (gas prone) and type IV (inert
kerogen), although it was identified as type II in the subsurface core
samples (Mahmoud et al., 1992; Wender et al., 1998; Abu-Ali et al.,
1999; Abu-Ali and Littke, 2005). The contradiction here is most likely
due to the low hydrogen content in the graptolites, which makes it
chemically similar to type III kerogen (Inan et al., 2016). In addition,
with the increasing maturity, the relative inert kerogen content will
increases as the reactive organic matter is used in hydrocarbon gen-
eration (Dembicki, 2008, 2016). Furthermore, the reworking and oxi-
dizing of the organic material may also contribute to the inert kerogen
proportion (Tissot and Welte, 1984). HI in the organic-rich lithofacies
ranges between 4 and 219 mg HC/g TOC with average 70 mg HC/g
TOC) and high O content (OI up to 274 with 57 in average) (Fig. 9A–C).
The Tmax values ranges between 414 °C and 552 °C with an average of

Fig. 10. (A) SEM image show the inorganic porosity created as a result of random orientation of platelet-like grains. (B) SEM image shows a diagenetic pyrite
frameboide host some microporosity (C) SEM image show an immature organic particle free of porosity. (D) SEM image of mature organic particles host many
microporosity. (E) Thin section image show microfracture filled with hydrocarbon (Black arrows) in the laminated organic-rich shale lithofacies. (F) SEM image
shows a long narrow space between clay (mica ?) particles which might work as permeability channels.

256
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430 °C. Excluding the anomalously high value in one sample (2.77), the
calculated VRo from the measured Tmax, indicate that the QS in the
study area is immature to marginally mature. This combined with the
low Tmax and PI values suggest that the QS in the study area is immature
(Table 4). Based on graptolite vitrinite reflectance from subsurface, and
at outcrops near to the current studied locality, Inan et al. (2016),
concluded that the QS is immature to overmature.
The storage capacity of an unconventional shale gas system is
mainly controlled by porosity as a storage index, and natural fractures
as permeability pathways (Curtis, 2002). Qualitative evaluation of
porosity has been carried out on the QS using thin section petrography
and SEM imaging. Accordingly, different types of porosity including
inorganic porosity, organic porosity and natural fracture porosity have
been identified (e.g., Wang and Reed, 2009; Slatt and O'Brien, 2011;
Loucks et al., 2012, Abouelresh, 2017). Inorganic porosity is created
between the main rock components. For instance, the random or-
ientation of platelet-like mineral grains (clay and mica) is responsible
for a large number of pore size ranges between 2 and 20 μm (Fig. 10 A).
Additionally, pyrite framboids also contribute to the storage capacity of
QS by creating diagenetic-related micro-porosity with an average size
less than 1 μm (Fig. 10 B). Organic-related porosity occurs within and/
or on the surface of the mature organic particles as a result of genera-
tion and expulsion of hydrocarbons (e.g. Jarvie et al., 2007; Loucks
et al., 2009; Milliken et al., 2013). Organic particles of the QS in the
Rub’ Al-Khali Basin, Saudi Arabia host about 25% of the total porosity,
although the organic richness is less than 2 wt% (Abouelresh, 2017). In
the studied samples, organic-related porosity does not have that high
fraction of the total porosity due to the low maturity levels of these
samples (Fig. 10 C). However, in a few cases, the organic particles with
relatively (high?) maturity show a significant micro-porosity with pore
size ranging between 0.2 and 0.6 μm, and show a high level of pore
connectivity, which is expected to substantially contribute to the po-
tential permeability (Fig. 10 D).
The formation's natural fracture network can significantly
Fig. 11. Ternary plot of the mineral composition of the QS in the study area correlated with the worldwide shale gas (Barnett Shale, Eagle Ford Shale, Haynesville
Shale and Marcellus Shale). In order to normalize the three variables (Quartz, carbonate and clay minerals), K-feldspar and plagioclase were added to quartz.
257
Marine and Petroleum Geology 111 (2020) 240–260
contribute to the storage capacity of an organic-rich shale (Curtis,
2002). The existence, development and propagation of mm to cm nat-
ural fractures in an organic-rich shale are essentially controlled by type,
percentage and distribution of mineral composition (Gale et al., 2014)
(Fig. 10E–F). Therefore, identifying the spatial orientation of natural
fractures is the key factor of hydraulic fracture processes that will be
needed for the reservoir completion (Walton and McLennan, 2013).
From the mineralogical point of view, although the ductile clay
mineral is the dominant mineral (average 56%) in the lower part of the
studied QS, the brittle minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, and Pyrite) form an
average of 42% and exhibit a uniform distribution of brittleness in the
organic-rich interval (Fig. 11). In correlation with the worldwide shale
gas, QS show typical matching with the Barnett Shale based on the bulk
mineralogy (Fig. 11). On the other hand, pyrite has a distinctive var-
iation between 5 wt% and 15 wt% and shows a strong positive re-
lationship with the vertical distribution of TOC. Interestingly, this
particular interval has a natural fracture density that reaches up to 7.7
fracture/m2, which has likely resulted from the high organic richness
and the high pyrite content (Abouelresh et al., 2016). Based on these
characteristics, the lower part may have the highest reservoir potenti-
ality of QS in the study area.
6. Conclusion
The current work focused on full sedimentological and geochemical
characterization of QS sections that crop out in the Tabuk Basin in the
northwest of Saudi Arabia.
The integration of petrographic analysis and field description al-
lowed the subdivision of the QS into six different lithofacies; (1)
Laminated organic-rich shale (2) Graptolitic concretion lithofacies (3)
Massive organic-rich shale lithofacies (4) organic-lean shale lithofacies
(5) Siltstone-shale interbedded lithofacies and (6) Cross-stratified silt-
stone/sandstone lithofacies. The major element oxides in the QS show
uniform distribution in the lower 25 m of the outcrop. Whilst in the
M. Abouelresh, et al.
upper 5 m of the outcrop, some of the elements (Si, Al, Ti, P) exhibit
peak excursions towards the top of the organic-lean shale through the
cross-bedded siltstone-sandstone units.
Significant enrichments of V, Mo, and U together with low values of
Th/U (less than 2) in the organic-rich lithofacies of the investigated
outcrop section are indicative for low oxygen conditions, creating an
anoxic environment during the deposition of organic-rich shale in-
terval. The low values of the [Mo]s/TOC ratio in this basal section of the
outcrop also reflects strongly stratified restricted anoxic water column
and euxinic conditions during the deposition.
The paleo-topography, which was created during the Late
Ordovician deglaciation event is largely controls the deposition of QS,
in particular, the ponding of the lower organic-rich part. The lower
laminated organic-rich shale lithofacies deposited as suspended hemi-
pelagic sediments. The water depth decreased gradually as indicated by
the retraction of organic preservation coupled with the dilution effect of
the sediment influx. The siltstone - fine sandstone facies in the topmost
part of the studied section pointed to the dominance of high energy
shallow oxygenated (probably middle to inner shelf) depositional set-
tings. The obtained results indicate that the depositional settings, se-
diment influx and the vertical lithological variation of the QS in the
Tabuk Basin control the quality and distribution of the organic content.
TOC is dramatically decreased from the basal black and dark grey
laminated organic-rich shale to the topmost cross-stratified silty/sandy
lithofacies. The Tmax and calculated VRo reflect the immaturity to
marginal maturity of the QS in the study area. Qualitative evaluation of
porosity in the QS showed that there are three porosity types including,
inorganic porosity, organic porosity and natural fracture porosity. The
brittle minerals (Quartz, Feldspar, and Pyrite) form an average of 42%
and exhibit a uniform distribution of brittleness in the organic-bearing
interval. Natural fracture density reaches up to 7.7 fracture/m2 in the
basal organic-rich lithofacies, which indicate their high potential for
effective hydraulic fracture.
Acknowledgement
We thank Center for Integrative Petroleum Research (CIPR), CPG,
KFUPM and Weatherford Center at Dhahran Techno Valley (DTV) for
the continuous support during this work. We appreciate the contribu-
tions from two anonymous reviewers whose comments and suggestions
greatly improved the manuscript. We acknowledge the great help and
enthusiasm we received from the editor.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2019.05.001.
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